RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.

OCTOBER 2023

YEAR 2.1
ST. MARY’S SCHOOL OF MEDICINE.
Wamukoya L. Noah – 0722260328, [email protected].
 TABLE OF CONTENTS:

1. Introduction to research: .......................................................................................................... 1

1.1. Definition of Research: .................................................................................................... 1

1.2. Concepts in Research: ...................................................................................................... 1

1.3. Purpose of Research: ........................................................................................................ 1

1.3.1. Basic Research: ......................................................................................................... 1

1.3.2. Applied Research: ..................................................................................................... 2

1.3.3. Evaluation Research (summative and formative): .................................................... 2

1.3.4. Action Research: ....................................................................................................... 2

1.4. Objectives of Research: .................................................................................................... 2

1.5. Importance of Research:................................................................................................... 4

1.6. Scope of Research: ........................................................................................................... 5

1.7. Types of Research: ........................................................................................................... 5

1.8. Methodology of Research: ............................................................................................... 6

1.9. Components of Research:................................................................................................. 6

1.10. Qualities of good Research: .......................................................................................... 7

1.10.1. Good research is systematic: ..................................................................................... 7

1.10.2. Good research is logical: ........................................................................................... 7

1.10.3. Good research is empirical: ...................................................................................... 7

1.10.4. Good research is replicable: ...................................................................................... 7

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1.11. Identification of research topic: .................................................................................... 8

1.12. Literature review in Research: ...................................................................................... 9

1.12.1. Use of literature review:............................................................................................ 9

1.12.2. Sources of information:............................................................................................. 9

1.12.3. Organization of information on index cards: .......................................................... 10

1.13. Study Area: ................................................................................................................. 11

1.14. Sampling in Research: ................................................................................................ 11

1.15. Frame work in Research: ............................................................................................ 12

1.16. Data collection tools in Research: .............................................................................. 13

1.17. Data analysis in Research: .......................................................................................... 15

1.18. Interpretation of Research Results:............................................................................. 16

1.19. Summary in Research: ................................................................................................ 16

1.20. Discussion of Research Results: ................................................................................. 17

1.21. Recommendations: ..................................................................................................... 18

1.22. Ethical issues in Research: ......................................................................................... 18

1.23. Report writing: ............................................................................................................ 19

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Course content: Research Methodology.

Corse lecturer: Wamukoya Lawrence Noah

Contacts:

Mobile Phone No.: 0722260328.

Email Address: [email protected].

Expected Competence at the end of the course: Enable the learner to participate in research.
Outcomes:
1. Demonstrate understanding of research process.

2. Apply principles of research in report writing.

Module Content:

1. Introduction to research:

1.1.Definition of Research:

Research refers to systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to
establish facts and reach newer conclusions.

1.2.Concepts in Research:

Concept refers to a plan or intention to carry out a defined activity. Research generates concepts
by generalizing from particular facts. Concepts are based on experiences. Concepts can be based
on real phenomena and are a generalized idea of a given happening onto which a given meaning
is attached. Examples of concepts include number of accidents in the month of September, 2023;
the measures of blood pressure levels among St. Mary’s School of Medicine, Clinical Medicine
students in 2023 or the number of x-ray scans taken in ICU at St. Mary’s hospital in the year 2022.

1.3.Purpose of Research:
This can be classified into four (4) types based of various purposes that a given research aims to
achieve. They include:

1.3.1. Basic Research:

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The purpose of this research is to understand and explain a given phenomenon i.e. the research is
interested in formulating and testing theoretical construct and propositions that ideally generalize
across time and space. This type of research takes the form of a theory that explains the
phenomenon under investigation to give its contribution to knowledge. This research is more
descriptive in nature exploring answers to questions such as; what, why and how.

1.3.2. Applied Research:

The purpose of this research is to help people understand the nature of human problems so that
human beings can more effectively control their environment. In other words, this type of research
pursues potential solutions to human and societal problems. This research is more prescriptive in
nature, focusing on how questions.

1.3.3. Evaluation Research (summative and formative):

Evaluation research studies the processes and outcomes aimed at attempted solution. The purpose
of formative research is to improve human intervention within specific conditions, such as
activities, time, and groups of people; the purpose of summative evaluation is to judge the
effectiveness of a program, policy, or product.

1.3.4. Action Research:

Action research aims at solving specific problems within a program, organization, or community.
The design and data collection in action research tend to be more informal, and the people in the
situation are directly involved in gathering information and studying themselves.

1.4.Objectives of Research:

Objectives are the goals set out to attain in a study. Since these objectives inform a reader of

what they want to achieve through the study, it is extremely important to word them clearly and

specifically.

Objectives must be SMART.

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Specific.

Measurable.

Attainable.

Realistic or Relevant.

Timebound.

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When writing objectives in research, they should be listed under two headings as;

i. Broad (or main) objectives;

ii. Specific (or sub) objectives.

The main objective is an overall statement of the thrust of the study. It is also a statement of the
main associations and relationships that one seeks to discover or establish during the study. The
subobjectives are the specific aspects of the topic that one wants to investigate within the main
framework of a study.

1.5.Importance of Research:

Research importance can best be understood when grouped into basic and clinical research. Basic
research is systematic study directed toward greater knowledge or understanding of the
fundamental aspects of phenomena and of observable facts without specific applications towards
processes or products in mind. Clinical research is research in which people, or data or samples of
tissue from people, are studied to understand health and disease. Clinical research helps find new
and better ways to detect, diagnose, treat, and prevent disease. Basic research gives us a new and
deeper understanding of health, disease and healing. Clinical research guides us as to how to

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improve the diagnosis and treatment and provide leads to new direction in basic research.
Development and evaluation of new technologies ultimately requires both basic and clinical
research.

1.6.Scope of Research:

The scope of a study explains the extent to which the research area will be explored in the work
and specifies the parameters within which the study will be operating. This includes definition of
what the study is going to cover and what it is focusing on.

1.7.Types of Research:

Types of research can be looked at from three different perspectives:

a) Applications of the findings of the research study.

b) Objectives of the study.
c) Mode of enquiry used in conducting the study.

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 1.8.Methodology of Research:

Research methodology involves specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process,
and analyse information about a given topic. This is presented in what is called a proposal and
later a report or research paper. Methodology allows the reader to critically evaluate a study's
overall validity and reliability.

1.9.Components of Research:

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 1.10. Qualities of good Research:

1.10.1. Good research is systematic:

It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in
accordance with the well-defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of the research does not
rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving
at conclusions.

1.10.2. Good research is logical:

This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of
induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research. Induction is the process of
reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some
premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes
research more meaningful in the context of decision making.

