ESSENCEOFINDIANTRADITIONALKNOWLEDGE

IndianTraditions,CulturalandSociety(ITCS)

(BNC502/ BNC602)
ESSENCEOFINDIANTRADITIONALKNOWLEDGE

IndianTraditions,CulturalandSociety(ITCS)

(BNC502/ BNC602)

Unit3:

Indian Religion, Philosophy, and Practices : Pre-Vedic and Vedic Religion, Buddhism, Jainism,
SixSystemIndianPhilosophy,Shankaracharya,VariousPhilosophicalDoctrines,OtherHeterodox
Sects, Bhakti Movement, Sufi movement, Socio religious reform movement of 19th century,
Modern religious practices.
 Religion

Religion is the study of the soul, guiding how we live. In India, it has been important since ancient times and
changed over time. It is connected to India's spiritual traditions. Philosophy in India helps understand life, while
religion shows how to live it. Together, philosophy and religion work hand in hand.

Pre-Vedic Religion

The Harappan civilization, which emerged around 3000 B.C. and matured by 2600 B.C., had a rich religious
tradition.

Key aspects of their religion included the worship of the Mother Goddess, symbolizing fertility and nature, as
seen in seals depicting female figures with plants or children. Male deities like a three-faced figure resembling
Shiva were alsoprominent, often portrayedina meditative posture. Shiva waslikely worshippedboth asanidol and
in the form of a linga. Animal worship was common, with various animals depicted on seals, and natural
elements like water, fire, and trees were also venerated.
 Vedic religion

TheearlyVedictraditionwasfocusedonritualsledbypriests,involvingapantheonofnaturedeities.Animal
sacrificeswerecentral,aimedatgainingprosperity inthislifeandtheafterlife.

The Vedic religion included two philosophical paths: Pravrtti Lakshana (action) and Nivrtti Lakshana
(renunciation), with the goal of both material prosperity (Abhyudaya) and liberation (Nihsreyasa).

KnowledgeofVedicreligioncomesfromtheVedas,whichconsistofhymns,ritualguides,mysticalteachings,
andspiritual speculations.Ritualswere categorizedinto publicrites (Srauta)and domesticrites (Grhya).

Publicrites,likeSomaandHavirsacrifices,wereelaborateandrequiredmultiplepriests,whiledomesticrites, performed by
householders, focused on personal or family rituals using the Garhapatya fire.
 IntroductiontoBuddhismandJainism
Buddhism and Jainism are two ancient Indian religions that arose around the same time. Both promote the idea of
overcoming suffering and achieving spiritual liberation. Buddhism was founded by Gautama Buddha, while
Jainism was popularized by Mahavira, although its teachings existed earlier.
Buddhism

Life ofGautamaBuddha

Gautama Buddha, originally named Siddhartha, was born in Lumbini (now Nepal) to King Shuddodana andQueen
Mayadevi. At age 29, disturbed by seeing human suffering, he left his luxurious life to seek enlightenment. After
meditating under the Bodhi tree in Gaya, he became the Buddha, "the enlightened one." Buddha then spread his
teachings in simple language, Pali, about the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. He organized his
followers into the Sangha, a monastic community, and died at 80 in Kushinagar.

BuddhistScriptures&Dharmaparishadas

Buddha'steachingswere collectedinthree main volumesknown asthe"Pitakas":

Sutta-pitaka-Dialoguesforcommonpeople,includingJataka stories.
Vinaya-pitaka-Rulesformonasticlife.
Abhidhamma-pitaka- Philosophicalteachingsforscholars.
Jainism

Jainism, an ancient religion, emphasizes non-violence (ahimsa) and the liberation of the soul. It was
revitalized by Mahavira, the 24th tirthankara, who preached in the vernacular language of Ardhamagadhi.
Jainism teaches self-discipline, equality, and the rejection of Vedic rituals.

BasicPrinciplesofJainism

Jainismfocusesonnon-violence,truth,non-stealing,non-possessiveness,andchastity.Itemphasizes
controllingone'sactionstoachieveliberation(moksha)throughself-purification.

