are 1.

17 Lesson: Logarithmic functions

g an
upported NOTE: The content in Unit 1, and in this speci5c lesson, is foundational for buildin
wser. remainder of this learning resource, Units 2 through 5. However, since it is basica
se see
not be directly assessed on your high-stakes exam.
ems
irements Lesson introduction
e
a list In 20102010, a major earthquake struck Haiti, destroying or damaging over 285, 00
earthquake devastated Honshu, Japan, destroying or damaging over 332, 000 332,
pported Even though both caused substantial damage, the earthquake in 20112011 was 10
wsers. do we know? The magnitudes of earthquakes are measured on a scale known as th
7.07.0 on the Richter Scale2 whereas the Japanese earthquake registered a 9.09.0.

The aftermath of an earthquake.

Credit: Daniel Pierce

The Richter Scale is a base-ten logarithmic scale. In other words, an earthquake of m

magnitude 4 4. It is 108−4 = 104 = 10,000 10 8 − 4 = 10 4 = 10,000 times as great! In
Richter Scale and the base-ten function upon which it depends.

Converting from logarithmic to exponential form

In order to analyze the magnitude of earthquakes or compare the magnitudes of tw

between logarithmic and exponential form. For example, suppose the amount of en
greater than the amount of energy released from another. We want to calculate the
this scenario is 10x = 500, 10 x = 500, where x x represents the difference in magn
x?

We have not yet learned a method for solving exponential equations. None of the alg
10x = 500. 10 x = 500. We know that 102 = 100 10 2 = 100 and 103 = 1000, 10
between 2 2 and 3 3, since y = 10x y = 10 x is increasing. We can examine a graph, s

The graph shows the approximate so

the equation.

Estimating from a graph, however, is imprecise. To Ond an algebraic solution, we mu

above passes the horizontal line test. The exponential function y = bx y = b x is one
inverse, x = by x = b y is also a function. As is the case with all inverse functions, we
Ond the inverse function. To represent y y as a function of x, x, we use a logarithmic
base b b logarithm of a number is the exponent by which we must raise b b to get t

We read a logarithmic expression as, "The logarithm with base b b of x x is equal to

also say, "b b raised to the power of y y is x, x, " because logs are exponents. For exa
is the exponent we must apply to 2 2 to get 32 32. Since 25 = 32, 2 5 = 32, we can w
2 2 of 3232 is 5 5."
We can express the relationship between logarithmic form and its corresponding ex

logb (x) = y ⇔ by = x, b > 0

 log b(x) = y ⇔ b y = x, b > 0, b ≠

Note that the base b b is always positive.

Converting from logarithmic form to

exponential form.

Because logarithm is a function, it is most correctly written as logb (x), log b(x), usin
would with f (x). f(x). However, when the input is a single variable or number, it is c
expression written without parentheses, as logb x. log bx. Note that many calculato

We can illustrate the notation of logarithms as follows:

Converting from logarithmic form to

exponential form.

Notice that, comparing the logarithm function and the exponential function, the inpu
y = logb (x) y = log b(x) and y = bx y = b x are inverse functions.
DeOnition of the logarithmic function

A logarithm base b b is a function whose input is the result o

output is the power.

In equation form, this means the logarithmic function y= lo

the exponential equation by = x b y = x where x > 0x > 0, b

we read logb (x) log b(x) as, "the logarithm with base b
x. " x. "
the logarithm y y is the exponent to which b b must be

Also, since the logarithmic and exponential functions switch

domain and range of the exponential function are interchang
Therefore,

the domain of the logarithm function with base b is (0

the range of the logarithm function with base b is (−∞

Question and answer

Can we take the logarithm of a negative number?

No. Because the base of an exponential function is always po

ever be negative. We can never take the logarithm of a negativ
the logarithm of zero. Calculators may output a log of a negat
mode, but the log of a negative number is not a real number.

PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY
1.17.1: DeOnition of the logarithm.
1) log2 8 = 3 log 28 = 3
Correct
True
By the deOnition of the lo
False equivalent to b y = x b y =
b = 2 b = 2, x = 8 x = 8
log 28 = 3 is equivalent to

2) log10 3 = 1000 log 103 = 1000

Correct
True
As written, log10 3= 10
False the equation 101000 = 3
correct exponential equa
which corresponds to th
log10 1000 = 3 log 1010

3) log10 0.01 log 100.01 is

Correct
undeOned.
The logarithm of a numb
True
0.01 = 10−2 0.01 = 10 −
False log 100.01 = − 2.

4) log0 1 log 01 is undeOned.

True
False

5) log10 (−10) log 10( − 10) is

Correct
undeOned.
The logarithm of a nega
True In other words, no powe
False number.

How to

Given an equation in logarithmic form logb (x) = y, log b(x) =

form.

1. Examine the equation y = logb x y = log bx and identify

2. Rewrite logb x = y log bx = y as by = x. b y = x.
Converting from logarithmic form to exponential fo
Write the following logarithmic equations in exponential form.

log6 (√6‾) = 12 log 6 (√6 ) =

1
1.
2.
( )
log3 (9) = 2 log 3(9) = 2
2

Solution

First, identify the values of b, y, andx. b, y, andx. Then, write

by = x. b y = x.

log6 (√6‾) = ( )
1 1
1. log 6 √ 6 =
( ) 2 2
1
Here, b = 6, y = 12 , and x = √6. ‾‾ b = 6, y = 2 , and x
log6 (√6‾) = ( )
1 1
log 6 √ 6 = is equivalent to
( ) 2 2

1
6 2 = √6‾.
1
62 = √6.
2. log3 (9) = 2 log 3(9) = 2
Here, b = 3, y = 2, and x = 9. b = 3, y = 2, and x =
log3 (9) = 2 log 3(9) = 2 is equivalent to 32 = 9. 3 2

PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY
1.17.2: Converting from logarithmic to exponent

Match each exponential equation to the correct logarithmic equ

 103 = 100010 3 = 1
By the deOnition of the lo
exponential equation b y
equivalent to the logarith
log10 1000 = 3 log 101000 = 3 logb x = ylog bx = y. For
10 3 = 1000, b = 10 b = 1
x = 1000 x = 1000, so th
logarithmic equation is l
log 101000 = 3.

22 = 4 2 2 = 4
log2 4 = 2 log 24 = 2 2 2 = 4 2 2 = 4 is equival
log 24 = 2.

40 = 1 4 0 = 1
log4 1 = 0 log 41 = 0 4 0 = 1 4 0 = 1 is equival
log 41 = 0. Any base raise
1, so the logarithm of 1 1

1 1 11
= =
52 25 5 2 25
Although the logarithm o

1 1 is undeOned, a logarithm
log5 = −2log 5 25 = −2
25 1
can be rewritten as 5
52
which is equivalent to lo
1
log 5 = − 2.
25

3
√27
‾‾
‾ = 3 √27 = 3
3

A logarithm can be fract

1 1 3
log27 3 = log 273 = √27 = 3 can be rewritten
3 3
27 1 / 3 = 3, which is equiv
1
log 273 = .
3
Converting from exponential to logarithmic form

To convert from exponents to logarithms, we follow the same steps in reverse. We i

Then we write x = logb (y) . x = log b(y).

Converting from exponential form to logarithmic fo

Write the following exponential equations in logarithmic form.

1. 23 = 8 2 3 = 8
2. 52 = 255 2 = 25
1
3. 10−4 = 10,000
1
10 − 4 =
10,000

Solution

First, identify the values of b, y, andx. b, y, andx. Then, write

x = logb (y) . x = log b(y).

1. 23 = 8 2 3 = 8
Here, b = 2, b = 2, x = 3, x = 3, and y = 8. y = 8. T
2 3 = 8 is equivalent to log2 (8) = 3. log 2(8) = 3.