1.10.3. Good research is empirical:

It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation and deals with
concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research results.

1.10.4. Good research is replicable:

This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the study and thereby
building a sound basis for decisions.

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 1.11. Identification of research topic:

A research topic is a subject or issue that a researcher is interested in when conducting research.
A well-defined research topic is the starting point of every successful research project. Choosing
a topic is an ongoing process by which researchers explore, define, and refine their ideas. To help
identify a good topic, the thinking process below can help.

How then do you identify a research topic?

a) Brainstorm for ideas.

b) Choose a topic that will enable you to read and understand the literature.
c) Ensure that the topic is manageable and that material is available.
d) Make a list of key words.
e) Be flexible.
f) Define your topic as a focused research question.
g) Search and review literature on the topic.
h) Refine your topic as per the literature you have reviewed.

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 1.12. Literature review in Research:

At the outset of a study the investigator should be acquainted with the relevant literature. It is of
minimal use to wait until a report is written.

1.12.1. Use of literature review:

i. It prevents you from duplicating work that has been done before.
ii. It increases your knowledge on the problem you want to study and this may assist you
iii. in refining your "statement of the problem".
iv. It gives you confidence why your particular research project is needed.
v. To be familiar with different research methods.

1.12.2. Sources of information:

i. Card catalogues of books in libraries.

ii. Organizations (institutions).
iii. Published information (books, journals, etc.).
iv. Unpublished documents (studies in related fields, reports, etc.).
v. Computer based literature searches such as Medline.
vi. Opinions, beliefs of key persons.

Some examples of resources where information could be obtained are:

i. Clinic and hospital-based data from routine activity statistics

ii. Local surveys, annual reports
iii. Scientific conferences
iv. Statistics issued at region and district levels
v. Articles from national and international journals (e.g., The Ethiopian Journal of Health
Development, The East African Medical journal, The Lancet, etc.)
vi. Internet.
vii. Documentation, reports, and raw data from the Ministry of Health, Central Statistical
viii. Offices, Nongovernmental organizations, etc.

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References that are identified:

i. Should first be skimmed or read.

ii. Then summaries of the important information in each of the references may be recorded
on separate index cards.
iii. These should then be classified so that the information can easily be retrieved.

1.12.3. Organization of information on index cards:

The index cards should contain:

a. Key words.
b. A summary of the contents of books or articles which is relevant to one's own study.
c. A brief analysis of the content, with comments such as: - how information from
that particular study could be used in one's own study.
d. Information obtained from key persons could also be summarized on the index card.

After collecting the required information on index cards, the investigator should decide in

which order he/she wants to discuss previous research findings:

- from global to local.

- from broader to focused.

- from past to current.

In conclusion, while reviewing a literature, all what is known about the study topic should be

summarized with the relevant references. This review should answer;

i. How much is known?

ii. What is not known?
iii. What should be done based on what is lacking?

Overall, the literature review should be adequate, relevant and critical. In addition to this,
appropriate referencing procedures should always be followed in research proposals as well

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as in research reports. While reviewing a literature give emphasis to both positive and

negative findings and avoid any distortion of information to suit your own study objectives.

Finally, after an exhaustive literature review, summarize the findings and write a coherent

discussion by indicating the research gap which supports the undertaking of your study.

1.13. Study Area:

Refers to a setting or place where the proposed study is expected to take place. A clear outline of
the physical location should be given, including geography of the place.

1.14. Sampling in Research:

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 1.15. Frame work in Research:

A research framework clearly illustrates the structure of the research plan and helps the researcher
formulate relevant research questions. This framework consists of the key concepts of the research
project and of the assumed relationships between these concepts. There are two kinds of
framework used when writing the background of a study:

i. Theoretical framework:
The theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a research
study. The theoretical framework introduces and describes the theory that explains why
the research problem under study exists.
ii. Conceptual framework.
A conceptual framework is a written or visual representation of an expected
relationship between variables. Variables are simply the characteristics or properties
that you want to study. The conceptual framework is generally developed based on a
literature review of existing studies and theories about the topic.

Data collection in Research:

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in
an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test
hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. This can be done through:

i. Interviews.
ii. Questionnaires and surveys.
iii. Observations.
iv. Documents and records.
v. Focus groups.
vi. Oral histories.

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1.16. Data collection tools in Research:

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1.17. Data analysis in Research:

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 1.18. Interpretation of Research Results:

The results section needs to be brief but thorough. Begin with a sentence or two about the study
and discuss only those findings that relate to the hypotheses/research questions based on the data
and the purpose of the study. First the subject’s characteristics (such as sex and age distribution,
initial and final numbers in each group, and dropouts) and outcomes for each group (treatment vs
control groups) are discussed. When multiple groups of subjects are provided with several
interventions, outcomes are presented from general to specific. Then related findings are combined
into topics and discussed to offer a clear-cut description of the outcomes.

i. Briefly describe an experiment without detail of Methods section (a sentence or two).

ii. Report main result(s), supported by selected data (e.g., representative/most common, best
case/example of ideal or exception.
iii. Order multiple results logically (e.g., from most to least important or from simple to
complex).
iv. Use the past tense to describe what happened.

1.19. Summary in Research:

This is also known as abstract of a study. Abstracts summarize the study in a word count that
typically ranges between 200 and 300 words. The abstract persuades readers to read the complete
study. Usually, researchers depend on the abstract to identify studies that are related to their
research. Therefore, the abstract provides a brief and comprehensive summary that matches the
text of the manuscript. Since abstracts summarize the whole study in one paragraph, it is important
that the abstract is well-written, which means that the abstract needs to briefly describe all of the
sections in the study.

Use these questions to evaluate the standard of your summary (abstract). Does your abstract:

a) Build motivation to read on?

b) State the importance of the study, the problems in this area, and the contributions to the
field?
c) Identify the problem and its scope in your study?
d) Clarify the approach you used in your study?

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 e) Include the critical variables and the procedures used in the study?
f) Share the key findings in the study?
g) Provide answers to the research questions with data in the study?
h) Mention conclusions and implications?
i) Describe the nature of the contribution made?

An abstract is self-sufficient and independent of the report. It should assist researchers to

immediately determine its relevance to their research. Hence, abstracts offer a concise but
complete summary about the study in a well-organized, well-written, and clear style. They
summarize the study by communicating its purpose, methodology, major results, and conclusions.

Key words that define or identify topics in the study are included in the manuscript’s title page;
journals articles typically include them below the abstract. Readers use these key words to
determine if the study is related to their research. Remember that the keywords are used for
indexing purposes also, so use terminology that would be used by others when conducting an
online search of the literature to make your work more accessible and increase your “academic

digital footprint.”