SpreadofJainism

Jainism spread largely due to royal support from rulers like Bimbisara and Chandragupta Maurya, as well
as the support of traders and artisans. Jain communities built temples, caves, and educational centers. Jain
literature was written in local languages, making it accessible to more people.
 SixSystemIndianPhilosophy
The six mainsystemsofancientIndianphilosophyareas follows:

1. Samkhya:

Founded by Sage Kapila, this isone of the oldest philosophies. It teaches a

dualistic view, recognizing two realities: Purusha (Spirit) and Prakriti
(Nature). Initially atheistic, it later incorporated some theistic ideas.

2. Yoga:

Attributed to Patanjali, Yoga outlines eight steps to achieve spiritual

connection and self-discipline, including moral conduct, posture,breathing,
concentration, meditation, and reaching bliss or enlightenment.

3. Vaisheshika:

Developed by Kanada, this philosophy holds that everything is made of

atoms. Originally atheistic, it later merged with the theistic Nyaya system.
4. Nyaya:

FoundedbyGautama,Nyayafocusesonlogicalreasoningtogainknowledge.Itlistsfourvalidways(Pramana)and
fourinvalid waysofgainingknowledge.

5. PurvaMimamsa:

AttributedtoJaimini,thissystemviewstheVedasaseternalandunchanging.ItemphasizesDharma(dutyor morality) and believes

in a universe with no beginning or end.

6. Vedanta(UttaraMimamsa):

ExpoundedbyBadarayana,VedantaistheculminationofVedicthought.KeytextsincludetheVedantaSutraand
BrahmaSutra,focusingonspiritualunityandthenatureofreality.

Shankaracharya
Adi Shankaracharya was an influential Indian philosopher who developed and promoted Advaita Vedanta, a
philosophy of non-dualism that teaches the oneness of the self (Atman) and the ultimate reality (Brahman). He
taught that Brahman is the only true reality, while the world is an illusion. Shankaracharya wrote important
commentaries on Hindu scriptures, traveled across India to spread his teachings, and founded four monastic centers
that continue to uphold Advaita Vedanta.
 HinduPhilosophy(VedicSchools)

FocusedonnatureworshipandevolvedintodeeperideasofAtman(soul)andBrahman(cosmic
principle).

ShadaDarshana(SixSystems):IncludesSamkhya,Yoga,Nyaya,Vaisesika,Mimansa,andVedanta.

HeterodoxSchools(Non-Vedic)

1. Charvaka:Materialisticphilosophy,focusingondirectperceptionandjoyfulliving;deniesthe
supernatural.
2. Jainism:Stressesahimsa(non-violence),withbeliefsinkarma,soulpurification,andliberation
(moksha)throughrightconduct,knowledge,and faith.
3. Buddhism: Founded by Buddha, focuses on the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Pathto
endsuffering and reach Nirvana.
4. Ajivika:Believedindestinyandfreewill,practicingasimple,unrestrictedlife.
 BhaktiMovementandSufimovement
The Bhakti Movement and Sufi Movement were spiritual reform movements in India that emphasized love and
devotion to God over ritualistic practices and promoted social equality.

BhaktiMovement

The Bhakti Movement started in South India around the 7th century and spread across the country. It was led by
saints like Kabir, Mirabai, Tulsidas, and others who preached that anyone, regardless of caste or gender, could
achieve salvation through sincere devotion. They promoted a personal connection with God and wrote in local
languages, making their teachings accessibleto everyone. The Bhakti saints also criticized social evils like the caste
system and encouraged harmony among different communities.

SufiMovement

The Sufi Movement began in India around the 11th and 12th centuries with the arrival of Sufi mystics from the
Islamic world. Sufi saints, like Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti and Nizamuddin Auliya, emphasized a path of love,
compassion, and service to humanity. They rejected rigid rituals and embraced meditation and devotion as ways to
experience God. Sufis believed in the unity of all beings and valued tolerance, helping bridge gaps between Hindu
and Muslim communities.

Both movements encouraged spirituality, compassion, andsocial harmony, leaving a lasting influence on Indian
culture and religious thought.
 Socioreligiousreformmovementof19thcentury

The socio-religiousreformmovementsofthe19thcenturyinIndiaweredrivenbyadesiretoaddressandeliminate various

social, religious, and cultural issues within Indian society. This era marked the beginning of India’s modernization,
as reformers sought to balance traditional Indian values with the benefits of Western knowledgeand thought.

1. RajaRammohanRoy:Knownasthe"FatheroftheIndianRenaissance,"hepromotedmoderneducation,science, and
technology, and fought against social evils like sati and child marriage.