2. 52 = 255 2 = 25
Here, b = 5, b = 5, x = 2, x = 2, and y = 25. y = 25
52 = 25 5 2 = 25 is equivalent to log5 (25) = 2. log 5(
1
3. 10−4 = 1
10,000 10 −4 =
10,000
1
Here, b = 10, b = 10, x = −4, x = − 4, and y = 10,0
1
equation 10−4 1
= 10,000 10 −4 =
10,000
is equivalent to
1
log 10( ) = − 4.
10,000

PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY
1.17.3: Converting from exponential to logarithm

Match each logarithmic equation to the correct exponential equ

 log10 100 = 2 log 10
By the deOnition of the lo
logarithmic equation log
102 = 100 10 2 = 100 equivalent to the expone
b y = x. For log10 100 =
b = 10 b = 10, x = 100
y = 2, so the equivalent e
102 = 100 10 2 = 100.

log4 16 = 2 log 416 =

42 = 164 2 = 16 log4 16 = 2 log 416 = 2
4 2 = 164 2 = 16. In both
4 4.

log2 16 = 4 log 216 =

log2 16 = 4 log 216 = 4
2 4 = 162 4 = 16. Althou
24 = 162 4 = 16 4 2 are equal to 1616, bot
log2 16 = 4 log 216 = 4
have a base of 2 2, where
4 4.

log2 2 = 1 log 22 = 1
21 = 2 2 1 = 2 log2 2 = 1 log 22 = 1 is e
2 1 = 2. The base and the
same number, in which c

1
log4 2 = log 2 =
2 4
√4‾ = 2 √4 = 2 A log may be fractional.

is equivalent to 4 1/2 = 2
be rewritten as √ 4‾=2
 log2 ( ) = −2log
1

()4
Although the log of a ne
undeOned, a log may itse
1 1 1 1
log2 ( ) = −2log 2 (
= = 1 1
4
22 22 4
() 4
1 1
4

to 2 −2 = 2 − 2 = , an
4 4
1 1
rewritten as .
22 22

Evaluating logarithms

Knowing the squares, cubes, and roots of numbers allows us to evaluate many loga
We ask, "To what exponent must 2 2 be raised in order to get 8 8?" Because we alre
log 28 = 3.

Now consider solving log7 49 log 749 and log3 27 log 327 mentally.

We ask, "To what exponent must 7 7 be raised in order to get 49 49?" We know
We ask, "To what exponent must 3 3 be raised in order to get 27 27?" We know

Even some seemingly more complicated logarithms can be evaluated without a calc
mentally.

2 4
We ask, "To what exponent must 23 be raised in order to get 49 ? ? " We kno
3 9

()
2 2
3
4
= . Therefore, log 2
9
()
3
( 9)
4
= 2. log 2
3 ()
4
9
= 2.
How to

Given a logarithm of the form y = logb (x) , y = log b(x), eval

1. Rewrite the argument x x as a power of b : b : by = x

2. Use previous knowledge of powers of b b identify y y b
should b b be raised in order to get x? x ? "

Solving logarithms mentally

Solve y = log4 (64) y = log 4(64) without using a calculator

Solution

First we rewrite the logarithm in exponential form: 4y = 64.

exponent must 4 4 be raised in order to get 64 64?"

We know

43 = 64

4 3 = 64

Therefore,

log 4 (64) = 3

log(64) 4 = 3
Evaluating the logarithm of a reciprocal

Evaluate y = log3 ( 271 )

()
y = log 3 ()
1
27
without using a calcu

Solution

First we rewrite the logarithm in exponential form: 3y 1

= 27 .
1 1
exponent must 3 3 be raised in order to get 27 ? 27 ? "

We know 33 = 27, 3 3 = 27, but what must we do to get the r

1 1
working with exponents that b−a = . b −a
= . We use t
ba ba

3−3 = 1
33
1
= 27

1
3 −3 =
33
1
=
27

Therefore, log3
()
( 27 )
1
= −3. log 3 ()
1
27
= − 3.

PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY
1.17.4: Evaluating logarithms.

