MCA-106, Python Programming

UNIT-IV

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Overview of the Unit

In this unit, we’ll cover the following:
• Advanced Python
• NumPy Library
• Pandas Library
• Data Visualization
• GUI Programming

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List Comprehensions in
Python
List comprehension is an elegant way to define and create a list in python.
We can create lists just like mathematical statements and in one line only.
The syntax of list comprehension is easier to grasp. A list comprehension
generally consists of these parts :
• Output expression,
• Input sequence,
• A variable representing a member of the input sequence and
• An optional predicate part.

General syntax is:

Lst = [expression(i) for i in another_list if filter(i)]

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 MCA-106, Python Programming

List Comprehension
Example -1:
Lst = [x**2 for x in range(1,11) if x% 2 == 1]
In the above example,
• x ** 2 is the expression.
• range (1, 11) is input sequence or another list.
• x is the variable.
• if x % 2 == 1 is predicate part.
This is the power of list comprehension. It can identify when it receives a
string or a tuple and work on it like a list.

Nested IF with List Comprehension

num_list = [y for y in range(100) if y%2==0 if y%5==0]
print(num_list)

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List Comprehension
Example -2 :
Suppose, we want to separate the letters of the word ‘human’ and add the
letters as items of a list. The first thing that comes in mind would be
using for loop.

h_letters = []
for letter in ‘human’:
h_letters.append(letter)
print(h_letters)

Python has an easier way to solve this issue using List

Comprehension.
h_letters = [letter for letter in ‘human’ ]
print(h_letters)
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List Comprehension
In example-2, we can see that ‘human’ is a string, not a list. This is the
power of list comprehension. It can identify when it receives a string or a
tuple and work on it like a list.

You can do that using loops.

However, not every loop can be rewritten as list comprehension. But as

you learn and get comfortable with list comprehensions, you will find
yourself replacing more and more loops with this elegant syntax.

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 MCA-106, Python Programming

Advantages of List
Comprehension
Advantages of List Comprehension
• More time efficient and space efficient than loops.
• Require fewer lines of code.
• Transforms iterative statement into a formula.

Key Points to Remember

• we should avoid writing very long list comprehensions in one line to
ensure that code is user-friendly.
• Every list comprehension can be rewritten in for loop, but every for loop
can’t be rewritten in the form of list comprehension.

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map() Function
The advantage of the lambda function can be seen when it is used in
combination with the map() function. map() is a function which takes two
arguments:
r = map(func, seq)

• The first argument func is the name of a function and the second a
sequence (e.g. a list) seq. map() applies the function func to all the
elements of the sequence seq.
• Before Python3, map() used to return a list, where each element of the
result list was the result of the function func applied on the
corresponding element of the list or tuple "seq". With Python 3, map()
returns an iterator.

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map() Function
• The map() function executes a specified function for each item in an
iterable. The item is sent to the function as a parameter.
Example
Calculate the length of each word in the tuple:

Def myFunc(s):
return(len(s))
X = map(myFunc,(‘Apple’,’Banana’,’kiwi’))
Print(list(X))

X = list(map(lambda s: len(s) ,('Apple','Banana','kiwi')))

print(X)

X=[len(s) for s in ('Apple','Banana','kiwi')]

print(X)

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 MCA-106, Python Programming

filter() Function
filter(func, seq)
• It offers an elegant way to filter out all the elements of a
sequence "seq", for which the function func returns True. i.e. an
item will be produced by the iterator result of filter(func, seq) if
item is included in the sequence "seq" and if func(item) returns
True.

• In other words: The function filter(f,l) needs a function f as its

first argument. f has to return a Boolean value, i.e. either True or
False. This function will be applied to every element of the list l.
Only if f returns True will the element be produced by the
iterator, which is the return value of filter(function, sequence).

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filter() Function
In the following example, we filter out first the odd and then the even
elements of the sequence of the first 11 Fibonacci numbers:

fibonacci = [0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55]
odd_num = list(filter(lambda x: x%2, fibonacci ))
Print(odd_num)

even_num = list(filter(lambda x: x%2==0, fibonacci ))

Print(even_num)

odd_num = [x for x in fibonacci if x%2]

even_num = [x for x in fibonacci if x%2==0]

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reduce() Function
The reduce(fun,seq) function is used to apply a particular function
passed in its argument to all of the list elements mentioned in the
sequence passed along. This function is defined in “functools” module.
It performs a rolling-computation as specified by the passed function to
the neighboring elements, by taking a function and an iterable as
arguments, and returns the final computed value.
Working :
1. At first step, first two elements of sequence are picked and the result
is obtained.
2. Next step is to apply the same function to the previously attained
result and the number just succeeding the second element and the
result is again stored.
3. This process continues till no more elements are left in the container.
4. The final returned result is returned and printed on console.

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 MCA-106, Python Programming

reduce() Function
Example:
from functools import reduce
# Returns the sum of two elements
def sumTwo(a,b):
return a+b

result = reduce(sumTwo, [1, 2, 3, 4])

print(result)

from functools import reduce

# Returns the sum of all the elements using `reduce`
result = reduce((lambda a, b: a + b), [1, 2, 3, 4])
print(result)

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Comparison of Lambda
and List Comprehension
• List Comprehension is used to create lists, Lambdas are functions that
can process like other functions and thus return values or list.

• Lambda function process is the same as other functions and returns

the value of the list. The Lambda function itself cannot be used to
iterate through a list. It return a list with the help of map() and list()
functions.
list(map(lambda argument: manipulate(argument), iterable))

• List comprehension performance is better than lambda because filter()

in lambda is slower than list comprehension.

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NumPy Library
• NumPy, which stands for Numerical Python, is a library consisting of
multidimensional array objects and a collection of routines for
processing those arrays.
• NumPy is a general-purpose array-processing package. It provides a
high-performance multidimensional array object, and tools for working
with these arrays : the n-dimensional array. This is simple yet
powerful data structure.
• In Python we have lists that serve the purpose of arrays, but they are
slow to process. NumPy aims to provide an array object that is up to
50x faster than traditional Python lists.
• The array object in NumPy is called ndarray it provides a lot of
supporting functions that make working with ndarray very easy.
• Arrays are very frequently used in data science, where speed and
resources are very important.

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 MCA-106, Python Programming

NumPy Library
continued ….
• It is the fundamental package for scientific computing with Python. It
contains various features including these important ones:
• A powerful N-dimensional array object
• Sophisticated (broadcasting) functions
• Tools for integrating C/C++ and Fortran code
• Useful linear algebra, Fourier transform, and random number
capabilities

Besides its obvious scientific uses, NumPy can also be used as an

efficient multi-dimensional container of generic data.

Arbitrary data-types can be defined using Numpy which allows NumPy to

seamlessly and speedily integrate with a wide variety of databases.

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Why is NumPy Faster

Than Lists?
• NumPy arrays are stored at one continuous place in memory unlike
lists, so processes can access and manipulate them very efficiently.
• This behavior is called locality of reference in computer science.
• This is the main reason why NumPy is faster than lists. Also it is
optimized to work with latest CPU architectures.

NumPy is a Python library and is written partially in Python, but most of

the parts that require fast computation are written in C or C++.

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Arrays in NumPy
NumPy’s main object is the homogeneous multidimensional array.
• It is a table of elements (usually numbers), all of the same type,
indexed by a tuple of positive integers.
• In NumPy dimensions are called axes. The number of axes is rank.
• NumPy’s array class is called ndarray. It is also known by the
alias array.
• Items in the collection can be accessed using a zero-based index.
• Every item in an ndarray takes the same size of block in the memory.

