ECE 2006

Frequency Analysis of Signals and

Systems-1 (Review of Discrete
time Signals )
Dr. Shweta B. Thomas
School of Electronics Engineering
Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore
 Objectives of the Course

 To recognize linear time-invariant (LTI) discrete-time systems

 To find frequency response of LTI system, find zeros and poles in discrete-
time LTI system
 To design IIR filters using impulse invariance, design FIR filters using
windowing
 To apply FFT to Communication Systems
 To implement certain DSP algorithms on Digital Signal Processors
 Obtain a knowledge and ability to use the appropriate tools(Digital Signal
Processors) to build DSP systems for real time problems

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

 Outcomes
Student will be able to
 Describe and interpret the basic elements of digital Signal processing.
 Design and solve the specific analysis using Discrete Fourier transform, Z-
transform on given input signals
 Ability to design and implement filter like operations within the real time
constraints.
 Ability to design a typical digital Signal processing for specific application in real
time.
 Ability to Contribute Signal processing tasks in interdisciplinary projects like
automotive systems, Communication, Biomedical, space, defence, Multimedia and
virtual reality etc.,
 Solve real time signal processing issues by identifying finite word length effect and
performance improvement by properly selecting components to fulfil the required
Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore
features.
 Course Contents
Module I
Frequency Analysis of Signals and Systems-1
Module II
Frequency Analysis of Signals and Systems-2
Module III
Theory and Design of Analog Filters
Module IV
Design of IIR Digital Filters
Module V
Design of FIR Digital Filters
Module VI
Realization of Digital Filters
Module VII
Realization of Lattice filter structures
Module VII
Contemporary Topics
Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore
 Text Books
1. J. G. Proakis, D.G. Manolakis and D.Sharma, “Digital Signal Processing Principles,
Algorithms and Applications”, 4th edition, Pearson Education, 2012.

2. S.K.Mitra, Digital Signal Processing, 4th edition, TMH, 2013.

References
1. Sophocles J. Orfanidis, “Introduction to Signal Processing” 2nd edition, Prentice
Hall, Inc, 20101.

2. Oppenhiem V.A.V and Schaffer R.W, “Discrete – time Signal Processing”, 3rd edition,
Prentice Hall, 2013.

3. Lawrence R Rabiner and Bernard Gold, “Theory and Application of Digital Signal
Processing”, PHI 2009.

4. Andreas Antoniou, Digital Signal Processing, TMH, 2006

5. Emmanuel C.Ifeachor, “Digital Signal Processing A Practical Approach” 2nd edition

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore
reprint, Pearson Education, 2010.
 What does DSP mean?

 Digital signal processing (DSP) is the process of analyzing and modifying a

signal to optimize or improve its efficiency or performance. It involves
applying various mathematical and computational algorithms to analog
and digital signals to produce a signal that's of higher quality than the
original signal.

 Signal processing is an immense and diverse field. It is also a field that did
not exist 50 years ago and one that remains mysterious, or quite unknown
to most people. Signal processing is not the transmission of signals, as
through telephone wires or by radio waves, but the changes made to
signals so as to improve transmission or use of the signals.

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Digital Signal Processing?

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Digital versus Analog Processing

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

DSP as a specific methodology….From a need to design a product

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Practical application of DSP: Wearable Sensors and Systems

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

 Introduction to Signals
Signal and System

Signal: Anything that carries some information can be called signal.

Example: Electrocardiogram (ECG), provides information about the health of the
person’s heart and Electroencephalogram (EEG) signal provides
information about brain activity of a person.

System: System is a device or combination of devices, that generates a

response or an output signal, for a given input signal. Input to a
system is called as excitation and output from it is called as response.
 For one or more inputs, the system can have one or more outputs.
Example: Communication System, electrical system, biological system, etc..