1.20. Discussion of Research Results:

Researchers use the discussion section to interpret the meaning of the outcomes. The discussion
guides readers to understand the study and its significance to the field Researchers critically
analyse, compare, and discuss their results based on the stated problem, research
questions/hypotheses, and methods. The discussion section also is a place where writers revisit the
literature review. They compare the outcomes of their study with those from previous published
studies to justify their study’s outcomes, limitations, and conflicts with other studies. Before
drawing conclusions, writers need to discuss and evaluate their study’s agreement with,
contradictions of, and/or relevance to extant knowledge in the field. Writers of quantitative
research can improve the discussion section of their report by using the following questions as a
guide.

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Did the author/researcher:

a. State the study’s major findings?

b. Explain the meaning and importance of the findings?
c. Relate the findings to those of similar studies?
d. Consider alternative explanations of the findings?
e. State the relevance of the findings?
f. Acknowledge the study’s limitations?
g. Make suggestions for further research? Conclusion in Research:

1.21. Recommendations:

Recommendations are used to call for action or solutions to the problems you have investigated in
your research paper. Your recommendations highlight specific solutions and measures to be
implemented based on the findings of your research. You can emphatically state what are the next
steps that need to be taken to address a problem, what are the immediate actions that need to be
implemented to solve a particular question, what needs to be corrected & what needs to be avoided
to solve a problem, etc.

1.22. Ethical issues in Research:

Ethics are the moral principles that govern a person’s behaviour. Research ethics may be referred
to as doing what is morally and legally right in research. They are actually norms for conduct that
distinguish between right and wrong, and acceptable and unacceptable behaviour. Go to the
PowerPoint slides on, “Ethical issues in Research”.

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 1.23. Report writing:

Use this guide to know if your report is well written:

Overall Evaluation of a Quantitative Study.

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***The End of Course Lectures***

Thank you for Being Wonderful Students

throughout this Course!

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RESEARCH
ETHICS:
 What is ethics? What is Research?

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© P Msweli 2020
 Generalisability of findings: the
extent to which the sample used in the
research project reflects the broader
population of interest

Univesality and
Scientific Rigour
objectivity (explicit
(truth is accepted if there
Key rules and systematic
is sufficient evidence to
procedures)
support claims made Features of - Research should be
through the research
process. Such claims
Scientific designed in a manner
Research that allows any
have to withstand the
competent researcher
scrutiny of repeated
to conduct a similar
testing)
study and generate the
same findings

Originality of research work: original

ideas backed with appropriate evidence in a
clear, logical and convincing argument that
illustrates critical and analytical thinking.

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© P Msweli 2020
Research Ethics
therefore are:

1. A code of guidelines on how to conduct

scientific research in a morally acceptable way.

2. Principles and standards that help researchers

to uphold the value and standards of knowledge
construction.

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© P Msweli 2020
 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN THE
RESEARCH PROCESS

1. Conceptualisation and design of the study

(scientific merit, identify risks and ways to
mitigate the risks)
Ethical
considerations 2. When participants are recruited (the process
of informed consent, right to privacy)
come into play at
six stages of 3. During the intervention or measurement
procedure to which participants are subjected
research (management of risk)
4. In the release of results obtained
5. (protection of confidentiality and
anonimity)
6. After the release of results (ensure that
participants and communities involved in
the research benefit)

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© P Msweli 2020
ANOTHER WAY OF LOOKING AT RESEARCH
ETHICS IS BY LOOKING AT UNETHICAL
RESEARCH CONDUCT
❖ Deception (issues of full disclosure)
•
Withholding information about the aim of the study
•
Misleading participants about the risks inherent in participating in
the study
❖ Plagiarism
❖ Conducting research that does not have a scientific base (ill-
formed problem statement)
❖ Lack of objectivity and integrity in the design and conduct of
research
•
Not identifying the methodological constraints of the study that
determine the validity of the findings
• Misinterpretation of results
• Not providing details of theories and methods that might be relevant
in the interpretation of research findings
❖ Fabrication or falsification of data
❖ Not following the appropriate ascription of authorship to a
publication

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© P Msweli 2020
ANOTHER WAY OF LOOKING AT RESEARCH
ETHICS IS BY LOOKING AT UNETHICAL
RESEARCH CONDUCT
❖ Not respecting the right to privacy
❖ Not respecting the right to anonymity and confidentiality
❖ Not respecting rights of vulnerable groups
• Children
• Mentally handicapped individuals
• The aged
• Prisoners
• Illiterate
• Those with low social status

❖ Not having due consideration for the environment

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© P Msweli 2020
FUNDAMENTALLY RESEARCH ETHICS ARE:
❖ a way of conducting the research enterprise
such that the three fundamental principles of
research (respect, beneficence and justice) are
upheld.
❖ Ethical research must conform with the national
and international accords and prescripts.

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© P Msweli 2020
Justice: researchers should Respect
not place one group of people at
Respect for research participants
risk solely for the benefit
(informed consent)
another.
Respect for sponsors of research
Risks and benefits
should be distributed in Respect for communities where
an equitable manner participants come from
when recruiting
participancts Respect for knowledge and
academic community
PRINCIPLES OF
RESEARCH
ETHICS
Benefits must be weighed against potential
risk that a person might have by participating

Research should only be justified if its

Beneficence: the researcher is conduct and result will be of benefit to
responsible for the mental, physical the participants
and social wellbeing of the
participant throughout the How the community will benefit should
be clear from the research protocol

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participation
© P Msweli 2014 in the study.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLINICAL AND SOCIAL
SCIENCE RESEARCH
Clinical Research Social Science Research
Definition A research study intended to test A systematic recording and
safety, quality, effectiveness of analysis of data that
new and/or existing or old may lead to generaliseable,
medicines, medical devices principles and
and/or treatment options, using theories resulting in prediction and
human participants (SA – GCP possibly management of
Guidelines, 2006) behaviour and events in society.
Research Invasive and non-invasive Review of literature, review of data,
activities procedures that may include interviews, focus groups,
surgical untervention, removal of observatations, administration of
body tissues/ fluids, survey instruments, or tests etc.
administration of chemical
substances, observation,
administration of questions etc.
Phases Four phases More or less eight phases
or steps (depending on research questions
followed and design of the study)

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© P Msweli 2020
 PHASES OF RESEARCH: CLINICAL VS SOCIAL
CLINICAL TRIALS SOCIAL RESEARCH
PHASE I: A new drug, vaccine or PHASE 1: Problem identification
medical device is tested in a small group PHASE2: Problem definition
of healthy persons for the very first time.
The aim is to determine the general
safety, the correct dosage and negative PHASE 3: Development of a theoretical
effects. framework

