Departamento de Telecomunicaciones e Ingeniería de Sistemas

Exercise 5
Contents
PHOTODETECTORS ...................................................................................................... 1
Theory........................................................................................................................... 2
Signal ........................................................................................................................ 2
Thermal noise ........................................................................................................... 2
SHOT OR QUANTUM NOISE ............................................................................... 3
DARK CURRENT NOISE ...................................................................................... 3
Summary................................................................................................................... 3
OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................... 4
PIN ............................................................................................................................ 6
APD .......................................................................................................................... 6

Photodetectors

G. Junkin (2025)

The two types of detector photodiodes used in optical communications are PIN
diodes (P–Intrinsic–N) and APD diodes (Avalanche Photo Diode). The APD
photodiode offers greater sensitivity with respect to the PIN, but it is noisier, and
the intrinsic bandwidth is lower. Commercial PIN diodes are available with a
bandwidth of 50GHz (from DC to 50GHz).

The bandgap of the semiconductors used in fabricating the detector determines

the operating wavelength of the photodiode. Due to the greater bandgap width
of silicon, silicon photodiodes generate less noise than germanium ones,
although they are only suitable for the 850nm window.

Material 𝝀 (nm) k M
Silicon 190–1100 0,002-0,06 500-100
Germanium 800–1700 0,9 10
Indium-Gallium-Arsenide 0,45 10
800–2600
(InGaAs)

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Measured excess noise factors F(M) for four types of APDs show the relatively high noise of the indium
phosphide/indium gallium arsenide (InP/InGaAs) APD that has been widely deployed for telecommunications, compared
to a aluminium indium arsenide/InGaAs APD, a silicon APD, and the I 2E APD. The dotted lines are plots of F(M) for k =
0, 0.02, 0.05, and 0.3 https://www.laserfocusworld.com/detectors-imaging/article/16552260/impact-ionization-engineering-improves-apds

Theory

The fundamental parameters of photodiodes are:

• Responsivity or Response ℜ [A/W]
• Noise (thermal, shot, dark current)
• Additionally, in APDs: amplification M and noise figure F (M ) .

Signal
The detected electric current is given as the product between the Responsivity
ℜ and the optical power 𝑃𝑜 that is delivered to the detector.
𝐼 = ℜ𝑃𝑜 PIN 𝐼 = 𝑀ℜ𝑃𝑜 APD
The electrical power delivered in one ohm is the square of the current
𝐼 2 = (ℜ𝑃𝑜 )2 PIN 𝐼 2 = (𝑀ℜ𝑃𝑜 )2 APD
Thermal noise
Thermal noise occurs after the detection process in electronic components (the
receiving diode itself, and any resistors and transistors in the subsequent
amplification stages). Thermal noise, also known as Johnson-Nyquist noise,
arises from the random motion of charge carriers (such as electrons) due to
thermal agitation. It is due to fluctuations in their velocity and position as they
move through a conductor.
Thermal noise depends on the electrical bandwidth of the receiver, Boltzmann's
constant (1,3806504×10−23 [J/K]) and the temperature T in degrees Kelvin. The
thermal noise spectrum of Johnson noise is practically uniform up to 300GHz
and the thermal noise power 𝑁𝑡 is given by the following expression where the
value of the resistance 𝑅Ω = 1Ω is usually taken because the calculation of
interest is SNR. Here the VPI parameter 𝑁𝑡ℎ is the equivalent noise current
expressed as a spectral density in 𝐴/√𝐻𝑧.
2 〉 4𝑘𝑇𝐵𝑒 2
〈𝑖𝑡ℎ = 𝑁𝑡 = = 𝑁𝑡ℎ 𝐵𝑒
𝑅Ω

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2 〉 2
〈𝑖𝑡ℎ = 𝑁𝑡ℎ 𝐵𝑒 in VPI 𝑁𝑡ℎ ≡ √4𝑘𝑇 𝐴/√𝐻𝑧 (𝑅Ω = 1Ω)