Example:
import numpy
arr = numpy.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
print(arr)

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 MCA-106, Python Programming

Array creation:
There are various ways to create arrays in NumPy.
• we can pass a list, tuple or any array-like object into the array()
method, and it will be converted into an ndarray.
General Syntax :

numpy.array(object, dtype = None, copy = True, order = None, subok = False, ndmin = 0)

1 object It represents the collection object. It can be a list, tuple, dictionary, set, etc.
2 dtype We can change the data type of the array elements by changing this option to the
specified type. The default is none.
3 copy It is optional. By default, it is true which means the object is copied.
4 order There can be 3 possible values assigned to this option. It can be C (column order), R
(row order), or A (any)
5 subok The returned array will be base class array by default. We can change this to make the
subclasses passes through by setting this option to true.
6 ndmin It represents the minimum dimensions of the resultant array.
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Array creation:
Example:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array( [[ 1, 2, 3],

[ 4, 2, 5]] )

print("Array is of type: ", type(arr))

print("No. of dimensions: ", arr.ndim)

print("Shape of array: ", arr.shape)

print("Size of array: ", arr.size)

print("Array stores elements of type: ", arr.dtype)

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Data Types &

Description
Sr.No. Data Types & Description
1. bool_ Boolean (True or False) stored as a byte
2. int_ Default integer type (same as C long; normally either int64 or int32)
3. Intc Identical to C int (normally int32 or int64)
4. int8 Byte (-128 to 127), int16 Integer (-32768 to 32767), int32 Integer (-2147483648 to
2147483647), int64 Integer (-9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807)
5. uint8 Unsigned integer (0 to 255), uint16 Unsigned integer (0 to 65535), uint32 Unsigned
integer (0 to 4294967295), uint64 Unsigned integer (0 to 18446744073709551615)
6. float_ Shorthand for float64, float16 Half precision float: sign bit, 5 bits exponent, 10 bits
mantissa. float32 Single precision float: sign bit, 8 bits exponent, 23 bits mantissa, float64
Double precision float: sign bit, 11 bits exponent, 52 bits mantissa
7. complex_ Shorthand for complex128, complex64 Complex number, represented by two
32-bit floats (real and imaginary components), complex128 Complex number, represented
by two 64-bit floats (real and imaginary components)
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 MCA-106, Python Programming

Data Types &

Description
• Each built-in data type has a character code that uniquely identifies it.
• 'b' − boolean
• 'i' − (signed) integer
• 'u' − unsigned integer
• 'f' − floating-point
• 'c' − complex-floating point
• 'm' − timedelta
• 'M' − datetime
• 'O' − (Python) objects
• 'S', 'a' − (byte-)string
• 'U' − Unicode
• 'V' − raw data (void)
Try This :
import numpy as np
student = np.dtype([('name','S20'), ('age', 'i1'), ('marks', 'f4')])
a = np.array([('abc', 21, 50),('xyz', 18, 75)], dtype = student)
print a
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Dimensions in Arrays
0-D Arrays
• 0-D arrays, or Scalars, are the elements in an array. Each value in an
array is a 0-D array.
import numpy as np
arr = np.array(42)
print(arr)

1-D Arrays
• An array that has 0-D arrays as its elements is called uni-dimensional
or 1-D array.
• These are the most common and basic arrays.
import numpy as np
arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
print(arr)
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Dimensions in Arrays
2-D Arrays
• An array that has 1-D arrays as its elements is called a 2-D array.
• These are often used to represent matrix or 2nd order tensors.
import numpy as np
arr = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
print(arr)

3-D arrays
• An array that has 2-D arrays (matrices) as its elements is called 3-D
array.
• These are often used to represent a 3rd order tensor.
import numpy as np
arr = np.array([[[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], [[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]])
print(arr)
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 MCA-106, Python Programming

Array Creation Contitues …

• Often, the elements of an array are originally unknown, but its size is known. Hence,
NumPy offers several functions to create arrays with initial placeholder content. These
minimize the necessity of growing arrays, an expensive operation.
For example: np.zeros, np.ones, np.full, np.empty, etc.
c = np.zeros((3, 4))
print ("\nAn array initialized with all zeros:\n", c)

d = np.full((3, 3), 6, dtype = 'complex')

print ("\nAn array initialized with all 6s Array type is complex:\n", d)

• To create sequences of numbers, NumPy provides a function analogous to range that

returns arrays instead of lists.
– arange: returns evenly spaced values within a given interval. step size is specified.
– linspace: returns evenly spaced values within a given interval. num no. of elements
are returned.
f = np.arange(0, 30, 5)
g = np.linspace(0, 5, 10)

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Array Creation Contitues …

• Reshaping array: We can use reshape method to reshape an array.
Consider an array with shape (a1, a2, a3, …, aN). We can reshape and
convert it into another array with shape (b1, b2, b3, …, bM). The only
required condition is:
a1 x a2 x a3 … x aN = b1 x b2 x b3 … x bM . (i.e original size of array
remains unchanged.)

arr = np.array([[1, 2, 3, 4],

[5, 2, 4, 2],
[1, 2, 0, 1]])

newarr = arr.reshape(2, 2, 3)

print ("\nOriginal array:\n", arr)

print ("Reshaped array:\n", newarr)
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Array Creation Contitues …

• Flatten array: We can use flatten method to get a copy of array
collapsed into one dimension. It accepts order argument. Default
value is ‘C’ (for row-major order). Use ‘F’ for column major order.

arr = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])

flarr = arr.flatten()

print ("\nOriginal array:\n", arr)

print ("Fattened array:\n", flarr)

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 MCA-106, Python Programming

numpy.empty
It creates an uninitialized array of specified shape and dtype. It uses the
following constructor −
numpy.empty(shape, dtype = float, order = 'C')

The constructor takes the following parameters.

Sr.No. Parameter & Description

1 Shape Shape of an empty array in int or tuple of int
2 Dtype Desired output data type. Optional
3 Order 'C' for C-style row-major array, 'F' for FORTRAN style column-major array

import numpy as np
x = np.empty([3,2], dtype = int)
print x
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NumPy - Indexing & Slicing

• Contents of ndarray object can be accessed and modified by indexing
or slicing, just like Python's in-built container objects.
• Items in ndarray object follows zero-based index. Three types of
indexing methods are available − field access, basic
slicing and advanced indexing.
• Basic slicing is an extension of Python's basic concept of slicing to n
dimensions. A Python slice object is constructed by giving start, stop,
and step parameters to the built-in slice function. This slice object is
passed to the array to extract a part of array.

import numpy as np
a = np.arange(10)
s = slice(2,7,2)
print(a)
print a[s]

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NumPy - Indexing & Slicing

The same result can also be obtained by giving the slicing parameters
separated by a colon : (start:stop:step) directly to the ndarray object.
import numpy as np
a = np.arange(10)
b = a[2:7:2]
print b
• If only one parameter is put, a single item corresponding to the index
will be returned.
• If a : is inserted in front of it, all items from that index onwards will be
extracted.
• If two parameters (with : between them) is used, items between the two
indexes (not including the stop index) with default step one are sliced.
Try This: a[5:8]=12
print (a)
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 MCA-106, Python Programming