PHASE II: Clinical trials the new drug,

vaccine or medical device in a larger PHASE 4: Hypothesis formulation or
group (several hundred people) literature review

PHASE III : testing to several thousand

people PHASE 5: Research Design

PHASE IV: clinical trials done to several

thousand people after the new drug, PHASE 6: Data collection
vaccine or medical drug has been
registered and licensed for sale by the PHASE 7: Data analysis
Medical Control Council
PHASE 8: Report writing and

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© P Msweli 2020
dissemination of findings
INFORMED CONSENT
❖ A consent given by well informed potential participants
about the nature of the research procedure, scientific
purpose,and about the risks and benefits of the study.
❖ Informed consent is given without subjecting the
potential participant to coercion, intimidation or undue
influence
❖ Participant’s understanding of the research aim and
objectives must be addressed by laying out the details
out in the language the participant understands, in a
culturally acceptable way.

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© P Msweli 2020
STAGES AND PROCESS OF INFORMED
CONSENT
Stages of informed Informed Consent Activities
consent
Before the commencement ❖ Assessment of the local culture
of the study ❖ Identification of risks and benefits before and
after the study
❖ Pilot testing
At the beginning of the ❖ Information is presented with the aid of support
study material to enhance understand of the research
aims and objectives
❖ Risks and benefits of the study are presented
❖ Understanding is assessed
During the study ❖ Reinforce key ethical principles
❖ Address issues of concern

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© P Msweli 2020
KEY ELEMENTS OF INFORMED CONSENT
❖ Description of research aims and objectives
❖ Description of potential risks
❖ Description of expected benefits
❖ Explanation of confidentiality and anonymity of participants
❖ Explanation of participants rights including the fact that
participation is voluntary
❖ Explanation of issues relating to remuneration/compensation for
injuries

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© P Msweli 2020
 WHAT MEMBERS OF THE RESEARCH ETHICS
COMMITTEE LOOK FOR IN YOUR ETHICS
PROPOSAL
WHAT THEY HOW THEY CHECK IT
CHECK
1. Respect and • Appropriate information to participants in a form and
Dignity of language they understand
participants • They check that there is a fair and humane way by which
consent will be obtained
• They check the type and nature of questions that
participants will be required to respond to
• Check if the questions are culturally correct and sensitive to
the value systems of the participants
• Check that the rights of vulnerable persons are protected
and South African regulations with respect to vulnerable
participants are complied with
2. Privacy and • Check for a declaration that guarantees protection of the
confidentiality participant’s privacy and confidentiality
3. Favourable • Check if proposal has outlined potential harm
balance of (psychologically, legally or economically), and measures
benefits and that will be taken to ameliorate potential risks.

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©risks
P Msweli 2020 • Check whether the direct benefit of the research has been
 WHAT MEMBERS OF THE RESEARCH ETHICS
COMMITTEE LOOK FOR IN YOUR ETHICS
PROPOSAL
WHAT THEY HOW THEY CHECK IT
CHECK
Fair subject and ❖ Research must not exclude a class of people who are likely
community selection to benefit from research participation or in whom the
results of a specific kind of research are likely to be
applied.
❖ The sampling plan of the research project must be checked
for fair subject selection.
Professional ❖ A Principal investigator according to the GCP (SA) carries
competence and the primary responsibility for securing participants’ safety
sufficient capacity and well being during the study.
Coercison, undue ❖ A researcher must disclose the source and extent of
pressure and conflict funding to research participants.
of interest ❖ Commercial affiliations or financial interests at the time of
proposing and reporting the research must be disclosed.

Research involving ❖ The researcher should demonstrate an awareness of

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minors and applicable national and international laws, regulations and
© P Msweli 2014
vulnerable persons codes (eg Act No 38 of 2005 The South African Children’s
HOW TO SUBMIT A PROPOSAL FOR
ETHICAL CLEARANCE
The proposal submitted for ethical approval should
demonstrate that each of the following ethical aspects arenot
only addressed, but are discussed in a logical and cogent
fashion:
1. Respect and dignity of participants
2. Privacy and confidentiality
3. Balance of benefits and risks
4. Sampling plan – fair participant selection
5. Competence and capacity of researcher
6. Protocols and procedures followed in dealing with minors,
vulnerable persons (if applicable)

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© P Msweli 2020
 LECTURE 1:
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODS.
Wamukoya L. Noah.
0722260328.
KENYA MEDICAL TRAINING COLLEGE
Training for Better Health ISO 9001:2015 Certified by
 LECTURE ONE (1) TOPICS:
i. Definition of Research.
ii. Criteria for classification of research.
iii. Types of research.

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 i. Definition of Research;

What is Research?
Research refers to systematic investigation into

and study of materials and sources in order to

establish facts and reach newer conclusions.

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 ii. Criteria for classification of research;
Which type of research?
Primary practical research: Secondary Research:

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 Primary practical research
Secondary research
• The research you do yourself • Reviews
in a hospital or in the field • Critiques of published papers

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Classification of Primary Research
Primary research may be classified
into 3 broad categories based on:

1.Methods used
2.Purpose of the research
3.Type of data sought

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 Classification by Methods
Basically 3 types of research fall
under this category:
I. Descriptive research (statistical
research)
II. Correlation research
III.Causal-comparative research

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 Descriptive research (also called statistical
research)
• may be defined as ‘a scientific method of investigation
that involves data collection and analysis in order to
determine the current attributes, conditions, trends
OR characteristics of a given problem’.
• It determines and reports the way things are; it
attempts to describe things such as characteristics,
behaviour, attributes, values, etc.
• Although Descriptive research provides data about the
population or universe being studied it can only
describe the "who, what, when, where and how" of a
population, situation or occurrence or phenomenon, not
what caused it.

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 Descriptive research cont….

• descriptive research is used when the objective is to

provide a systematic description that is as factual and
accurate as possible.
• It provides the number of times something occurs
(frequency), lends itself to statistical calculations such as
determining the average number of occurrences or central
tendencies (descriptive statistics).
• Limitation: Cannot establish a causal relationship
between variables.
The two most commonly used methods or research designs
in descriptive research are:
1) Observation
2) Surveys

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 Observation method
• A primary method of collecting
data by human, mechanical,
electrical or electronic
means.