2. R.G.BhandarkarandM.G.Ranade:ThroughthePrarthanaSamajinMaharashtra,theyadvocatedforinter-
castemarriages,freedomfrompriestlycontrol,and women’s rights.

3. SwamiDayanandaSaraswati:FounderoftheAryaSamaj,heencouragedinterpretingtheVedasindependently and
fought against untouchability and rigid caste divisions.

4. SwamiVivekananda:ThroughtheRamakrishnaMission,hepromotedservicetothepoor,condemnednarrow
religiousviews, andsupportedfreethinking.
 ModernReligiousPracticesinIndia
1. Hinduism: The most practiced religion in India, it encompasses diverse traditions and influences various aspectsof
society and culture.

2. Islam:Thesecondmostfollowedreligion,ithasinfluenced Indian art,architecture,and culture.

3. Sikhism:FoundedinIndia,itpromotesdevotiontoaformlessGod,equality,humility,andservicetoothers.

4. Buddhism:OriginatedasaresponsetoearlyHinduism,focusingonuniversalethicsandliberationfromsuffering
throughtheFourNobleTruthsandtheNobleEightfoldPath.

5. Jainism: Alsoaresponseto earlyHinduism,emphasizing non-violence(ahimsa),whichis reflected inpractices like

vegetarianism and animal welfare.

6. Christianity:ThethirdmostpracticedreligioninIndia,concentratedinthesouthandMumbai,withRoman
Catholicismas the prominentdenomination.
ESSENCEOFINDIANTRADITIONALKNOWLEDGE
IndianTraditions,CulturalandSociety(ITCS)

(BNC502/ BNC602)

Unit4:

Science, Management and Indian Knowledge System : Astronomy in India, Chemistry in India,
MathematicsinIndia,PhysicsinIndia,AgricultureinIndia,MedicineinIndia,MetallurgyinIndia,
Geography, Biology, Harappan Technologies, Water Management in India, Textile Technology in
India ,Writing Technology in India , Pyrotechnics in India, Trade in Ancient India/,India’s
Dominance up to Pre-colonial Times
 AstronomyinIndia

Indian astronomy dates back to prehistoric times. Early evidence includes calendar sticks from 12,000 years ago
and rock art depicting celestial events from 7,000 years ago. The Rig-Veda introduced a 360-day year, and the
Yajur-Veda listed 27 lunar mansions. Vedic texts like Jyotish Vedanga advanced calendrical and astronomical
knowledge.

Aryabhata,throughhisAryabhattiya,introducedsystematicastronomicalconcepts.Hecalculatedplanetary
positions,solarand lunareclipses,andemphasized scientificmethods,markinga departurefrom astrology.

ChemistryinIndia

India excelled in crafts like glassmaking, dyeing, and metallurgy. Ancient Indians made paper, soap, ink,
cosmetics, and perfumes. Alcoholic liquors and advanced dye extraction techniques were developed. Medicinal
and chemical arts grew alongside alchemical practices.
 MathematicsinIndia

Harappans had advanced geometry. The Sulvasutras introduced practical geometry. Key contributions include the
decimal system, zero, algebra, and trigonometry. Aryabhata and Brahmagupta’s works laid foundations for modern
mathematics.

PhysicsinIndia
Ancient Indian philosophers identified five elements and introduced the concept of the atom (Parmanu). The
Vaisheshika system described particles, gravity, and qualities like elasticity and viscosity. Early ideas of sound, light,
and heat resembled modern physics concepts.

AgricultureinIndia
Agriculture in India dates back to the Indus Valley Civilization. Techniques like irrigation and crop diversification
evolved over time. Medieval innovations included new crops and land classification systems. Principal crops were
wheat, rice, and sugarcane.
 MedicineinIndia

The Atharva-Veda described diseases and cures. Texts like Charaksamhita and Sushrutsamhita advanced medicine
and surgery. Sushruta pioneered surgical instruments and methods. Later developments included mineral medicines
and the Unani system.

MetallurgyinAncientIndia

India had advanced metallurgy for over 7,000 years, producing iron, copper, and alloys like wootz steel. Harappans
crafted metal tools and ornaments. The Delhi Iron Pillar showcases India’s expertise in corrosion-resistant iron. Zinc
production was perfected through distillation techniques.
 Geography
Interaction between humans and nature prompted the study of geography. While ancient Indians were familiar with
their local geography and Western regions, they were less aware of Earth's position and distances to other nations.
Shipbuilding was an area of Indian expertise. Ancient Indians were not initially adept at maritime navigation, but
evidence of trade via sea is found in Lothal, Gujarat, where a dockyard remains.