NumPy - Indexing & Slicing

With higher dimensional arrays, you have many more options. In a two-
dimensional array, the elements at each index are no longer scalars but
rather one-dimensional arrays:

arr2d = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9]])

print(arr2d[2])

We can pass a comma-separated list of indices to select individual

elements.
print(arr2d[0][2])
Or
print(arr2d[0,2])

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NumPy - Indexing & Slicing

In multidimensional arrays, if you omit later indices, the returned object will
be a lower-dimensional ndarray consisting of all the data along the higher
dimensions. So in the 2X2X3 array:

arr3d = np.array([[[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], [[7, 8, 9], [10, 11, 12]]])
print(arr3d)
print(arr3d[0])
print(arr3d[1,0])

• Arr3d[0] is a 2X3 array

• Similarly, arr3d[1,0] gives you all of the values whose indices start with
(1,0) forming a 1-dimensional array

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Array Operations
Scalar Addition

Scalars can be added and subtracted from arrays and arrays can be
added and subtracted from each other:

import numpy as np

a = np.array([1, 2, 3])
b=a+2
print(b)

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 MCA-106, Python Programming

Array Operations
Scalar Multiplication

NumPy arrays can be multiplied and divided by scalar integers and floats:

a = np.array([1,2,3])
b = 3*a
print(b)

a = np.array([10,20,30])
b = a/2
print(b)

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Element-wise Operations
Arrays enable you to perform mathematical operations on whole blocks of
data using similar syntax to the equivalent operations between scalar
elements.

Operations between differently sized arrays is called broadcasting. Input

arrays for performing arithmetic operations such as add(), subtract(),
multiply(), and divide() must be either of the same shape or should
conform to array broadcasting rules.

Example : Array-Operations.py

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Element-wise Operations
(Unary functions)
Function Description

Compute the absolute value element-wise for integer, floating point, or complex values.
abs, fabs
Use fabs as a faster alternative for non-complex-valued data

sqrt Compute the square root of each element. Equivalent to arr ** 0.5

square Compute the square of each element. Equivalent to arr ** 2

exp Compute the exponent ex of each element

log, log10, log2, log1p Natural logarithm (base e), log base 10, log base 2, and log(1 + x), respectively

sign Compute the sign of each element: 1 (positive), 0 (zero), or -1 (negative)

Compute the ceiling of each element, i.e. the smallest integer greater than or equal to
ceil
each element
Compute the floor of each element, i.e. the largest integer less than or equal to each
floor
element

rint Round elements to the nearest integer, preserving the dtype

modf Return fractional and integral parts of array as separate array

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 MCA-106, Python Programming

Element-wise Operations
(Unary functions)
Example:

import numpy as np

arr = np.arange(10)

print(arr)
print(np.sqrt(arr))
print(np.exp(arr))

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Element-wise Operations
(Binary universal functions)

Function Description

add Add corresponding elements in arrays

subtract Subtract elements in second array from first array

multiply Multiply array elements

divide, floor_divide Divide or floor divide (truncating the remainder)

Raise elements in first array to powers indicated in second

power
array

maximum, fmax Element-wise maximum. fmax ignores NaN

minimum, fmin Element-wise minimum. fmin ignores NaN

mod Element-wise modulus (remainder of division)

greater, greater_equal, less, less_equal, equal, Perform element-wise comparison, yielding boolean array.
not_equal Equivalent to infix operators >, >=, <, <=, ==, !=

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Array Operations
numpy.reciprocal()
This function returns the reciprocal of argument, element-wise. For
elements with absolute values larger than 1, the result is always 0
because of the way in which Python handles integer division. For integer
0, an overflow warning is issued.

import numpy as np
a = np.array([0.25, 1.33, 1, 0, 100])
print(a )
print ('\n' )
print (np.reciprocal(a) )

b = np.array([100], dtype = int)

print( b )
print( np.reciprocal(b) )

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 MCA-106, Python Programming

Array Operations
numpy.power()
This function treats elements in the first input array as base and returns it
raised to the power of the corresponding element in the second input
array.

import numpy as np
a = np.array([10,100,1000])
print( a)
print (np.power(a,2) )
print ('\n' )

b = np.array([1,2,3])
print( b )
print ('\n')
print (np.power(a,b))

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 40

Array Operations
numpy.mod()
• This function returns the remainder of division of the corresponding
elements in the input array. The function numpy.remainder() also
produces the same result.
import numpy as np
a = np.array([10,20,30])
b = np.array([3,5,7])

print ('First array:',a,'\n' )

print ('Second array:',b,'\n' )

print ('Applying mod() function:',np.mod(a,b),'\n')

print ('Applying remainder() function:',np.remainder(a,b),'\n' )

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 41

Aggregate and Statistical

Functions in Numpy
In the Python numpy module, we have many aggregate functions or
statistical functions to work with a single-dimensional or multi-dimensional
array.

The Python numpy aggregate functions are sum, min, max, mean,
average, product, median, standard deviation, variance, argmin, argmax,
percentile etc.

Example: Array-Aggregate-Functions.py

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 42

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 MCA-106, Python Programming

Aggregate and Statistical

Functions in Numpy
Some of the aggregate and statistical functions are given below:
• np.sum(m): Used to find out the sum of the given array.
• np.prod(m): Used to find out the product(multiplication) of the values of m.
• np.mean(m): It returns the mean of the input array m.
• np.std(m): It returns the standard deviation of the given input array m.
• np.var(m): Used to find out the variance of the data given in the form of array
m.
• np.min(m): It returns the minimum value among the elements of the given
array m.
• np.max(m): It returns the maximum value among the elements of the given
array m.
• np.argmin(m): It returns the index of the minimum value among the
elements of the array m.
• np.argmax(m): It returns the index of the maximum value among the
elements of the array m.
• np.median(m): It returns the median of the elements of the array m.
© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 43

Insert Row / Column in

Array
Numpy.hstack is a function in Python that is used to horizontally stack
sequences (column-wise) of input arrays in order to make a single array.
With hstack() function, you can append data horizontally. It is a very
convenient function in NumPy.
Example:
import numpy as np
x = np.array((3,5,7))
y = np.array((5,7,9))
print(np.hstack((x,y)))

x = np.array([[3], [5], [7]])

y = np.array([[5], [7], [9]])
print(np.hstack((x,y)))

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 44

Insert Row / Column in

Array
Try for following outputs:

[[3 1 5 2]
[5 3 7 4]
[7 5 9 6]]

[[3 1 5]
[5 2 7]
[7 3 9]]

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 45

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant. Prof. U1.15
 MCA-106, Python Programming

Insert Row / Column in

Array
The vstack() function is used to stack arrays in sequence vertically (row
wise).