• The researcher may or may

not have direct contact or
communication with the
subjects whose characteristics
or attributes or behavior are
being recorded

• About six different categories of

observation methods are
recognized

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 Categories of observation methods
Participant and non-participant observation depending on
whether the researcher chooses to be part of the situation
s/he is studying (e.g. studying social interaction of tour
groups by being a tour participant would be participant
observation)
Obtrusive and unobtrusive observation, depending on
whether the subjects being studied can detect the
observation (e.g. hidden microphones or cameras observing
behavior and doing garbage audits to determine
consumption are examples of unobtrusive observation)
Observation in natural or contrived settings, whereby the
behavior is observed (usually unobtrusively) when and
where it is occurring, while in the contrived setting the
situation is recreated to speed up the behavior (e.g. studying
flight response of mosquitoes to odor baits in a wind tunnel)

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 Categories of observation methods …………

Disguised and non-disguised observation: depending on whether the

subjects being observed are aware that they are being studied or not. In
disguised observation, the researcher may pretend to be someone else,
e.g. "just" another tourist participating in the tour group, as opposed to the
other tour group members being aware that s/he is a researcher.

Structured and unstructured observation: uses guidelines, or a checklist

for attributes to be recorded (e.g. using a check list to determine the
presence or absence of species)

Direct and indirect observation, depending on whether the attribute, e.g.,

behaviour, is being observed as it occurs or after the fact, (use of video
recording - cctv

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 Observation continued……

Merit/advantage of observation method

• Records actual characteristics, attributes, behavior etc,
(not what people say they saw, said, did or believe
they will say/do.
• Reliable especially when dealing with behavior that
might be subject to certain social pressure (e.g., people
deem themselves to be tolerant when their actual
behavior may be much less so) or conditioned
responses (e.g., people say they value nutrition, but
will pick foods they know to be fatty or sweet),
• observation technique can provide greater insights
than an actual survey method

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 Observation continued……
Demerit/disadvantage
• does not provide any insights into what the person
may be thinking or what might motivate a given
behavior/comment. This type of information can only
be obtained by asking people directly or indirectly.

CAUTION! When people are being observed, whether

they are aware of it or not, ethical issues arise that
must be considered by the researcher.
(e.g. use of cameras and microphones to gather
information about verbal and non-verbal behavior of
humans may be an invasion or abuse of their privacy).

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 Survey Method
• Most surveys set out to find “what is there” (in
biosciences = usually conducted as a preliminary
study method to know how the situation is)
• These may be surveys of individuals, species,
populations etc, or surveys of people’s opinions,
behavior, etc
• involves collection of primary data about subjects
(individuals, species, populations etc), usually by
selecting a representative sample of the population or
universe under study

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 Survey……
• very popular in social sciences (or where interest is
people’s opinions) since many different types of
information can be collected in a short time & with
minimal effort
• allows for standardization and uniformity both in the
questions asked and in the method of approaching
subjects, making it easier to compare and contrast
answers by respondent group.
• also ensures higher reliability

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 • General features
• Large-scale probability sampling
• Systematic Procedures: Interviews and questionnaires
• Answers are numerically coded and analyzed with the
aid of statistical software
• Used extensively for both descriptive and explanatory
purposes

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 Research questions appropriate for a survey

• Ask many things, measure many variables and test

several hypotheses in a single survey
• Behavior
• Attitudes/beliefs/opinions
• Expectations
• Self-classification
• Knowledge

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 Steps in conduction of a survey

• Step 1 Questionnaire design • Step 4 Data collection

• Develop hypotheses • Locate respondents
• Decide on type of survey (mail, • Conduct interviews (distribute
interview, telephone) questionnaire)
• Write survey questions • Carefully record data
• Decide on response categories • Step 5 Data analysis
• Design layout • Enter data into computers
• Step 2 Pilot test • Recheck all data
• Plan how to record data • Perform statistical analysis on data
• Pilot test survey instrument • Step 6 Writing up
• Step 3 Sampling • Describe methods and findings in
• Decide on target population research report
• Get sampling frame • Present findings to others for
critique and evaluation
• Decide on sample size
• Select sample

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 Merits of Surveys ….
• can be an efficient and accurate means of
determining information about a given population
(if properly designed and implemented)
• Results can be provided relatively quickly
• are relatively inexpensive, depending on the
sample size and method chosen
• different types of information can be collected in a
short time & with minimal effort

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 Survey methods …..
Disadvantages
1. Response error or bias.
Where, the respondent knows that s/he is being
studied, the information s/he provides may not be
valid or correct

Reason = Respondent may wish to impress or

please the researcher (e.g. by attributing
him/herself a higher income or education level or
by providing the kind of response s/he believes the
researcher is looking for)

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 Disadvantages ….
2. Non-response error or bias (refusal to respond)
The respondent may be unwilling or unable to reply can also
pose a problem.
Reason:
information may be considered sensitive or intrusive (e.g.
information about income or sexual orientation)
Or question is so specific that the respondent is unable to
answer, even though willing
(e.g. "How many times during the past month have you
thought about your raising income?")

Careful wording of the questions can help overcome some of

this error

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 Disadvantages …..

3. Interviewer error or bias

• interviewer can (inadvertently) influence the
response elicited through comments made or by
stressing certain words in the question itself.
• interviewer can also introduce bias through facial
expressions, body language or even the clothing
that is worn

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 Response rate
An important consideration in surveys
Influenced by:
• survey method chosen,
• length of the questionnaire
• type of motivation of the respondent,
• type of questions and/or subject matter
• time of day or place,
• whether respondents were informed to expect the
survey or offered an incentive
Proper questionnaire design and question wording can
help increase response rate.

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 Types of Surveys
• Data is usually collected using questionnaires
• Surveys can be qualitative (e.g. ask open-ended questions)
or quantitative (e.g. use forced-choice questions)
• two basic types of surveys:
1) cross-sectional
surveys
2) longitudinal surveys
• (referenceTHE SURVEY METHOD
• (Source: http://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~palmquis/courses/survey.html

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 Data collection instruments

• Self-administrated Questionnaires
• Hand delivered
• Mail survey
• Web survey
• Interviews
Face-to-face and Telephone
• Structured interview
• The researcher asks a standard set of questions and nothing
more
• Semi-structured interview
• The researcher may follow the standard questions with one or
more individually tailored questions to get clarification or
probe a person’s reasoning

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 Features of descriptive research
• It studies large populations by means of sampling
(characteristics of the population inferred from a sample of
the population)
• It examines population characteristics or variables in their
current status or condition (no manipulation)
• Normally conducted in the natural conditions of the
subjects
• Results may not be very accurate –accuracy depends on
reliability of data collection instruments and data analysis
techniques
• It is not possible to achieve control of factors/variables

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 Causal-comparative Research
• Undertaken when objective is to find out if is a
cause and effect relationship exists between
variables.
• In order to determine causality, the variable that
is assumed to cause change in the other
variable(s) is held constant and then the changes
in the other variable(s) are measured.
• This type of research is complex and the
researcher can never be completely sure that there
are no other factors influencing the causal
relationship.