Biology

Ayurvedic texts like Charaka Samhita and Susruta Samhita classify plants based on medicinal properties. Vedic
literature highlights significant plants like Soma and peepal. Ancient texts also address plant diseases, remedies, and
crop issues, as seen in the Vinaya and Sukraniti. Germination (ankurodbheda) was well understood, with factors like
soil, water, and seed quality emphasized by Susruta.
 HarappanTechnologies
Technologyreferstohuman-mademodificationsofthenaturalenvironment,suchastools,clothing,orconstructions.

HarappanTechnologies:

1) Pots:Wheel-turnedpottery,oftenpaintedorglazed.
2) Bricks:Firedbricksinproportions(1×2×4)forstronger structures.
3) Bead-making:Advancedtechniquesindrilling,glazing,andpolishing,especiallywith semipreciousstones.
4) Other Crafts:Stonecarving,weaving,and metalwork.

WaterManagementinIndia
Ancient Indians constructed diverse water structures to conserve and distribute water. The Harappans used trapezoid
bricks for wells to resist collapse.

In Sringaverapura, reservoirs interconnected by channels managed water overflow to the Ganges. Village ponds, often
connected, supported groundwater recharge and neighboring areas. Notable structures include the Kallanai dam on the
Cauvery river.
 TextileTechnologyinIndia
Vedic literature mentions fabrics like wool and silk, and techniques of weaving and dyeing. By the Roman trade
era, India excelled in exporting cotton and silk.

Specialties included:

1) Muslin:Thincotton fabric.
2) Calico:UnbleachedcottonfromCalicut.
3) Chintz: Printedcalico.

Weaving saw advanced looms, while dyes were derived from plants and minerals (e.g., indigo for blue, turmeric
for yellow).

WritingTechnologyinIndia
Manuscripts were created using birch bark and palm leaves. Birch bark used charcoal-based ink, while palm
leaves were incised and stained with charcoal paste. Paper-making entered India in the 11th century, with early
manuscripts dating back to 1105 CE. By the 15th century, centers like Kashmir, Patna, and Mysore produced
high-quality paper.
 PyrotechnicsinIndia

Fireworks appeared in India during the 13th–14th century, with gunpowder adopted for warfare by the 16th century.
A Sanskrit treatise describes gunpowder recipes using saltpetre, sulphur, and charcoal. Rockets, used from the
16th century, had iron tubes filled with black powder and bamboo shafts. Despite their inaccuracy, these rockets
caused significant damage in battle. The British later studied Indian rocket technology, influencing Europeanwarfare
advancements.

TradeinAncientIndia
Trade in India began as early as 5000 BCE, with networks at Mehrgarh in Baluchistan. By the 1st millennium BCE,
cities like Taxila, Ujjain, and Varanasi emerged as major trade centers along key routes, supported by structured
states.

Arthashastra highlighted trade as a key economic activity, with Magadha trading textiles, gems, and metals.
External trade included Harappans exporting timber and beads to Mesopotamia and Phoenicians trading Indian teak.
Trade with the Roman Empire peaked in the 1st century BCE.
 India’sDominanceuptoPre-ColonialTimes

India enjoyed a trade surplus, accumulating gold through efficient products like cotton and spices. Mughal records
show 40,000 vessels in trade, and guilds ensured organized commerce. India and China controlled 60% of the world’s
GDP for centuries, dominating global trade until colonial rule led to a decline.

TownPlanningintheIndusValleyCivilization
The Indus Valley Civilization, which flourished around 2500 BCE, is renowned for its advanced town planning. The
cities, includingMohenjo-Daro,Harappa, and Dholavira, were meticulously designed with remarkable engineering and
urban management.

1. CityLayout:

• Citieswerebuiltona grid system,with streets runningnorth-southand east-west.

• Roadswerewide and straight,oftendividingthecity into rectangularblocks.

2. BuildingsandMaterials:

• Houseswere madeofbakedbricks, oftentwoorthreestorieshigh, withflatroofs.

• Manyhouseshadcourtyards,wells, and bathrooms.
• Public buildingslikegranarieswere usedtostoresurplusgrains.
3. Drainage System:

• Ahighlyefficientdrainagesystemwasinplace,withcovereddrainsrunningalong streets.
• Housedrainsconnectedtolarger streetdrains,andwaste wasdirectedoutside thecity.

4. WaterManagement:

• Thecitieshadwells,reservoirs,andbathingareas.TheGreatBathofMohenjo-Daroisafamousexampleof
publicwatermanagement.
• Dholavirahadsophisticatedwaterconservation systemswithlargereservoirs.

5. Marketplaces and Economy:

• MarketswerelocatedintheLowerTown,facilitatingtradeofgoodslikebeads,pottery,andtextiles.
• Standardizedweightsandmeasureswere usedfortrade.

The meticulous planning and infrastructure of the Indus Valley cities demonstrate an advanced understanding of
engineering, hygiene, and governance, reflecting one of the most sophisticated urban civilizations of the ancient
world.
ESSENCEOFINDIANTRADITIONALKNOWLEDGE
IndianTraditions,CulturalandSociety(ITCS)

(BNC502/BNC602)

Unit5:

Cultural Heritage and Performing Arts : Indian Architect, Engineering and Architecture in
Ancient India, Sculptures, Seals, coins, Pottery, Puppetry, Dance, Music, Theatre, drama, Painting,
Martial Arts , Traditions, Fairs and Festivals, Current developments in Arts and Cultural, Indian’s
Cultural Contribution to the World. Indian Cinema
 DifferentTypesofArchitectureinIndia
A. CaveArchitecture

1. Alsoknownasrock-cutarchitecture,itinvolvescarvingstructuresoutofsolid rock.
2. Caveswere usedasshrinesorsheltersandare mostlyreligiousinnature.
3. Famousexamples:Ajanta, Ellora,Elephanta,andKarlacaves.

B. StupaArchitecture

1. Stupasaredome-shapedmoundsusedtohouseBuddha'srelicsorcommemorate Buddhist
events.
2. Examples:Sanchi,Sarnath,Amaravati,andBharhutstupas.

C. PillarArchitecture

1. Pillarswereusedtoconveymessages,particularlyduringtheMauryanera.
2. AshokanpillarshadinscriptionsspreadingBuddhistteachingsandfeaturedanimal capitals
like lions and bulls.
3. Examples:Sarnathand Lauriya-Nandangarh.
D. TempleArchitecture

1. Templesserveasplacesofworshipandfeaturestructureslikegarbhagriha(sanctum),
mandapa(hall), andshikhara/vimana (spire).
2. Examples:KonarkSunTemple,BrihadeeswaraTemple,andKhajurahotemples.

E. Indo-IslamicArchitecture

1. Developedafterthe 13th-centuryTurkishconquest,blendinglocalandIslamicstyles.
2. Examplesincludemosques,madrasas,andtombslikeQutubMinar,Humayun’sTomb,andTaj
Mahal.

BasicFeaturesofIndianTemples
• Garbhagriha:Roomwiththe deity.
• Mandapa:Hall for prayers.
• Shikhara/Vimana:Tallspireontop.
• Amalaka:Discontopofthe spire(NorthIndia).
• Kalasha:Decorativepotatthe top.
• Antarala:Smallpassage betweenthe sanctumandhall.
• Jagati:Raised platformforprayers
 Sculptures
Indian sculptures are made of stone, metal, or terracotta. The earliest sculptures are from the Indus Valley
Civilization. The tradition of monumental stone sculpture began with King Ashoka (270-232 BCE).Sculpturesinclude
gods, animals, and even kings.

Seals
Sealswereusedforauthenticatingtransactions.Earlysealsdatebacktopre-Harappantimes.Harappansealswere made of
steatite and featured pictographic script.

Coins

Ancientcoinsareanimportantsourceofhistory.Thefirstcoinsappearedbetweenthe1stand6thcenturiesBCE. Punch-marked
coins were popular, and gold coins were introduced by the Indo-Greeks.
 Pottery
Potteryismadefromclay,porcelain,andothermaterials.Itreflectstheculture,economy,andenvironment.Types include handmade
and wheel-turned pottery.

Puppetry

1. Puppetsarefigurescontrolledtoappearalive.
2. Puppetryis adyingart duetomodernmedia andlackofsupport.

TypesofPuppetry

1. StringPuppets:Manipulatedbystrings(e.g., Kathputli).

2. GlovePuppets:Wornlikegloves(e.g.,Pava-kathakali).

3. RodPuppets:Controlledbyrods (e.g.,Putul Nautch).

4. ShadowPuppets:Silhouettesagainstalight(e.g.,Ravanachhaya).
 Dance
1. ClassicalDance: OriginatesfromNatyaShastra.Dividedinto twotypes:

1. Lasya:Graceful,feminine.

2. Tandava:Powerful,masculine.

3. BasicElements: Nritta(rhythmicsteps),Natya(drama),Nritya(emotionsexpressed viagestures).

2. FolkDance: Originatesfrom localtraditionsofregions.

ClassicalDanceForms:

• Bharatanatyam(TamilNadu):Solo,usesCarnaticmusic,andexpressivehandgestures(Mudras).

• Kathak(UttarPradesh):Storytelling,footwork,Hindustani music.

• Kuchipudi(Andhra Pradesh):Combinesdanceanddrama,Carnatic music.

• Odissi(Odisha):Sensuousand lyrical,usespostureslikeTribhanga.

• Kathakali(Kerala):Story-Play,elaboratecostumesandmake-up.
 Music

BasicElements

1) Sruti:Smallestpitchinterval.

2) Swara:Musicalnotes(7types:Sa, Re,Ga, Ma,Pa, Dha,Ni).

3) Raga:Melodicframework,22srutis,differentmood foreachtimeofday.

4) Tala:Rhythmiccycle,variesfrom3to128 beats.

ClassicalMusic:

HindustaniMusic:IncludesstyleslikeDhrupad(oldest),Khayal(improvised),Thumri(romantic),andQawwali
(devotional).

CarnaticMusic:SouthIndian,based onragas andtalas,uses instruments like veena,violin,and mridangam.

 Theatre
TraditionalTheatreFormsinIndia:

1. Bhavai:Dance-drama fromGujaratandRajasthanwithdevotion and romance.

2. Nautanki:PopularinUttarPradesh,combiningdance,music,andfolktales.
3. Rasleela:UttarPradeshtheatreaboutLordKrishna’sstorieswith songs.
4. Swang:Musicaldramafrom Punjaband Haryanawith traditionalinstruments.

Drama
Drama in India, originating from Natya Shastra, is closely tied to rituals and festivals. It features roles like the
hero, heroine, villain, and comedian, focusing on acting, gestures, and costumes while avoiding violence on stage.
Traditional themesrevolvedaround love,with playsbeginning witha song-prologue andendingwitha concluding
verse. Curtains separated the stage and backstage

Painting
Indian painting, rooted in religion, evolved into a fusion of traditions and styles. Post-independence, modern
techniques flourished. Paintings are classified as murals, large wall artworks like Ajanta, and miniatures, small
detailed works on cloth or paper.
 MartialArts
India’smartialartsblendcombat skillswithculturalexpressions.

Kalaripayattu (Kerala) - Weapon-based, uses healing techniques.

Silambam(TamilNadu)-Stafffightinginspiredbyanimalmoves. Gatka
(Punjab) - Sikh martial art using swords and sticks.
Lathi(Punjab,Bengal)-Stickfighting,popularinvillages.

FairsandFestivalsofIndia

ReligiousFestivals Famous Fairs

• Holi:Festivalofcolors,marksthevictoryofgood over • KumbhMela:Religiousgatheringevery 12years.

evil. • PushkarMela:Rajasthan’scamelandcattlefair.
• Diwali:Festivaloflights,celebratesLordRama’sreturn. • RathYatra:LordJagannath’schariotfestivalinPuri.
• Navaratri:WorshipofGoddessShaktiovernine nights. • Goa Carnival: Colorful street parades and festivities i
• Christmas:BirthofJesus,celebratedwithprayers and February.
gifts.
• Ramzan:Islamicmonthoffastingandprayer.
 IndianCinemaEras

1. EarlyEra(1898-1945): Silent filmstransitionedtotalkies(AlamArawasthefirst).

2. GoldenEra(1940-1960):Filmswiththemesofmusic,dance,andromance flourished.

3. ClassicEra(1970-1980):Actionandromancefilmsgainedpopularity(Sholay, Zanjeer).

4. ModernEra(1990-Present):Technologicaladvancementslikedigitaleffectsimprovedfilmquality.