SHOT OR QUANTUM NOISE

Electrical 'shot' noise originates from the discrete and random nature of the
photon flow, giving rise to random fluctuations in the flow of electric charge
produced by the photon-electron conversion. Shot noise depends on electrical
bandwidth 𝐵𝑒 and the electrical current 𝐼 produced in the detector, which in turn
depends on the responsivity ℜ and the optical power 𝑃𝑜 delivered to the
detector. Shot noise also has a uniform spectrum over the electrical bandwidth
of the detector and in the case of a PIN detector the power delivered in one
ohm is given by the following expression:
2 ⟩
⟨𝑖𝑠ℎ = 𝑁𝑠ℎ = 2𝑞𝐼𝐵𝑒 = 2𝑞ℜ𝑃𝑜 𝐵𝑒
In an APD detector the electrical currents, including noise current and signal
current as well as dark current, are amplified by a factor 𝑀 due to the avalanche
process. The electrical power associated with the current is therefore multiplied
by 𝑀2 . The shot noise power is also multiplied by 𝑀2 since it is derived from the
variance. It is also multiplied by a noise factor 𝐹(𝑀) which itself depends on the
amplification 𝑀 and the ionization coefficient 𝑘𝑖 .
2 ⟩
⟨𝑖𝑠ℎ = 𝑁𝑠ℎ = 2𝑞(ℜ𝑃𝑜 )𝑀2 𝐹(𝑀)𝐵𝑒
1
𝐹(𝑀) = 𝑘𝑖 𝑀 + (1 − 𝑘𝑖 ) (2 − )
𝑀
DARK CURRENT NOISE
Dark current produces shot noise that is normally negligible relative to other
types of noise. Since dark current by its nature is independent of the optical
power incident on the photodiode, dark current shot noise is also independent
of the optical power delivered to the photodiode.
The dark current noise power has the following expressions for PIN and APD
photodiodes respectively:
2
⟨𝑖𝑠ℎ,𝑑 ⟩ = 𝑁𝑠ℎ,𝑑 = 2𝑞𝐼𝑑 𝐵𝑒 PIN
2
⟨𝑖𝑠ℎ,𝑑 ⟩ = 𝑁𝑠ℎ,𝑑 = 2𝑞(𝐼𝑑,𝑚 )𝑀2 𝐹(𝑀)𝐵𝑒 APD
Where 𝐼𝑑,𝑚 represents the (multiplicative) dark current, having a value 𝐼𝑑,𝑚 =
0,1nA typically.
Summary
PIN APD
Signal electrical power in one ohm
𝐼 2 = (ℜ𝑃𝑜 )2 𝐼 2 = (𝑀ℜ𝑃𝑜 )2
Noise power in one ohm
2 〉
〈𝑖𝑡ℎ 2 2 〉
〈𝑖𝑡ℎ 2
= 𝑁𝑡ℎ 𝐵𝑒 = 𝑁𝑡ℎ 𝐵𝑒
2 ⟩ 2 ⟩
⟨𝑖𝑠ℎ = 2𝑞(ℜ𝑃𝑜 + 𝐼𝑑 )𝐵𝑒 ⟨𝑖𝑠ℎ = 2𝑞(ℜ𝑃𝑜 + 𝐼𝑑,𝑚 )𝑀2 𝐹(𝑀)𝐵𝑒
1
𝐹(𝑀) = 𝑘𝑖 𝑀 + (2 − ) (1 − 𝑘𝑖 )
𝑀

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OBJECTIVES

A1. Integration time and power measurement precision

Investigate the relationship between simulation integration time and power
measurement precision. Know how to relate electrical current detected with
optical power delivered. Know how to relate power of thermal noise with
spectral density of electrical current of equivalent thermal noise. Know how to
relate shot noise power (quantum noise) with delivered optical power.

Set up 200 iterations and run the sweep. Find the integration time necessary
for the relative error (3σ/Av) in the noise power measurement to be less than
±1%. For the rest of the laboratory activities, keep the integration time fixed
at this value and only run one iteration. (Do not spend more than 5 minutes
on this exercise). Err on the upwards side.
Verify that the simulation measurements agree with the module parameters
(LASER, PIN, PowerMeterEl), specifically the accuracy of the following
relationships
(1) the relationship between Po delivered and Idc,
(2) the relationship between Nth and noise power, when shot noise is turned
off (determine Be and do NOT ask the teacher)
(3) the relationship between the expression for shot noise and the noise power
measured when Nth=0. (the corresponding option must be activated)

A2. Shot noise and thermal noise simultaneously

Learn to distinguish between the shot noise regime and the thermal noise
regime and know how to find the spectral density of electrical current of the
equivalent thermal noise from noise power measurements over an electrical
bandwidth.

(1) Find, by varying noise power against delivered optical power, the optical
power level that gives rise to a 3dB increase in electrical noise power. (use
zoom and scales)
What happens precisely at this level of delivered optical power?
(2) Find the response R by noise power measurements and verify their values
with the VPI module.
(3) Find the current noise spectral density Nth [A/√Hz] by noise power
measurements and verify their values with the VPI model.
Check the optical power level given for (1).

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A3. Unknown PIN detector

Find the parameters of an unknown PIN detector from coherent power
measurements and noise measurements as a function of delivered optical
power.

Set the PIN detector according to Group/Subgroup. Find the {R, Nth}
parameters of the detector. (using the best method)

Nth

A4. Unknown APD detector

Find the parameters of an unknown APD detector from coherent power
measurements and noise measurements as a function of delivered optical
power using two magnification states.

Configure the APD detector according to Group/Subgroup. Find the

parameters {R, Nth, M, F(M)} of the detector. (using the best method)
(1) R
(2) Nth
(3) M
(4) F(M)

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APPENDIX
The configuration parameters of the modules used are shown below.

PIN
Default
Name and Description Unit
Value
Responsivity
A/W 1.0
The current generated per unit optical power.

ThermalNoise
The 'input equivalent' thermal noise of the following electronics. This is included into 10.0e-12
the photodiode model for convenience.

DarkCurrent
The current generated by the photodiode when it is not illuminated, due to thermally- A 0.0
induced transitions.

ShotNoise
Shot noise (proportional to the sum of the dark and signal currents) can be turned
— ON
off. This is useful when using the photodiode as a perfect measurement instrument
or within some BER estimators.

APD
Default
Name and Description Unit
Value
Responsivity
A/W 1.0
The current generated per unit optical power before avalanche multiplication.

ThermalNoise
The 'input equivalent' thermal noise of the following electronics. This is included into 10.0e-12
the photodiode model for convenience.

DarkCurrent
A 0.0
Part of dark current amplified by avalanche effect.

DarkCurrNonMult
A 0.0
Part of dark current not amplified by avalanche effect.

AvalancheMult
— 1.0
Avalanche multiplication factor.

IonizationCoeff
— 1.0
Ionization coefficient determining the noise properties of the diode.

ShotNoise
Shot noise can be turned off. This is useful when using the photodiode as a perfect — ON
measurement instrument or within some BER estimators.

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