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 Causal-comparative research……..

• two main research methods for exploring cause-

effect relationship between variables:
• Experimentation
• Simulation

• Experimentation: a highly controlled method that allows

the researcher to manipulate a specific independent
variable in order to determine what effect this manipulation
would have on another or other dependent variable(s).

• Simulation: a method that uses a mathematical model to

recreat a situation, often repeatedly, so that the likelihood of
various outcomes can be more accurately estimated

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 Experimentation
• Experimentation normally requires a researcher to
have a control group as well as an experimental
group, and that subjects/treatments be assigned
randomly to either group.
• Experiment could take place in a hospital or field, (i.e.
"natural" setting as opposed to an "artificial" one)
• Laboratory experiments allow a researcher to control
and/or eliminate many intervening variables
• is a conclusive research, that is primary research in
nature.
• Experimentation is a quantitative technique, but
depending on how the experiment is set up, it may
relate more to observation than direct measurement.
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 Simulation
• A set of mathematical formulae are used to simulate or
imitate a real life situation.
• By changing one variable in the equation, it is possible
to determine the effect on the other variables in the
equation.
• In the hospitality and tourism industries, computer
simulation and model building is used extremely
rarely. Its use tends to be limited to a few rare impact
and forecasting studies.
• The simulation design is conclusive research that is
secondary research in nature. Simulation is a
quantitative research technique.

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 Simulation
• is the imitation of some real thing, state of affairs, or process.
The act of simulating something generally entails representing
certain key characteristics of a selected physical or abstract
system.
• is also used for scientific modeling of natural systems or
human systems in order to gain insight into their functioning.
• can be used to show the eventual real effects of alternative
conditions and courses of action.
• Simulation is also used when the real system cannot be
engaged, because it may not be accessible, or it may be
dangerous or unacceptable to engage, or it is being
designed but not yet built, or it may simply not exist

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 CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
Correlational Research examines the relationship
between variables. The strength and direction of that
relationship is described by the coefficient of
correlation (ranging from +1.0 to -1.0).

• Experimental research involves the manipulation of

one or more independent variables to see if the
dependent variable is influenced. Correlational
research studies the relationship between variables.

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APPLICATIONS OF CORRELATION

• Prediction
If a strong correlation exists between two variables, performance on one variable may be used to
predict performance on the other.

• Assessing Consistency
For example, the correlation between music festival judges' ratings would be a good indication of
their consistency.

• Describing Relationships
Correlation provides useful information about the relationships among variables. For example,
what is the relationship between certain conductor behaviors and the attitudes of ensemble
members toward rehearsal?

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 PARTIAL AND MULTIPLE
CORRELATION
Partial Correlation is used to determine what
correlation remains between two variables when a third
variable is eliminated = bivariate correlation
(independent & dependent variable)

Multiple Correlation involves two or more variables

and finds the best possible weighting to yield a
maximum correlation with a single dependent variable.

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When are correlation methods used?

• They are used to determine the extent to which two or more variables
are related among a single group of people (although sometimes each
pair of score does not come from one person...the correlation between
father's and son's height would not).
There is no attempt to manipulate the variables (random variables)

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 What is a research design?

• It is a framework or blue print that provides a systematic means of data collection

and analysis with the purpose of testing or verifying the theoretical perspectives of a
given study, e.g. the theoretical or conceptual framework which leads to hyporesearch
testing or research questions.
General steps involved in Descriptive Research:
➢ Determination of a target population
➢ Selection of a suitable sample (representative of the population)
➢ Design of data collection instruments (preparation & design of data collection
paraphernalia).
➢ Data collection (field- or lab-based work)
➢ Data analysis
➢ Conclusions.

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 Classification of research by
purpose criterion
Three main types of research recognized:
• Basic (pure/fundamental) research
• Applied research
• Action (or strategic) research

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 Basic research
• Carried out to increase understanding of fundamental principles
• End results have no direct or immediate commercial benefits
• Can be thought of as arising out of curiosity
• In the long term it is the basis for many commercial products and
applied research
• Mainly carried out by universities
• advances fundamental knowledge about the human world
• is the source of most new scientific ideas and ways of thinking about
the world
• can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory; explanatory research is
the most common.
• generates new ideas, principles and theories, which may not be
immediately utilized; though are the foundations of modern progress
and development in different fields.

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 Basic research
• Research that is directed towards finding or generating
information that has a broad base of application, and thus
adds to the already existing body of scientific knowledge
• Refers to studies conducted for the purpose of generating new
knowledge in order to develop new theories and expand or
refine existing ones.
• focuses on basic or fundamental structures or issues with the
aim of understanding them
• It main purpose is to seek and expand knowledge in specific
fields.
• It is normally motivated by intellectual curiosity and the need
to come up with a particular solution.
• Researchers at the center of the scientific community conduct
most of the basic research.

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 Basic Research ….

• It is usually (but not always) conducted under

controlled laboratory or field situations, often using
animals, plants or micro-organisms as subjects.
• It usually has no consideration of the practical
application of the findings to actual problems or
situations.
• Mainly concerned with generalisations, to ensure that
results apply in other conditions, populations and
geographic locations outside the initial research
centre/site
• Usually long-term studies. Involves elaborate
mobilisation of funds and resources to enable the
researcher achieve reliable findings.

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 Basic scientific research seek answers to questions such as:
• How did the universe begin?
• What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of?
• How do trypanosomes reproduce?
• What is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly?
Since basic research studies focus on fundamental
processes or structures with the aim of understanding
them, it is mainly concerned with generalisations, to
ensure that the results apply in other conditions,
populations or geographical locations outside the initial
research centre or site. Such studies are usually long-
term and they involve elaborate mobilisation of funds and
resources to enable the researcher achieve reliable
findings.

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 History of Basic Research
Historical examples in which basic research has played a vital role in the
advancement of scientific knowledge. Examples:

• Genetics and heredity: largely due to Gregor Mendel studies on pea

plants in the 1860's. and the experiments with fruit flies by T.H.
Morgan in the early 20th century.
• Structure of DNA: Using data gathered from the previous basic
research of other scientists, James Watson and Francis Crick
discovered the structural design of the DNA molecule in 1953.
Determining DNA's structure was vital to our understanding of how
DNA worked.
• Many of today's electrical devices (e.g., radios, generators and
alternators) can trace their roots to the basic research conducted by
Michael Faraday in 1831. He discovered the principle of
electromagnetic induction, that is, the relationship between electricity
and magnetism.