1) log2 16 = ?log 216 = ?

Correct

4
Check Show answer
Since 2 4 = 162 4 = 16, l
 log2 ( ) = ? log 2
2)

()
1
8 ()
1
8
= ? Correct

-3

11
can be rewritten as
Check Show answer 88

log2 ( ) = −3log 2 (
1 1

()
8 8

3) log4 2 = ?log 42 = ?
Correct
Type as a reduced fraction: #/#
1/2

Check Show answer Since √ 4

‾ = 4 1/2 = 2 √
1
log 42 = .
2

log2/3 (
27 )
4)

()
8
= ? log 2 / 3 ( )
8
27
= ? Correct

= 3 =(
8 23
Since
Check Show answer 27 3 ()
log2/3 ( ) = log
8
( 8) ( )
27
log 2 / 3 ( )27
= log 2 / 3 (
Using common logarithms

Sometimes we may see a logarithm written without a base. In this case, we assume
log (x) log(x) means log10 (x) . log 10(x). We call a base-1010 logarithm a comm
measure the Richter Scale mentioned at the beginning of the lesson. Scales for mea
bases also use common logarithms.
DeOnition of the common logarithm

A common logarithm is a logarithm with base 10. 10. We wr

log (x) . log(x). The common logarithm of a positive numb
deOnition.

For x > 0, x > 0,

y = log (x) is equivalent to 10y = x y = log(x) is equivale
We read log (x) log(x) as, "the logarithm with base 10 of x

The logarithm y is the exponent to which 10 must be raised

How to

Given a common logarithm of the form y = log (x) , evaluat

1. Rewrite the argument x as a power of 10 : 10y = x.
2. Use previous knowledge of powers of 10 to identify y b
must 10 be raised in order to get x? "

Finding the value of a common logarithm mentally

Evaluate y = log(1000) without using a calculator.

Solution

First we rewrite the logarithm in exponential form: 10y = 100

exponent must 10 be raised in order to get 1000?" We know

103 = 1000
Therefore, log (1000) = 3.
How to

Given a common logarithm with the form y = log (x) , e

1. Press [LOG].
2. Enter the value given for x,followed by [ ) ].
3. Press [ENTER].

Finding the value of a common logarithm using a c

Evaluate y = log (321) to four decimal places using a calcu

Solution

Press [LOG].
Enter 321, followed by [ ) ].
Press [ENTER].

Rounding to four decimal places, log (321) ≈ 2.5065.

Analysis

Note that 102 = 100 and that 103 = 1000. Since 321 is be
that log (321) must be between log (100) and log (100

100 < 321 < 10

2 < 2.5065 <
Rewriting and solving a real-world exponential mod
The amount of energy released from one earthquake was 500
of energy released from another. The equation 10x = 500 re
the difference in magnitudes on the Richter Scale. To the near
difference in magnitudes?

Solution

We begin by rewriting the exponential equation in logarithmic

10x = 500
log (500) = x Use the definition o
Next we evaluate the logarithm using a calculator:

Press [LOG].
Enter 500, followed by [ ) ].
Press [ENTER].
To the nearest thousandth, log (500) ≈ 2.699.
The difference in magnitudes was about 2.699.

PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY
1.17.5: Using the common logarithm.

1) log 10000 = ?
Correct

4
Check Show answer
When log is written with
be 10. Since 104 = 100

2) log 0.001 = ?
Incorrect
1
0.001 =
Check Show answer 1000
 3) log 1 = ?
Correct

0
Check Show answer
Since 100 = 1 , log 1 =

4) A certain brand of coffee is 60

times more acidic than pure Correct

water. In the equation 10n = 60 , 1.78

n is the difference in pH units
between the coffee and water. n can be found by conve
What is the difference in pH 10n
between the coffee and water? logarithmic form. n
Type as: #.##

60-fold difference in acid

of about 1.78 pH units.
Check Show answer

Using natural logarithms

The most frequently used base for logarithms is e. Base e logarithms are importan
called natural logarithms. The base e logarithm, loge (x) , has its own notation, ln(