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore
Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore
 Representation of DT Signals

To distinguish between continuous-time and discrete time signals,

we will use the symbol ‘t’ to denote the continuous time
independent variable and ‘n’ to denote the discrete time
independent variable. Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore
Graphical representation

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Functional representation

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Tabular representation

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Sequence representation

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

 Classification

 Number of independent variables (i.e., dimensionality):

 A signal with one independent variable is said to be one
dimensional (e.g., audio).
 A signal with more than one independent variable is said to be
multi-dimensional (e.g., image).
 Continuous or discrete independent variables:
 A signal with continuous independent variables is said to be
continuous time (CT) (e.g., voltage waveform).
 A signal with discrete independent variables is said to be discrete
time (DT) (e.g., stock market index).
 Continuous or discrete dependent variable:
 A signal with a continuous dependent variable is said to be
continuous valued (e.g., voltage waveform).
 A signal with a discrete dependent variable is said to be discrete
valued (e.g., digital image).
A continuous-valued CT signal is said to be analog (e.g., voltage waveform).
A discrete-valued DT signal Dr.
is Shweta
said B.toThomas,
be digital
VIT Vellore(e.g., digital audio).
 Signal Classification

 Continuous-time and Discrete-time

 Deterministic and Random
 Causal and anti causal signals
 Energy and Power
 Right-handed and left-handed signals
 Periodic and Non-periodic
 Finite and infinite length
 Even and Odd

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Continuous & Discrete-Time Signals

Continuous-Time
Signals x(t)
• Most signals in the real world are
continuous time, as the scale is
infinitesimally fine.
• Eg voltage, velocity, t
• Denote by x(t), where the time
interval may be bounded (finite) or
infinite
Discrete-Time Signals
• Some real world and many digital x[n]
signals are discrete time, as they are
sampled
• E.g. pixels, daily stock price (anything
that a digital computer processes) n
• Denote by x[n], where n is an integer
value that varies discretely
Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore
Deterministic signals, random signals

 Deterministic signal

• There is no uncertainty with respect to its value at any time.

Exp. sin(3t)

 Random signal

• There is uncertainty before its actual occurrence

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Causal and anti causal Signals

 Causal signals : zero for all negative time

 Anti-causal signals : zero for all positive time

 Non-causal : non-zero values in both positive and negative time

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Even Signals

 A function x is said to be even if it satisfies

x(t) = x(−t) for all t.

 A sequence x is said to be even if it satisfies

x(n) = x(−n) for all n.

 Geometrically, the graph of an even signal is symmetric about the origin.

 Some examples of even signals are shown below.

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Odd Signals

 A function x is said to be odd if it satisfies

x(t) = −x(−t) for all t.
 A sequence x is said to be odd if it satisfies
x(n) = −x(−n) for all n.
 Geometrically, the graph of an odd signal is antisymmetric about the
origin.
 An odd signal x must be such that x(0) = 0.
 Some examples of odd signals are shown below.

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Decomposition of a Signal into Even and Odd Parts

 Every function x has a unique representation of the form

x(t) = xe(t)+xo(t),

where the functions xe and xo are even and odd, respectively.

 In particular, the functions xe and xo are given by

xe(t) = 1/2 [x(t)+x(−t)] and xo(t) = 1/2 [x(t)−x(−t)] .

 The functions xe and xo are called the even part and odd part of x,
respectively.

 For convenience, the even and odd parts of x are often denoted as Even{x}
and Odd{x}, respectively.

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Periodic Signals

 A function x is said to be periodic with period T (or T-periodic) if, for some
strictly-positive real constant T, the following condition holds:

x(t) = x(t +T) for all t.

 A periodic function x is said to have frequency 1/T and angular frequency

2𝜋/T .

 A sequence x is said to be periodic with period N (or N-periodic) if, for

some strictly-positive integer constant N, the following condition holds:

x(n) = x(n + kN) for all n.

where integer k may be positive, negative or zero.

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

 N = 2π(m/ω0)

 To compute N, we must have to choose the smallest value of m that will

make N = 2π(m/ω0) an integer.

 A discrete time complex exponential signal will always periodic with

period 2 π.

 A discrete time complex exponential signal will periodic if and only if ω0 is

multiple of π. This requires ω0n = 2πk where k is an integer.

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Numerical problems

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore
Periodic Signals

 Some examples of periodic signals are shown below.