Each of these scientists was trying to learn about the basic nature of the
phenomena that they were studying. Only today can we see the vast
implications of their research

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 Applied Research
• Refers to studies conducted for the purpose of finding solution(s) to a practical
problems of the modern world
• May also provide data to support theory, guide theory revision or suggest
development of new theory.
• applies or tests theoretical knowledge generated by basic research and evaluates its
usefulness in solving practical problems.
• provides knowledge that is directly useful to practitioners
• Examples of applied abounds - Applied researchers may investigate ways to:
• improve agricultural crop production
• treat or cure a specific disease
• improve methods of controlling diseases
• improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of transportation

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 Applied Research continued
Research and Development (R&D), is an example of applied research. It aims at
developing new products, designs, methods, procedures, etc. It is based on
innovation and creativity.
Steps in R&D studies:
• Problem identification
• Idea generation/creativity
• Application of previous research findings (basic/pure research)
• Design and development of the new product
• Field-testing or validation stage (involves data collection and analyses)
• Refinement and revision – based on the results from the field-testing, compared
with expected or existing or known standards, objectives or quality specifications
• Production and marketing (implementation of the results)

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 History of applied research

• There have been many historical examples in

which applied research has had a major impact on
our daily lives.
• In many cases, the application was derived long
before scientists had a good, basic understanding
of the underlying science. (One might envision a
scientist sitting at his lab bench, scratching his
head and saying to himself, "I know it works; I just
don't really know how it works!").

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 Applied Research cont…

Historical examples:
• Development of vaccination against various diseases
• The first use of a vaccine occurred in the late 1790's.
Edward Jenner developed a technique for vaccinating
people against smallpox, a disease that once killed
millions of people.
• In 1885, Louis Pasteur successfully inoculated a
patient with a rabies vaccine. More recently, Jonas
Salk developed a vaccine for polio in 1953; an oral
form of the vaccine was produced by Albert Sabin in
1961. (who developed the recent pneumonia vaccine?)

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 Strategic (or Action) Research
• This is research that is conducted with the primary
intention of solving a specific, immediate and
concrete problem in a local set-up.
• E.g., an epidemiologist investigating ways of
controlling a cholera outbreak in a given geographic
area.
• Not concerned with whether the results are
generalised or applicable to any other set-up.
• Quite useful as it provides answers to
problems that require immediate practical
solutions
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 CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH BY TYPE OF DATA

Two broad types are recognizable:

• Quantitative research and Qualitative research

Quantitative Research: scientific method of study

or investigation that is based on the use of
numerical or quantifiable data, i.e., it is based on
measurement of quantity or amount and it is
applicable only to phenomena that can be
expressed in terms of quantity.
Qualitative Research is based on textual data (non-
numeric). i.e. based on non-numeric
characteristics, e.g. male, female, Yes, No, etc
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 Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is based on the following
paradigms:
• any problem (phenomenon) represents a tangible
reality,
• The problem can be broken down into smaller
components which can be studied through
observable behaviour
• Each component can be studied independently in
terms of variables that affect it
• The variables can be explained by determining their
cause-effect relationships (the explanations lead to
development of theories derived from hypotheses
and generalisation of results)

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Methods & Techniques in Quantitative Research
The following research designs/methods or techniques are commonly used in quantitative research:
1. Descriptive methods – these are mainly based on survey designs and aim to generate or
improve our understanding of events in their current conditions and thus help us describe
events as they occur in nature
2. Correlational methods- these are usually based on the use of experimental designs and
involves manipulation of variables and use of controls. Such methods help to establish cause-
effect relationships
3. Experimental methods- these are based the use of experimental designs and involves
manipulation of variables and the use of controls

Data Collection Instruments: Tests (surveys or experiments), Observations, Interviews,

Questionnaires

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 Qualitative Research
This is a method of investigation that is based on the use of non-numerical (textual) data.
• Qualitative paradigms
1. A problem represents a reality that involves complex interactions of factors or
variables that cannot be isolated from each other, (thus the problem can only be
studied or investigated in a holistic form –seek a total and complete picture of the
problem.
2. The problem can be studied by generating in-depth and comprehensive data from a
few cases of a population (it helps to generate views or variables that reflect
peoples perceptions about that problem
3. The problem can be understood by inter-relating the views from people investigated
because their views represent the reality about the problem
4. The views can be inter-related to generate conclusions which can be used to
develop new hypotheses and even theories.

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 Qualitative research cont…
Methods and Techniques
• Case Study method – focuses on units, groups or a few
cases of population units. It involves use of in-depth
data collection techniques and, results are specific to the
cases under investigation
• Historical methods – focuses on past events to
understand current issues of problems. It also uses in-
depth data collection techniques.
• Participatory methods – involves active participation
of both the researcher and the respondent in order to
enhance designs, data collection and analysis. It is
commonly used in programme management, social
groups, also in feasibility studies and, project
monitoring and evaluation studies.

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 Data collection techniques in
qualitative research
• Focus Group Discussion: uses specially selected group of
respondents (with homologous characteristics). Involves open-ended
discussions among the respondents and yields in-depth data. Number
of respondents usually 8-12 people.
• Key Informant Interviews. A key informant is an individual that
posses some unique characteristics, knowledge or holds position/rank
(not easily available in a given population). The process involves an
interview method that generates comprehensive and detailed data.
Example: trade union leaders, supervisors, senior managers, wardens,
chiefs, Village elder, CBO leaders, etc.
• Participant Observation, where the researcher participates in the
activities conducted by the respondents (in order to gain an
understanding of what they experience and feel.

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******END OF LECTURE ONE (1)******

Thank you!

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 LECTURE 2:
Student Research/Work Environment:
Wamukoya L. Noah.
0722260328.
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 SCOPE:
1. Qualities of good research.
2. Qualities of a good researcher.
3. Student research/work environment.

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 Qualities of a Good Research
❑ Good research is systematic:
- structured with specified steps to be followed in a
specific sequence in accordance to well defined rules.
It does not emasculate creative thinking but it
certainly rejects guessing and intuition in arriving at
conclusions.