Most values of ln (x) can be found only using a calculator. The major exception is
base, ln 1 = 0. For other natural logarithms, we can use the ln key that can be fo
natural logarithm of any power of e using the inverse property of logarithms.
DeOnition of the natural logarithm

A natural logarithm is a logarithm with base e. We write loge

natural logarithm of a positive number x satisOes the followi

For x > 0,
y = ln (x) is equivalent to ey = x
We read ln (x) as, "the logarithm with base e of x" or "the na

The logarithm y is the exponent to which e must be raised to

Since the functions y = ex and y = ln(x) are inverse functi

eln(x) = x for all x > 0.

How to

Given a natural logarithm with the form y = ln (x) , ev

1. Press [LN].
2. Enter the value given for x, followed by [ ) ].
3. Press [ENTER].

Evaluating a natural logarithm using a calculator.

Evaluate y = ln (500) to four decimal places

Solution

Press [LN].
Enter 500, followed by [ ) ].
Press [ENTER].

Rounding to four decimal places, ln(500) ≈

Evaluating a natural logarithm using a calculator.
Evaluate ln(−500).

Solution

It is not possible to take the logarithm of a negative numb

PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY
1.17.6: The natural logarithm.

1) ln x = loge x
Correct
True
By deOnition, the natural
False the irrational number e a

2) ln e = 1
Correct
True
ln e can be rewritten as
False loge e = ln e = 1 .

3) 1
ln is undeOned.
e Correct

True 1
can be rewritten as e
e
False

4) ln 0 is undeOned.
Correct
True
Since no power of e equ
False

5) ln 1 is undeOned.
Correct
True
Since e 0 = 1 , ln 1 = 0
False

6) ln(−1) is undeOned.
Correct
True
Since no power of e equ
False undeOned.
Lesson exercises

Verbal

Exercise 1.17.1

What is a base b logarithm? Discuss the meaning by interp

(a)
equations by = x and logb x = y for b > 0, b ≠ 1.
Solution !
A logarithm is an exponent. SpeciOcally, it is the exponent
produce a given value. In the expressions given, the base b
y,in the expression by can also be written as the logarithm
result of raising b to the power of y.

Exercise 1.17.2

How is the logarithmic function f (x) = logb x related to th

(a)
g(x) = bx ? What is the result of composing these two fu
Solution !
The logarithmic function is the inverse of the exponential f
these two functions is f (g(x)) = logb (bx ) = x .

Algebraic

For the following exercises, rewrite each equation in exponential form.

Exercise 1.17.3

(a) log4 (q) = m

Solution !
Rewriting logbase N = exponent in the exponential form
 Exercise 1.17.4

(a) loga (b) = c

Solution !
ac = b

For the following exercises, use the deOnition of common and natural logarithms to

Exercise 1.17.5

(a) log(1008 )
Solution !
16

Exercise 1.17.6

(a) eln(1.06)
Solution !
1.06

Technology

For the following exercises, evaluate each expression using a calculator. Round to th

Exercise 1.17.7

(a) log(0.04)
Solution !
log(0.04) ≈ −1.398
 Exercise 1.17.8

(a) ln(15)
Solution !
ln(15) ≈ 2.708

Lesson introduction

Before moving on, take a last moment to think about what you've learned in this less

Logarithms are the inverse function to exponentials. This means given an exp
logarithm equation, and vice-versa.
Evaluating logarithms by hand can be done by relating the logarithm equation
x = log3 (9) , the corresponding exponential equation is 3x = 9, in which we
exponential version of the equation can help us see the solution a little more e
There are two very popular logarithms. These are the natural logarithm (loge (
log10 (x) = log(x)).
(*0) http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqinthenews/2010/us2010rja6/#sum

(*1) http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqinthenews/2011/usc0001xgp/#sum

(*2) http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqinthenews/2010/us2010rja6/. Acce

(*3) http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqinthenews/2011/usc0001xgp/#det

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