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Periodic Signals

 The period of a periodic signal is not unique. That is, a signal that is
periodic with period T is also periodic with period kT, for every (strictly)
positive integer k.

 The smallest period with which a signal is periodic is called the

fundamental period and its corresponding frequency is called the
fundamental frequency. Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore
Sum of Periodic Functions
 Sum of periodic functions. Let x1 and x2 be periodic functions with
fundamental periods T1 and T2, respectively. Then, the sum y = x1 +x2 is a
periodic function if and only if the ratio T1/T2 is a rational number (i.e.,
the quotient of two integers). Suppose that T1/T2 = q/r where q and r are
integers and coprime (i.e., have no common factors), then the
fundamental period of y is rT1 (or equivalently, qT2, since rT1 = qT2).
(Note that rT1 is simply the least common multiple of T1 and T2.)

 Although the above theorem only directly addresses the case of the sum
of two functions, the case of N functions (where N > 2) can be handled by
applying the theorem repeatedly N −1 times.

 The smallest period with which a signal is periodic is called the

fundamental period and its corresponding frequency is called the
fundamental frequency.

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Signal Energy and Power

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Energy and Power of Unit Step Sequence

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Right-handed and left-handed signals

 Right-handed and left-handed signal : zero between a given variable and

positive or negative infinity.

Finite and Infinite length

 Finite-length signal : nonzero over a finite interval tmin< t< tmax.

 Finite-length signal : nonzero over all real numbers.

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

 Elementary Signals or Basic Signals

1. Unit step signal

2. Unit impulse or Unit sample signal
3. Unit ramp signal
4. Sinusoidal signal
5. Exponential signal

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Unit step signal

Shift a
1
1, t  a
u (t  a)  
0 , t  a
Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore a t
Unit Impulse or Unit sample signal

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Unit ramp signal

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Sinusoidal signal

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

DT Real Exponential signal

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

DT Complex Exponential signal

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

 Basic Operations on Signals

 Shifting

 Time reversal

 Time scaling

 Scalar multiplication

 Signal multiplier

 Signal addition

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Amplitude Scaling

 C x is a amplitude scaled version of x whose amplitude is scaled by a factor C.

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Addition

 Addition of two signals is nothing but

addition of their corresponding
amplitudes. This can be best explained by
using the following example:

 As seen from the diagram,

-10 < t < -3 amplitude of z = x1 + x2 = 0 + 2 = 2
-3 < t < 3 amplitude of z = x1 + x2 = 1 + 2 = 3
3 < t < 10 amplitude of z = x1 + x2 = 0 + 2 = 2

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Subtraction

 subtraction of two signals is nothing but

subtraction of their corresponding
amplitudes. This can be best explained by
the following example:

 As seen from the diagram,

-10 < t < -3 amplitude of z = x1 - x2 = 0 - 2 = -2
-3 < t < 3 amplitude of z = x1 - x2 = 1 - 2 = -1
3 < t < 10 amplitude of z = x1 + x2 = 0 - 2 = -2

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Multiplication

 Multiplication of two signals is nothing but

multiplication of their corresponding
amplitudes. This can be best explained by
the following example:

 As seen from the diagram,

-10 < t < -3 amplitude of z = x1 ×x2 = 0 ×2 = 0
-3 < t < 3 amplitude of z = x1 ×x2 = 1 ×2 = 2
3 < t < 10 amplitude of z = x1 × x2 = 0 × 2 = 0

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Time Shifting

 x(t ± t0) is time shifted version of the signal x .

x (t + t0) negative shift
x (t - t0) positive shift

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Time Scaling

 x At is time scaled version of the signal xt . where A is always positive.

|A| > 1 = Compression of the signal
|A| < 1 = Expansion of the signal

Note: uat = ut time scaling is not applicable for unit step function.
Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore
Time Reversal

 x (-t) is the time reversal of the signal x(t) .

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

 Transformation of Independent Variable

 Sometimes we need to change the independent variable axis for

theoretical analysis or for just practical purposes (both in CT and DT
signals).