❑ Good research is logical:

- guided by rules of logical reasoning

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Qualities of a Good Research
❑ Good research is empirical:
- basically related to one or more aspects of real
situation and deals with concrete data.
❑ Good research is replicable: reproducibility allows
verification and validation of the results by the
researcher himself and others

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Three basic principles that guide
scientific research:

Use of empirical evidence

These Practice of logical reasoning

components
also apply to
critical
thinking

Possession of skeptical
attitude

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 Qualities of a good Researcher
• Good communication skills:
• good oral
• writing skills
• Good intellectual skills:
• knowledgeable,
• Ability/prowess to reason logically,
• Ability to comprehend, analyse, synthesize, evaluate,
critique
• Good memory

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 Qualities of a good researcher cont..
• Good Information & Communication
Technology skills: use of relevant computer
software, etc (MSword, spreadsheets (excel), Data
bases (Access, etc), specialised statistical packages
( e.g. Statistica, SPSS, SAS), etc
• Good organisational skills
• Definite research motivation:
• e.g. to get a degree with its consequential benefits within
a stipulated time,
• desire to provide a solution to a particular problem,
• intellectual joy or satisfaction in doing some creative
work,
• desire to be of service to society

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 STUDENTS RESEARCH ENVIRONMENT:
• Ten Simple Rules for Students (adopted with modification from Gu J, Bourne PE (2007) Ten simple rules
for students. PLoS Comput Biol 3(11): e229. 10. 1371/journal.pcbi.0030229)

Rule 1: Be passionate about your work

• Passion: drives your success (love what you do!)
Doing your best in what you do requires that you are passionate
about what you’re doing.
• Let your heart, then your head dictate your course and research
project
• Choose a research project you are interested in (be honest with
yourself!)

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 Your head is
normally where
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Rule 2: Think independently
• Independent thinking is the desire of a person to convince oneself
that the information being presented is true or reasonable
• Develop the desire and ability to think on your own.
• It is a mark of a true scientist

The earlier you start thinking

independently the better

• Plays a critical role in

• mind development of in terms
of creativity and
innovativeness
• (Show ppt on Oranges as an illustration of independent thinking)
• See also 5 strategies to help you think independently by Tom O’Leary.

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 Rule 3:
Select the Right Mentor
• a mentor is “an experienced and trusted
advisor,” “trusted counselor, guide, tutor
or coach,” or a “person who imparts
wisdom.”
• as a student, you will choose a mentor
who is likely to be a advisor, research
advisor, and research advisor

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 Roles of a mentor (for a student)
• Advice in several areas, e.g. how to
perform research, keep scientific
records, observe ethics in research,
make oral and written presentations
of your work, etc.
• Help you begin the networking
process that is so important in a
scientific career,
• May introduce you to colleagues at
scientific meetings

A mentor will serve as an advisor, a confidant, and a critic.

Mentoring is a dynamic process and works best one on one.

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 Attributes of a Successful Mentor/Mentee
Relationship
Trust (trust is mutual!)
• You have to be assured that the mentor has
your best interests at heart, and that what you
tell the mentor will be kept confidential.
• The relationship is exclusive and will outlive
the time spent in formal training.
• Mentors are also often judged in light of the
success of their former trainees, so your
success will be important to your mentor.

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 It is one of the few things in
life that you can never
recover fully after it is
lost….even if you lived a
thousand years!

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 • The mentor may become your personal friend, but this is
unlikely, especially if you are a student.
• To facilitate a strong mentor/mentee relationship, your mentor
must clearly communicate his/her expectations for you The
boundaries in the relationship must be clearly stated at the outset
and be consistent with each interaction.
• Because your mentor provides constructive criticism, the mentor
must clearly explain the reasoning behind decisions that affect
you, in order to allay any fears that could erode the mentoring
relationship.

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 You and Your Mentor:
• Should have respect for each other and exhibit professional courtesy
toward each other.
• Should adhere to the ethical rules accepted by the scientific
community.

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 Considerations in selecting a mentor – a simple guide

• Similar research interests.

• A strong publication record and have current research funding in order for you to learn
how to be a successful scientist in a very competitive scientific community.
• Standing in his/her scientific field (any recognition, etc.
• University rank and tenure status
• Proximity to retirement (caveat?)
• Current positions of former mentees, since one mark of a mentor’s success is perceived
to be the success of former students/trainees.
• Mentor’s personality: is the mentor approachable; how does the mentor manage the
laboratory; does the mentor have an “open door” policy with mentees or does the
mentor require preset appointments for discussions; does the mentor have a reputation
for recognizing the mentees’ accomplishments rather than taking credit for them by
him/herself; does the mentor promote mentees with other investigators, granting
agencies, scientific

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 Mentee Responsibility to the Mentor
• Act in a mature and ethical manner
• Be cognizant of the mentor’s time constraints and
professional demands
• Honesty - is critical to both parties
• Maintain open communication with your mentor,
• Be proactive in your training, seeking out the mentor
for advice instead of waiting for the mentor to come to
you

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 • Devote appropriate time and energy to achieving
academic excellence, (e.g.
• Be familiar with scientific literature in your field of research
– i.e., be knowledgeable
• Develop appropriate skills (e.g. technical skills to be able to
perform the experiments; statistical skills to be able analyse
data, etc)
• Develop oral and written communication skills, and finally,
• with time and experience, learn to design your studies
(research, experiments, sampling, statistical, etc)
• Recognize that the mentor has a responsibility to
monitor the integrity of your research, writing, and
presentations etc.

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 Rule 4: Select the right Research project &
Laboratory
• Assess the novelty / innovativeness of your project
& potential for high quality publications
• Assess whether project can completed within the
stipulated time and resources
• You and your mentor should be enthusiastic about
the project

To drive your career, you aspire to come out of your higher degree as a recognized
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individual having made a significant scientific contribution. It is critical to find a project
and mentor/supervisor Training
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Rule 4: Remember, Life is all about balance
• Although work is highly demanding, take time to
meet your needs! (physically, mentally & spiritually)
• Balance your work with other activities that you
enjoy to give yourself a break
• Your health comes first! – and you are responsible
for it!

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 The other six rules
• Rule 5: Think ahead and develop your professional
career early
• Rule 6: Remain focused on your course while avoiding
being held back
• Rule 7: Address problems earlier rather than later
• Rule 8: Share your scientific success with the world
• Rule 9: Build confidence
• Rule 10: Help select and subsequently engage your
research supervisor

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Other Issues in Students Research
environment
1. Building a network of contacts with those engaged in similar
research (through attending training sessions, workshops, seminars,
conferences, symposia).
2. SWOT - identify personal strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and
threats or challenges
3. Clarity of thougth/mind (uphold this all the time!)
4. Sensitivity to events and peoples feelings, flexibility,
5. Perseverance - develop a thick skin (show ppt on perseverance).

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******END OF LECTURE TWO (2)******

Thank you!

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