Example :

x = np.array([3, 5, 7])
y = np.array([5, 7, 9])
print(np.vstack((x,y)))

x = np.array([[3], [5], [7]])

y = np.array([[5], [7], [9]])
print(np.vstack((x,y)))

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 46

Append Row / Column in

Array
You can add a NumPy array element by using the append() method of the
NumPy module.
The syntax of append is as follows:
numpy.append(array, value, axis)

• The values will be appended at the end of the array and a new ndarray
will be returned with new and old values.
• The axis is an optional integer along which define how the array is
going to be displayed. If the axis is not specified, the array structure will
be flattened as you will see later.
a = np.array([1, 2, 3])
newArray = np.append (a, [10, 11, 12])
print(newArray)

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 47

Append Row / Column in

Array
Add a column
• We can use the append() method of NumPy to insert a column.
• Consider the example below where we created a 2-dimensional array
and inserted two columns:

a = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])

b = np.array([[400], [800]])
newArray = np.append(a, b, axis=1)
print(newArray)

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 48

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant. Prof. U1.16
 MCA-106, Python Programming

Append Row / Column in

Array
Append a row
• In this section, we will be using the append() method to add a row to
the array. It’s as simple as appending an element to the array. Consider
the following example:

a = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])

newArray = np.append(a, [[50, 60, 70]], axis = 0)
print(newArray)

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 49

Append Row / Column in

Array
In NumPy, we can also use the insert() method to insert an element or
column. The difference between the insert() and the append() method is
that we can specify at which index we want to add an element when using
the insert() method but the append() method adds a value to the end of
the array.
Consider the example below:

a = np.array([1, 2, 3])
newArray = np.insert(a, 1, 90)
print(newArray)

Here the insert() method adds the element at index 1. Remember the
array index starts from 0.

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 50

Few Useful Methods

Check if NumPy array is empty
We can use the size method which returns the total number of elements in
the array.

a = np.array([1, 2, 3])
if(a.size == 0):
print("The given Array is empty")
else:
print("The array = ", a)

Check with
a = np.array([])

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 51

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant. Prof. U1.17
 MCA-106, Python Programming

Few Useful Methods

Find the index of a value
To find the index of value, we can use the where() method of the NumPy
module

a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
print("5 is found at index: ", np.where(a == 5))

The where() method will also return the datatype. If you want to just get the
index, use the following code:

a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
index = np.where(a == 5)
print("5 is found at index: ", index[0])

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 52

Few Useful Methods

NumPy array to CSV
To export the array to a CSV file, we can use the savetxt() method of the
NumPy module as illustrated in the example below:
a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
np.savetxt("D:/Python Programming/Scripts/myArray.csv", a)
This code will generate a CSV file in the location where our Python code
file is stored. You can also specify the path.
Sort NumPy array
• You can sort NumPy array using the sort() method of the NumPy
module:
• The sort() function takes an optional axis (an integer) which is -1 by
default. The axis specifies which axis we want to sort the array. -1
means the array will be sorted according to the last axis.
print("Sorted array = ", np.sort(a))

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 53

Pandas Library
pandas is a fast, powerful, flexible and easy to use open source data
analysis and manipulation tool, built on top of the Python programming
language.

• Pandas is a Python library used for working with data sets.

• It has functions for analyzing, cleaning, exploring, and manipulating
data.
• The name "Pandas" has a reference to both "Panel Data", and "Python
Data Analysis" and was created by Wes McKinney in 2008.

import pandas as pd
df = pd.read_csv('D:/Python Programming/Scripts/myArray.csv')
print(df.to_string())

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 54

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant. Prof. U1.18
 MCA-106, Python Programming

Data -Frames
A DataFrame is a 2-dimensional data structure that can store data of
different types (including characters, integers, floating point values,
categorical data and more) in columns. It is similar to a spreadsheet, a
SQL table Column

Row

The table has 3 columns, each of them with a column label. The column
labels are respectively Name, Age and Gender.
The column Name consists of textual data with each value a string, the
column Age are numbers and the column Gender is textual data.
© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 55

Data -Frames
df = pd.DataFrame(
{
"Name": [
"Braund, Mr. Owen Harris",
"Allen, Mr. William Henry",
"Bonnell, Miss. Elizabeth",
],
"Age": [22, 35, 58],
“Gender": ["male", "male", "female"],
}
)
print(df)

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 56

Data -Frames
Locate Row
Pandas use the loc attribute to return one or more specified row(s)
print(df.loc[0])
This returns a Pandas Series.

print(df.loc[[0, 1]])
When using [ ], the result is a Pandas DataFrame.

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 57

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 MCA-106, Python Programming

Data -Frames
Named Indexes
With the index argument, you can name your own indexes.
data = {
"calories": [420, 380, 390],
"duration": [50, 40, 45]
}
df = pd.DataFrame(data, index = ["day1", "day2", "day3"])
print(df)

Locate Named Indexes

Use the named index in the loc attribute to return the specified row(s).

print(df.loc["day2"])

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 58

Series
• A Pandas Series is like a column in a table.
• It is a one-dimensional array holding data of any type.
• A pandas Series has no column labels, as it is just a single column of
a DataFrame. A Series does have row labels.
• If nothing else is specified, the values are labeled with their index
number. First value has index 0, second value has index 1 etc.
• This label can be used to access a specified value.
• With the index argument, we can give labels.

a = [1, 7, 2]
myvar = pd.Series(a, index = ["x", "y", "z"])
print(myvar)

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 59

Series
When selecting a single column of a pandas DataFrame, the result is a
pandas Series. To select the column, use the column label in between
square brackets [].
Example :
df["Age"]

Or

ages = pd.Series([22, 35, 58], name="Age")

print(ages)

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 60

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant. Prof. U1.20
 MCA-106, Python Programming

Series
Key/Value Objects as Series
You can also use a key/value object, like a dictionary, when creating a
Series.
import pandas as pd
calories = {"day1": 420, "day2": 380, "day3": 390}
myvar = pd.Series(calories)
print(myvar)
The keys of the dictionary become the labels.
To select only some of the items in the dictionary, use the index argument
and specify only the items you want to include in the Series.
import pandas as pd
calories = {"day1": 420, "day2": 380, "day3": 390}
myvar = pd.Series(calories, index = ["day1", "day2"])
print(myvar)

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 61

Data Preparation and Pre-

Processing
We can equate data preparation with the framework of the KDD Process -
- specifically the first 3 major steps -- which re selection, preprocessing,
and transformation.

1. Loading data
The first step for data preparation is to get some data. If you have a .csv
file, you can easily load it up in your system using the read_csv() function
in pandas. We can work with Data-frames and Series as well.

df = pd.read_csv('D:/Python Programming/Scripts/myArray.csv')

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 62

Data Preparation and Pre-

Processing
2. Missing Data
– Handling Missing Data
Missing data can arise in the dataset due to multiple reasons: the data for the
specific field was not added by the user/data collection application, data was
lost while transferring manually, a programming error, etc.
For numerical data, pandas uses a floating point value NaN (Not a Number) to
represent missing data. It is a unique value defined under the
library Numpy so we will need to import it as well. NaN is the default missing
value marker for reasons of computational speed and convenience. This is a
sentinel value, in the sense that it is a dummy data or flag value that can be
easily detected and worked with using functions in pandas.
data = pd.Series([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, np.nan, 6, 7, 8])
data.isnull()
We used the function isnull() which returns a boolean true or false value.
True, when the data at that particular index is actually missing or NaN. The
opposite of this is the notnull() function.
© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 63

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 MCA-106, Python Programming

Data Preparation and Pre-

Processing
Furthermore, we can use the dropna() function to filter out missing data and to
remove the null (missing) value and see only the non-null values. However, the
NaN value is not really deleted and can still be found in the original dataset.