 Time shift x[n]=x[n-no]

 – Time reversal x(t)=x(-t) (reverse playing of magnetic tape)

 – Time scaling x(t)=x(t/2) (slow playing, fast playing)

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Time Reversal (Folding) and Shifting

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Examples of Transformations

 Given the signal x(t)

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Examples of Transformations

 For the general case, i.e., x(at+b),

 1. first apply the shift (b),
 2. and then perform time scaling (or reversal) based on a.

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Examples of Transformations

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Examples of Transformations

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Examples of Transformations

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

 Useful Mathematical Formulas
Summation Formulas Euler's Formulas

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

 Trigonometric Identities

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Power Series Expansions

Some Definite Integrals

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Numerical Problems
Prob.1 Determine whether or not each of the following signals is periodic. If the signal is
periodic, determine its fundamental period.
(a) x(t) = 2 cos(2t + π/5).
Solution. This signal is a CT sinusoid so it is periodic. Its fundamental angular frequency is
2rad/sec and hence its fundamental period is T = 2π/ω0 = π.

(b) x(t) = ej(πt−2).

Solution. This signal is periodic and its fundamental angular frequency is π rad/sec. Thus its
fundamental period is T = 2π/π = 2.

(c) x(t) = [cos(4t + π/3)]2.

Solution. This signal can be rewritten as x(t) = 1/2 + 1/2 cos(8t + 2π/3). We can see that this
signal is periodic since the first term is constant and the other term is a CT sinusoid. The CT
sinusoid term has fundamental angular frequency 8 rad/sec and thus x(t) is periodic with
fundamental period T = 2π/8 = π/4. Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore
(d) x[n] = cos(πn/2) cos(πn/4).
Solution. We can rewrite x[n] as x[n] = 1/2 cos(3πn/4) + 1/2 cos(πn/4). Thus, x[n] is
the sum of two DT sinusoidal signals of fundamental periods N1 = 8 and N2 = 8.
Hence, x[n] is periodic and its fundamental period is the least common multiple of 8
and 8 which is N = 8.

(e) x[n] = 2 cos(πn/4) − sin(πn/8) + cos(πn/2 − π/6).

Solution. The fundamental periods of the individual DT sinusoidal signals are N1 = 8,
N2 = 16, and N3 = 4. Hence, x[n] is periodic and its fundamental period is the least
common multiple of 8, 16, and 4 which is N = 16.

(f) x[n] = sin(6πn/7 − 1)

Solution. This DT sinusoid is periodic with fundamental period N = 7.

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Prob.2 A CT signal x is defined for all t by
x(t) = 3u(t) − 2u(t − 2) − u(t − 3),
where u is the CT unit step. CT signals x1 and x2 are defined for all t by
x1(t) = x(−t/4)
x2(t) = x(1 − t)x(2 − t)
(a) Sketch x and x1 as a function of t

Figure 1: Plot of signal x(t) Figure 2: Plot of signal x1(t)

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore
(a) Sketch x3 as a function of t

Figure 3: The plot of (a) x(1 − t), (b) x(2 − t), and (c) x2(t)
Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore
Prob.3 Find the fundamental frequency of the following continuous signal:
x(t) = cos(10πt/3) + sin(5πt/4)

The frequencies and periods of the two terms are, respectively,

ω1 = 10π /3 , f1 = 5 /3 , T1 = 3/ 5 , ω2 = 5π /4 , f2 = 5 /8 , T2 = 8 /5,
Alternatively, the period of the fundamental T0 is the LCM of
T1 = 3/5 and T2 = 8/5:
T0 = LCM( 3 /5 , 8 /5 ) = 24/ 5
Now we get ω0 = 2πf0 = 2π/T0 = 5π/12 and the signal can be written as;
x(t) = cos(8 (5π /12) t) + sin(3 (5π/ 12) t) = cos(8ω0t) + sin(3ω0t)
i.e., the two terms are the 3th and 8th harmonic of the fundamental frequency ω0,
respectively.

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Prob.4 Determine whether or not each the following signals is periodic through
using fundamental period.

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore