Bit-oriented protocol

A bit-oriented protocol is a communications protocol that sees the transmitted data as an opaque stream of bits with no semantics, or meaning.
Control codes are defined in terms of bit sequences instead of characters.
Bit oriented protocol can transfer data frames regardless of frame contents. It can also be stated as "bit stuffing".

The examples of bit-oriented protocol are:

• Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC).
• High Level Data Link Control (HDLC).

Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC) Protocol:

• SDLC protocol was developed by IBM in 1975.
• After developing SDLC, IBM submitted it to American National Standard Institute
• (ANSI) and to International Standard Organization (ISO) for acceptance.
• ANSI modified it to ADCCP (Advanced Data Communication Control Procedure.
•ISO modified it to HDLC (High Level Data Link Control).
High-level Data Link Control (HDLC)

• It is a group of communication protocols of the data link layer for transmitting data between network points or nodes. Since it is a data link
protocol, data is organized into frames.
• A frame is transmitted via the network to the destination that verifies its successful arrival. It is a bit - oriented protocol that is applicable for
both point - to - point and multipoint communications.

• HDLC is one of the most commonly used internet protocols (IP) in what is Layer 2 of the Open Systems

Interconnection (OSI).

• HDLC frames can be transmitted over either asynchronous or synchronous communication links

Synchronous framing. In synchronous frames, data is NRZI (non-return-to-zero inverted) encoded, meaning that a 0-bit is sent as a change in
the signal, whereas 1-bit is transmitted as no change. In this way, frames can be sent via a full-duplex, or half-duplex link.
Asynchronous framing in asynchronous communications, it is not necessary to worry about the bit pattern. Instead, bit stuffing is used . A
control escape octet uses 0x7D values in Hexa ,in binary a ‘01111110' bit sequence is added at beginning and starting . Transfer Modes
HDLC supports two types of transfer modes, normal response mode and asynchronous balanced mode.

Normal Response Mode (NRM) − Two types of stations are there, a primary station that send commands and secondary station that can
respond to received commands. It is used for both point - to - point and multipoint communications.
Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM) − The configuration is balanced, i.e. each station can both send commands and respond to commands.
It is used for only point - to - point communications.

HDLC Frame

•Flag − It is an 8-bit sequence that marks the beginning and the end of the frame. The bit pattern of the flag is 01111110.
•Address − It contains the address of the receiver. If the frame is sent by the primary station, it contains the address(es) of the secondary
station(s). If it is sent by the secondary station, it contains the address of the primary station. The address field may be from 1 byte to several
bytes.
•Control − It is 1 or 2 bytes containing flow and error control information.

•Payload − This carries the data from the network layer. Its length may vary from one network to another.

•FCS − It is a 2 byte or 4 bytes frame check sequence for error detection. The standard code used is CRC (cyclic redundancy code)
Type of frame

I-frame : I-frame stands for Information frames. This frame is generally used for transporting user data from network layer. These frames
actually carry actual data or information of upper layer and some control information. This frame carries data along with both send sequence
number and an acknowledgment number. The first bit of this frame of control field is 0.

S-frame: S-frame stands for Supervisory frames. These frames are basically required and essential for error control and flow control. They
also provide control information. First two bit of this frame of control field is 10. Sframe does not have any information fields. This frame
contains send and receive sequence numbers.
U-frame: U-frame stands for Un-numbered frames. These frames are also required in various functions like link setup and disconnections.
First, two-bit of this frame of control field is 11. These frames are also used for different miscellaneous purposes along with link
management. U-frame is required for managing link itself. This frame does not include any type of acknowledgment information .These
frames are generally reserved for system management.
 What is meaning of P/F it means poll when the frame is sent by a primary station to a secondary (when the address field contains the address of the receiver). It
means final when the frame is sent by a secondary to a primary (when the address field contains the address of the sender).

Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC) is a transmission protocol used to synchronously transfer codetransparent, serial-by-bit data over a communications channel.
SDLC protocol was developed by IBM in 1975.
A SDLC link can be configured as a point-to-point link or a multiple station loop configuration consisting of a primary station and a number of secondary stations.
Transmission exchanges can be duplex or half-duplex. SDLC is a subset of HDLC and includes several minor additional features.

• The flag sequence of 8 bits 01111110 marks the beginning and ending of the frame.
• The address field and control field serve the same purpose as discussed in HDLC and are of 8 bit each.
• The information field or user data field carries the data and is of variable length.
• ECF stands for error checking field and is of 16 bits. It is used for error control.
BISYNC –
Binary Synchronous Communication Protocol (BISYNC) is a byte oriented communication protocol and a data link layer protocol, developed by IBM in 1960’s.In a
byte oriented approach, every frame is viewed as a set of bytes/characters.
There are basically two types of BSC or BISYNC frames as shown below : 1. Control Frame 2. Data Frame
1. Control Frame : These frames are basically required for exchange of information or data among devices to develop or obtain initial connection, provide flow and
error control, and also disconnect the devices when the session is completely over. This frame does not contain any header.

BISYNC has two (BI) synchronous fields (SYNC) in the starting of the frame.

The frame format includes two synchronous fields of 8 bits each. These two fields are essential to spot the beginning of the frame.
The third field is SOH (start of header) which of 8 bits, followed by fourth field – header.
 These frames are basically required to carry user data. It is also used to show the direction of data transfer.

The fifth field is STX (start of text) which of 8 bits, followed by a body, of variable length.he body, is followed by ETX (end of text) which of 8 bits.

CRC (cyclic redundancy check) is the last field of 16 bits, which is required for error detection.

Frames are transmitted, beginning with leftmost field.

The start of the frame is denoted by sending a special SYN (synchronize) character.

Data portion of the frame, is contained between special character STX and ETX i.e., the body is guarded by STX &

ETX.
STX and ETX :
If the receiver encounters STX or ETX inside the body, it misunderstands them to be the actual STX or ETX. This problem, can be handled, using byte/character
stuffing approach.

Link Access Procedure (LAP) protocols : are data link layer protocols for framing and transmitting data across point-to-point links. LAP was originally derived
from HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control), but was later updated and renamed LAPB (LAP Balanced).
LAPB is used to manage communication and packet framing between data terminal equipment (DTE) and the data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE) devices.
LAPB is essentially HDLC in Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM). LAPB sessions can be established by either the DTE or DCE. The station initiating the call is
determined to be the primary, and the responding station is the secondary.
Frame format:

Flag – The value of the flag is always 0x7E. In order to ensure that the bit pattern of the frame delimiter flag does not appear in the data field of the frame (and
therefore cause frame misalignment), a technique known as Bit stuffing is used by both the transmitter and the receiver.

Address field – In LAPB, this field has no meaning since the protocol works in a point to point mode and the DTE network address is represented in the layer 3
packets. This byte is therefore put to a different use; it separates the link commands from the responses and can have only two values: 0x01 and 0x03. 01 identifies
frames containing commands from DTE to DCE and responses to these commands from DCE to DTE. 03 is used for frames containing commands from DCE to
DTE and for responses from DTE to DCE. Therefore, one side must be configured as a Layer 2 DTE and the other as a Layer 2

Control field – it serves to identify the type of the frame. In addition, it includes sequence numbers, control features and error tracking according to the frame type.

Modes of operation – LAPB works in the Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM). This mode is balanced (i.e., no master/slave relationship). Each station may
initialize, supervise, recover from errors, and send frames at any time. The DTE and DCE are treated as equals.

FCS – The Frame Check Sequence enables a high level of physical error control by allowing the integrity of the transmitted frame data to be checked.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a protocol or procedure that connects an ever-changing Internet Protocol (IP) address to a fixed physical machine address,
also known as a media access control (MAC) address, in a localarea network (LAN).
This mapping procedure is important because the lengths of the IP and MAC addresses differ, and a translation is needed so that the systems can recognize one
another. The most used IP today is IP version 4 (IPv4). An IP address is 32 bits long. However, MAC addresses are 48 bits long. ARP translates the 32-bit address
to 48 and vice versa. The MAC address is also known as the data link layer, which establishes and terminates a connection between two physically connected
devices so that data transfer can take place. The IP address is also referred to as the network layer or the layer responsible for forwarding packets of data through
different routers. ARP works between these layers.

How Does ARP Work?

When a new computer joins a local area network (LAN), it will receive a unique IP address to use for identification and communication.

Packets of data arrive at a gateway, destined for a particular host machine. The gateway, or the piece of hardware on a network that allows data to flow from one
network to another, asks the ARP program to find a MAC address that matches the IP address. The ARP cache keeps a list of each IP address and its matching
MAC address. The ARP cache is dynamic, but users on a network can also configure a static ARP table containing IP addresses and MAC addresses.

ARP caches are kept on all operating systems in an IPv4 Ethernet network. Every time a device requests a MAC address to send data to another device connected
to the LAN, the device verifies its ARP cache to see if the IP-toMAC-address connection has already been completed. If it exists, then a new request is
unnecessary. However, if the translation has not yet been carried out, then the request for network addresses is sent, and ARP is performed.