What you can do to really "drop" or delete the NaN value is either store the new
dataset (without NaN) so that the original data Series is not tampered or apply a
drop inplace. The inplace argument has a default value of false .

not_null_data = data.dropna()
print(not_null_data)

data.dropna(inplace = True)
print(data)

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 64

Data Preparation and Pre-

Processing
Now we try it on Data-frames:

data_dim =
pd.DataFrame([[1,2,3,np.nan],[4,5,np.nan,np.nan],[7,np.nan,np.nan,np.nan],[np.nan
,np.nan,np.nan,np.nan]])
print(data_dim)
Now let's say we only want to drop rows or columns that are all null or
only those that contain a certain amount of null values.

Try data_dim.dropna() : It will not work and the real dataset is not
tampered.

Now, try data_dim.dropna(how = 'all')

Also try data_dim.dropna(axis = 1, thresh = 2)

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 65

Data Preparation and Pre-

Processing
– Filling in Missing Data
To replace or rather "fill in" the null data, you can use the fillna() function.
For example, let's try to use the same dataset as above and try to fill in the
NaN values with 0.
data_dim_fill = data_dim.fillna(0)
print(data_dim_fill)
And like with dropna() you can also do many other things depending on
the kind of argument you pass. Also a reminder that passing the
inplace=true argument will make the change to the original dataset.

We can pass a dictionary to use different values for each column:

data_dim_fill = data_dim.fillna({0: 0, 1: 8, 2: 9, 3: 10})
print(data_dim_fill)

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 66

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant. Prof. U1.22
 MCA-106, Python Programming

DataFrame Indexing
• Indexing in pandas means simply selecting particular rows and
columns of data from a DataFrame.
• Indexing could mean selecting all the rows and some of the columns,
some of the rows and all of the columns, or some of each of the rows
and columns.
• Indexing can also be known as Subset Selection.
• The Python and NumPy indexing operators "[ ]" and attribute operator
"." provide quick and easy access to Pandas data structures across a
wide range of use cases.
• But, since the type of the data to be accessed isn’t known in advance,
directly using standard operators has some optimization limits.
• We take advantage of some optimized pandas data access methods
like .loc(), .iloc(), .ix().

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 67

DataFrame Indexing
loc() Method: (Label Based)
• Pandas provide various methods to have purely label based indexing.
When slicing, the start bound is also included. Integers are valid labels,
but they refer to the label and not the position.

.loc() has multiple access methods like −

• A single scalar label
• A list of labels
• A slice object
• A Boolean array

loc takes two single/list/range operator separated by ','. The first one
indicates the row and the second one indicates columns.

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 68

DataFrame Indexing
Example:

import pandas as pd
import numpy as np

df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(6, 4),
index = ['a','b','c','d','e','f'], columns = ['A', 'B', 'C','D'])
print (df.loc['a':'d'])
print (df.loc['a':'c','D'])
print (df.loc['a':'f','A':'B'])

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 69

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 MCA-106, Python Programming

DataFrame Indexing
.iloc() method:
• Pandas provide various methods in order to get purely integer based
indexing. Like python and numpy, these are 0-based indexing.
• It is primarily integer position based from 0 to length – 1 of the axis

The various access methods are as follows −

• An Integer
• A list of integers
• A range of values

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 70

DataFrame Indexing
Example:

import pandas as pd
import numpy as np

df1 = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(8, 3),columns = ['A', 'B', 'C'])

print (df1.iloc[:8])
print (df1.iloc[:4])
print (df1.iloc[2:4, 1:3])

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 71

DataFrame Indexing
.ix() method:
• Besides pure label based and integer based, Pandas provides a hybrid
method for selections and subsetting the object using the .ix() operator.
• The .ix indexer is deprecated in all the version after 0.20.0, in favor of
the more strict .iloc and .loc indexers.

df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(8, 4), columns = ['A', 'B', 'C', 'D'])

print (df.ix[:,'A'])

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 72

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 MCA-106, Python Programming

DataFrame Indexing
Select Data Using Columns
In addition to location-based and label-based indexing, you can also
select data from pandas dataframes by selecting entire columns using the
column names.
dataframe[“column”]
Above command provides the data from the column as a pandas series,
which is a one-dimensional array. A pandas series is useful for selecting
columns for plotting using matplotlib.

You can also specify that you want an output that is also a pandas
dataframe.
dataframe[[“column”]]
which includes a second set of brackets [ ], to indicate that the output
should be a pandas dataframe.
© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 73

DataFrame Indexing
You can also select all data from multiple columns in a pandas dataframe
using:
dataframe[[“column1”, “column2”]]

Since the results of your selection are also a pandas dataframe, you can
assign the results to a new pandas dataframe.

Try This:
Use avg-precip-months.csv
create a new pandas dataframe that only contains the months and
seasons column effectively dropping the precip values.

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 74

DataFrame Indexing
Filter Data Using Specific Values
In addition to location-based and label-based indexing, you can select or
filter data based on specific values within a column using:

dataframe[dataframe[“column1”]==value]

This will return all rows containing that value within the specified column.
Again, you can also save the output to a new dataframe by setting it equal
to the output of the filter.
You can also filter using a comparison operator on numeric values.

Try This :
Select all rows that have a season value of summer.

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 75

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant. Prof. U1.25
 MCA-106, Python Programming

The query() Method

The query() Method
• Python is a great language for doing data analysis, primarily because
of the fantastic ecosystem of data-centric Python packages. Pandas is
one of those packages that makes importing and analyzing data much
easier.
• Analyzing data requires a lot of filtering operations. Pandas provide
many methods to filter a Data frame and dataframe.query() is one of
them.
• DataFrame objects have a query() method that allows selection using
an expression. You can get the value of the frame where column b has
values between the values of columns a and c.

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 76

The query() Method

• Syntax: DataFrame.query(expr, inplace=False, **kwargs)
• Parameters:
expr: Expression in string form to filter data.
inplace: Make changes in the original data frame if True
kwargs: Other keyword arguments.
• Return type: Filtered Data frame

Note: dataframe.query() method only works if the column name doesn’t

have any empty spaces. So before applying the method, spaces in
column names are replaced with ‘_’

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 77

The query() Method

Example #1: Single condition filtering (Employee.csv)
In this example, the data is filtered on the basis of single condition. Before
applying the query() method, the spaces in column names have been
replaced with ‘_’.
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
# making data frame from csv file
data1 = pd.read_csv('D:/Python Programming/Scripts/employees.csv')
# replacing blank spaces with '_'
data1.columns =[column.replace(" ", "_") for column in data1.columns]
# filtering with query method
data1.query('Senior_Management == True', inplace = True)

# display
print(data1)

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 78

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant. Prof. U1.26
 MCA-106, Python Programming

The query() Method

Example #2: Multiple condition filtering
# making data frame from csv file
data = pd.read_csv('D:/Python Programming/Scripts/employees.csv')

# replacing blank spaces with '_'

data.columns =[column.replace(" ", "_") for column in data.columns]

# filtering with query method

data.query('Senior_Management == True and Gender =="Male" and
Team =="Marketing" and First_Name =="Johnny"', inplace = True)

# display
print(data)

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 79

Data Visualization
Data visualization is the discipline of trying to understand data by placing
it in a visual context so that patterns, trends and correlations that might
not otherwise be detected can be exposed.

Data Visualization is the presentation of data in graphical format. It helps

people understand the significance of data by summarizing and
presenting huge amount of data in a simple and easy-to-understand
format and helps communicate information clearly and effectively.

Data visualization in python is perhaps one of the most utilized features

for data science with python in today’s day and age. The libraries in
python come with lots of different features that enable users to make
highly customized, elegant, and interactive plots.

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 80

Data Visualization
Useful packages for visualizations in python
• Matplotlib
• Matplotlib is a visualization library in Python for 2D plots of arrays.
Matplotlib is written in Python and makes use of the NumPy library.
Matplotlib comes with a wide variety of plots like line, bar, scatter,
histogram, etc. which can help us, deep-dive, into understanding
trends, patterns, correlations. It was introduced by John Hunter in
2002.
• Seaborn
• Seaborn is a dataset-oriented library for making statistical
representations in Python. It is developed atop matplotlib and to create
different visualizations. It is integrated with pandas data structures. The
library internally performs the required mapping and aggregation to
create informative visuals It is recommended to use a Jupyter/IPython
interface in matplotlib mode.
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© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant. Prof. U1.27
 MCA-106, Python Programming

Data Visualization
• Bokeh
• Bokeh is an interactive visualization library for modern web browsers. It
is suitable for large or streaming data assets and can be used to
develop interactive plots and dashboards. There is a wide array of
intuitive graphs in the library which can be leveraged to develop
solutions. It works closely with PyData tools. The library is well-suited
for creating customized visuals according to required use-cases.
• Altair
• Altair is a declarative statistical visualization library for Python. Altair’s
API is user-friendly and consistent and built atop Vega-Lite JSON
specification. Declarative library indicates that while creating any
visuals, we need to define the links between the data columns to the
channels (x-axis, y-axis, size, color). With the help of Altair, it is
possible to create informative visuals with minimal code.

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 82

Data Visualization
• plotly
• plotly.py is an interactive, open-source, high-level, declarative, and
browser-based visualization library for Python. It holds an array of
useful visualization which includes scientific charts, 3D graphs,
statistical charts, financial charts among others. Plotly graphs can be
viewed in Jupyter notebooks, standalone HTML files, or hosted online.
• ggplot
• ggplot is a Python implementation of the grammar of graphics. The
Grammar of Graphics refers to the mapping of data to aesthetic
attributes (colour, shape, size) and geometric objects (points, lines,
bars). The basic building blocks according to the grammar of graphics
are data, geom (geometric objects), stats (statistical transformations),
scale, coordinate system, and facet.

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 83

Types of Charts for Analyzing &

Presenting Data

• Histogram
The histogram represents the frequency of occurrence of specific
phenomena which lie within a specific range of values and arranged in
consecutive and fixed intervals.

• Bar Charts
A bar chart can be created using the bar method. The bar-chart isn’t
automatically calculating the frequency of a category so we are going
to use pandas value_counts function to do this. The bar-chart is useful
for categorical data that doesn’t have a lot of different categories
(less than 30) because else it can get quite messy.

Example: Test-plot.py

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 MCA-106, Python Programming

Types of Charts for Analyzing &

Presenting Data

• Pie Chart :
A pie chart shows a static number and how categories represent part of
a whole the composition of something. A pie chart represents numbers
in percentages, and the total sum of all segments needs to equal
100%.

• Scatter plot :
• A scatter chart shows the relationship between two different variables
and it can reveal the distribution trends. It should be used when there
are many different data points, and you want to highlight similarities in
the data set. This is useful when looking for outliers and for
understanding the distribution of your data.

Example: Piechart.py

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 85

Creating Pie Charts

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import numpy as np

y = np.array([35, 25, 25, 15])

plt.pie(y)
plt.show()

• As you can see the pie chart draws one piece (called a wedge) for
each value in the array (in this case [35, 25, 25, 15]).
• By default the plotting of the first wedge starts from the x-axis and
move counterclockwise:

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 86

Creating Pie Charts

Labels
mylabels = ["Apples", "Bananas", "Cherries", "Dates"]
plt.pie(y, labels = mylabels)
plt.show()
Explode
• Maybe you want one of the wedges to stand out? The explode()
parameter allows you to do that.
• The explode() parameter, if specified, and not None, must be an array
with one value for each wedge.
• Each value represents how far from the center each wedge is
displayed:
myexplode = [0.2, 0, 0, 0]
plt.pie(y, labels = mylabels, explode = myexplode, shadow=true)
plt.show()

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 87

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant. Prof. U1.29
 MCA-106, Python Programming

Colors and legends

Color
You can set the color of each wedge with the colors parameter.
The colors parameter, if specified, must be an array with one value for
each wedge:
mycolors = ["black", "hotpink", "b", "#4CAF50"]
plt.pie(y, labels = mylabels, colors = mycolors)
plt.show()
Legend
To add a list of explanation for each wedge, use the legend() function:
y = np.array([35, 25, 25, 15])
mylabels = ["Apples", "Bananas", "Cherries", "Dates"]

plt.pie(y, labels = mylabels)

plt.legend()
plt.show()

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 88

Legend With Header

Legend With Header
To add a header to the legend, add the title parameter to the legend():
y = np.array([35, 25, 25, 15])
mylabels = ["Apples", "Bananas", "Cherries", "Dates"]

plt.pie(y, labels = mylabels)

plt.legend(title = "Four Fruits:")
plt.show()
Change Figure Size in Matplotlib

plt.figure(figsize=(width, height))

plt.figure(figsize=(3, 3))

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 89

Plot() Method
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import numpy as np

xpoints = np.array([0, 6])

ypoints = np.array([0, 250])

plt.plot(xpoints, ypoints)
plt.plot(xpoints, ypoints, marker= 'o')
plt.show()

Other possible markers are - *, . , x, X, +, P, s (Square), D (Diamond), v

(Triangle Down), ^ (Triangle up), < (Triangle left), > (Triangle right), _
(Hline), | (Vline)

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© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant. Prof. U1.30
 MCA-106, Python Programming

Plot() Method
Line Reference
Line Syntax Description
'-' Solid line
':' Dotted line
'--' Dashed line
'-.' Dashed/dotted line

ypoints = np.array([3, 8, 1, 10])

plt.plot(ypoints, 'o:r')
plt.show()

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 91

Plot() Method
Color Reference
Color Syntax Description
'r' Red
'g' Green
'b' Blue
'c' Cyan
'm' Magenta
'y' Yellow
'k' Black
'w' White

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 92

Plot() Method
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import numpy as np

xpoints = np.array([1, 2, 6, 8])

ypoints = np.array([3, 8, 1, 10])

plt.plot(xpoints, ypoints)
plt.show()

If we do not specify the points in the x-axis, they will get the default values
0, 1, 2, 3, (etc. depending on the length of the y-points.

Marker Size - plt.plot(ypoints, marker = 'o', ms = 20)

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 93

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 MCA-106, Python Programming

Multiple Lines in one figure

Line Width - plt.plot(ypoints, linewidth = '20.5')

Multiple Lines
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import numpy as np

y1 = np.array([3, 8, 1, 10])
y2 = np.array([6, 2, 7, 11])

plt.plot(y1)
plt.plot(y2)

plt.show()

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 94

Create Labels for a Plot

Create Labels for a Plot
import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

x = np.array([80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 105, 110, 115, 120, 125])
y = np.array([240, 250, 260, 270, 280, 290, 300, 310, 320, 330])

plt.plot(x, y)

plt.xlabel("Average Pulse")
plt.ylabel("Calorie Burnage")

plt.show()

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 95

Create a Title for a Plot

Create a Title for a Plot
plt.title("Sports Watch Data“, loc=‘left’)

Set Font Properties for Title and Labels

font1 = {'family':'serif','color':'blue','size':20}
font2 = {'family':'serif','color':'darkred','size':15}

plt.title("Sports Watch Data", fontdict = font1)

plt.xlabel("Average Pulse", fontdict = font2)
plt.ylabel("Calorie Burnage", fontdict = font2)

plt.plot(x, y)
plt.show()

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 96

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant. Prof. U1.32
 MCA-106, Python Programming

Display Multiple Plots

Display Multiple Plots
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import numpy as np

#plot 1:
x = np.array([0, 1, 2, 3])
y = np.array([3, 8, 1, 10])

plt.subplot(1, 2, 1)
plt.plot(x,y)

#plot 2:
x = np.array([0, 1, 2, 3])
y = np.array([10, 20, 30, 40])

plt.subplot(1, 2, 2)
plt.plot(x,y)

plt.show()
© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 97

Display subplots
The subplots() Function
• The subplot() function takes three arguments that describes the layout
of the figure.
• The layout is organized in rows and columns, which are represented by
the first and second argument.
• The third argument represents the index of the current plot.
plt.subplot(1, 2, 1)
#the figuree has 1 row, 2 columns, and this plot is the first plot.

plt.subplot(1, 2, 2)
#the figure has 1 row, 2 columns, and this plot is the second plot.
Try This: If we want a figure with 2 rows an 1 column

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 98

Example:
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import numpy as np

#plot 1:
x = np.array([0, 1, 2, 3])
y = np.array([3, 8, 1, 10])

plt.subplot(1, 2, 1)
plt.plot(x,y)
plt.title("SALES")

#plot 2:
x = np.array([0, 1, 2, 3])
y = np.array([10, 20, 30, 40])

plt.subplot(1, 2, 2)
plt.plot(x,y)
plt.title("INCOME")

plt.show()
© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 99

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant. Prof. U1.33
 MCA-106, Python Programming

GUI Programming
Most of the programs we have done till now are text-based programming.
But many applications need GUI (Graphical User Interface).
Python provides several different options for writing GUI based programs.
These are listed below:
• Tkinter: It is easiest to start with. Tkinter is Python's standard GUI
(graphical user interface) package. It is the most commonly used toolkit
for GUI programming in Python.
• JPython: It is the Python platform for Java that is providing Python
scripts seamless access o Java class Libraries for the local machine.
• wxPython: It is an open-source, cross-platform GUI toolkit written in
C++. It is one of the alternatives to Tkinter, which is bundled with
Python.
There are many other interfaces available for GUI. But these are the most
commonly used ones.

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 100

Tkinter
It is the standard GUI toolkit for Python. Fredrik Lundh wrote it. For
modern Tk binding, Tkinter is implemented as a Python wrapper for the Tcl
Interpreter embedded within the interpreter of Python. Tk provides the
following widgets:
• Button canvas
• combo-box frame
• Level check-button
• Entry level-frame
• Menu list - box
• menu button message
• tk_optoinMenu progress-bar
• radio button scroll bar
• Separator tree-view, and many more.

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 101

Tkinter
Steps to create GUI program using Tkinter:
• Import the module Tkinter
• Build a GUI application (as a window)
• Add those widgets that are discussed above
• Enter the primary, i.e., the main event's loop for taking action when the
user triggered the event.

• Importing tkinter is same as importing any other module in the Python

code. Note that the name of the module in Python 2.x is ‘Tkinter’ and in
Python 3.x it is ‘tkinter’.

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 MCA-106, Python Programming

Main Methods of GUI

Application
There are two main methods used which the user needs to remember
while creating the Python application with GUI.
1. Tk(screenName=None, baseName=None, className=’Tk’, useT
k=1): To create a main window, tkinter offers a method
‘Tk(screenName=None, baseName=None, className=’Tk’, useTk=
1)’. To change the name of the window, you can change the
className to the desired one.
2. mainloop(): There is a method known by the name mainloop() is
used when your application is ready to run. mainloop() is an infinite
loop used to run the application, wait for an event to occur and
process the event as long as the window is not closed.
import tkinter
m = tkinter.Tk()
m.mainloop()

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 103

Geometric Manager Classes

tkinter also offers access to the geometric configuration of the widgets
which can organize the widgets in the parent windows. There are mainly
three geometry manager classes class.
• pack() method:It organizes the widgets in blocks before placing in the
parent widget.
• grid() method:It organizes the widgets in grid (table-like structure)
before placing in the parent widget.
• place() method:It organizes the widgets by placing them on specific
positions directed by the programmer.

There are a number of widgets which you can put in your tkinter
application.

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 104

Tkinter grid() Method

This geometry manager organizes widgets in a table-like structure in the
parent widget.
widget.grid( grid_options )
Here is the list of possible options −
• column − The column to put widget in; default 0 (leftmost column).
• columnspan − How many columns widgetoccupies; default 1.
• ipadx, ipady − How many pixels to pad widget, horizontally and vertically, inside widget's
borders.
• padx, pady − How many pixels to pad widget, horizontally and vertically, outside v's
borders.
• row − The row to put widget in; default the first row that is still empty.
• rowspan − How many rowswidget occupies; default 1.
• sticky − What to do if the cell is larger than widget. By default, with sticky='', widget is
centered in its cell. sticky may be the string concatenation of zero or more of N, E, S, W,
NE, NW, SE, and SW, compass directions indicating the sides and corners of the cell to
which widget sticks.

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 MCA-106, Python Programming

Button
To add a button in your application, this widget is used.
The general syntax is:
w=Button(master, option=value)
master is the parameter used to represent the parent window.
There are number of options which are used to change the format of the
Buttons. Number of options can be passed as parameters separated by
commas. Some of them are listed below.
• activebackground: to set the background color when button is under the cursor.
• activeforeground: to set the foreground color when button is under the cursor.
• bg: to set he normal background color.
• command: to call a function.
• font: to set the font on the button label.
• image: to set the image on the button.
• width: to set the width of the button.
• height: to set the height of the button.

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 106

Button (Example)

import tkinter as tk
r = tk.Tk()
r.title('Counting Seconds')
button = tk.Button(r, text='Stop', width=25, command=r.destroy)
button.pack()
r.mainloop()

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 107

Canvas
It is used to draw pictures and other complex layout like graphics, text and
widgets. The general syntax is:
w = Canvas(master, option=value)

There are number of options which are used to change the format of the
widget. Number of options can be passed as parameters separated by
commas. Some of them are listed below.
• bd: to set the border width in pixels.
• bg: to set the normal background color.
• cursor: to set the cursor used in the canvas.
• highlightcolor: to set the color shown in the focus highlight.
• width: to set the width of the widget.
• height: to set the height of the widget.

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 108

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 MCA-106, Python Programming

Canvas (Example)
import tkinter as tk
master = tk.Tk()
w = tk.Canvas(master, width=40, height=60)
w.pack()
canvas_height=20
canvas_width=200
y = int(canvas_height / 2)
w.create_line(0, y, canvas_width, y )
w.mainloop()

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 109

CheckButton
To select any number of options by displaying a number of options to a
user as toggle buttons.
import tkinter
from tkinter import *
top = tkinter.Tk()
CheckVar1 = IntVar()
CheckVar2 = IntVar()
tkinter.Checkbutton(top, text = "Machine Learning",variable =
CheckVar1,onvalue = 1, offvalue=0).grid(row=0,sticky=W)
tkinter.Checkbutton(top, text = "Deep Learning", variable =
CheckVar2, onvalue = 0, offvalue =1).grid(row=1,sticky=W)
top.mainloop()

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 110

Entry
Entry:It is used to input the single line text entry from the user.. For multi-
line text input, Text widget is used.
There are number of options which are used to change the format of the
widget. Number of options can be passed as parameters separated by
commas. Some of them are listed below.
• bd: to set the border width in pixels.
• bg: to set the normal background color.
• cursor: to set the cursor used.
• command: to call a function.
• highlightcolor: to set the color shown in the focus highlight.
• width: to set the width of the button.
• height: to set the height of the button.

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 111

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant. Prof. U1.37
 MCA-106, Python Programming

Entry (Example)
from tkinter import *
master = Tk()
Label(master, text='First Name').grid(row=0)
Label(master, text='Last Name').grid(row=1)
e1 = Entry(master)
e2 = Entry(master)
e1.grid(row=0, column=1)
e2.grid(row=1, column=1)
mainloop()

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 112

Frame
Frame: It acts as a container to hold the widgets. It is used for grouping
and organizing the widgets.
There are number of options which are used to change the format of the
widget. Number of options can be passed as parameters separated by
commas. Some of them are listed below.
• highlightcolor: To set the color of the focus highlight when widget has
to be focused.
• bd: to set the border width in pixels.
• bg: to set the normal background color.
• cursor: to set the cursor used.
• width: to set the width of the widget.
• height: to set the height of the widget.

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 113

Frame(Example)
from tkinter import *
root = Tk()
frame = Frame(root)
frame.pack()
bottomframe = Frame(root)
bottomframe.pack( side = BOTTOM )
redbutton = Button(frame, text = 'Red', fg ='red')
redbutton.pack( side = LEFT)
greenbutton = Button(frame, text = 'Brown', fg='brown')
greenbutton.pack( side = LEFT )
bluebutton = Button(frame, text ='Blue', fg ='blue')
bluebutton.pack( side = LEFT )
blackbutton = Button(bottomframe, text ='Black', fg ='black')
blackbutton.pack( side = BOTTOM)
root.mainloop()
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© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant. Prof. U1.38
 MCA-106, Python Programming

Label
Label: It refers to the display box where you can put any text or image
which can be updated any time as per the code.
There are number of options which are used to change the format of the
widget. Number of options can be passed as parameters separated by
commas. Some of them are listed below.
• bg: to set he normal background color.
• bg to set he normal background color.
• command: to call a function.
• font: to set the font on the button label.
• image: to set the image on the button.
• width: to set the width of the button.
• height” to set the height of the button.

w = Label(root, text='Python Programming')

w.pack()

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 115

ListBox
Listbox: It offers a list to the user from which the user can accept any
number of options.
There are number of options which are used to change the format of the
widget. Number of options can be passed as parameters separated by
commas.
• highlightcolor: To set the color of the focus highlight when widget has
to be focused.
Lb = Listbox(root)
Lb.insert(1, 'Python')
Lb.insert(2, 'Java')
Lb.insert(3, 'C++')
Lb.insert(4, 'Any other')
Lb.pack()

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 116

MenuButton
It is a part of top-down menu which stays on the window all the time.
Every menubutton has its own functionality.
from tkinter import *
import tkinter

top = Tk()
mb = Menubutton ( top, text = "Menu Items", relief= RAISED)
mb.grid()
mb.menu = Menu ( mb, tearoff = 0 )
mb["menu"] = mb.menu
cVar = IntVar()
aVar = IntVar()
mb.menu.add_checkbutton ( label ='Contact', variable = cVar )
mb.menu.add_checkbutton ( label = 'About', variable = aVar )
mb.pack()
top.mainloop()

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 117

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant. Prof. U1.39
 MCA-106, Python Programming

Menu
Menu: It is used to create all kinds of menus used by the application
from tkinter import *

root = Tk()
menu = Menu(root)
root.config(menu=menu)
filemenu = Menu(menu)
menu.add_cascade(label='File', menu=filemenu)
filemenu.add_command(label='New')
filemenu.add_command(label='Open...')
filemenu.add_separator()
filemenu.add_command(label='Exit', command=root.quit)
helpmenu = Menu(menu)
menu.add_cascade(label='Help', menu=helpmenu)
helpmenu.add_command(label='About')
mainloop()

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 118

Message
Message: It refers to the multi-line and non-editable text.
The message widget is similar in its functionality to the Label widget, but it
is more flexible in displaying text, e.g. the font can be changed while
the Label widget can only display text in a single font. It provides a
multiline object, that is the text may span more than one line

from tkinter import *

main = Tk()
ourMessage ='This is our Message'
messageVar = Message(main, text = ourMessage)
messageVar.config(bg='lightgreen')
messageVar.pack( )
main.mainloop( )

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 119

RadioButtons
The Radiobutton is a standard Tkinter widget used to implement one-of-
many selections. Radiobuttons can contain text or images, and you can
associate a Python function or method with each button. When the button
is pressed, Tkinter automatically calls that function or method.
General Syntax:

button = Radiobutton(master, text=”Name on Button”, variable = “shared

variable”, value = “values of each button”, options = values, …)
shared variable = A Tkinter variable shared among all Radio buttons
value = each radiobutton should have different value otherwise more than
1 radiobutton will get selected.

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© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant. Prof. U1.40
 MCA-106, Python Programming

RadioButtons (Example)
from tkinter import *

def sel():
selection = "You selected the option " + str(var.get())
label.config(text = selection)

root = Tk()
var = IntVar()
R1 = Radiobutton(root, text="Option 1", variable=var, value=1, command=sel)
R1.pack( anchor = W )

R2 = Radiobutton(root, text="Option 2", variable=var, value=2, command=sel)

R2.pack( anchor = W )

R3 = Radiobutton(root, text="Option 3", variable=var, value=3, command=sel)

R3.pack( anchor = W)
label = Label(root)
label.pack()
root.mainloop()
© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 121

Database Access
• Python can be used in database applications.
• One of the most popular databases is MySQL.
• You can download a free MySQL database
at https://www.mysql.com/downloads/.
• Python needs a MySQL driver to access the MySQL
database.
• use PIP to install "MySQL Connector".
• Use command python -m pip install mysql-connector-
python

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 122

Create Connection
• We can start by creating a connection to the database.
• Use the username and password from your MySQL
database:
import mysql.connector

mydb = mysql.connector.connect(
host="localhost",
user="yourusername",
password="yourpassword"
)

print(mydb)

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 123

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant. Prof. U1.41
 MCA-106, Python Programming

Creating a Database
To create a database in MySQL, use the "CREATE DATABASE"
statement:

import mysql.connector

mydb = mysql.connector.connect(
host="localhost",
user="yourusername",
password="yourpassword"
)

mycursor = mydb.cursor()

mycursor.execute("CREATE DATABASE mydatabase")

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 124

Creating a Table
• To create a table in MySQL, use the "CREATE TABLE"
statement.
• Make sure you define the name of the database when you
create the connection
import mysql.connector

mydb = mysql.connector.connect(
host="localhost",
user="yourusername",
password="yourpassword",
database="mydatabase"
)

mycursor = mydb.cursor()

mycursor.execute("CREATE TABLE customers (id INT AUTO_INCREMENT PRIMARY KEY, name

VARCHAR(255), address VARCHAR(255))")

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 125

Insert Into Table

To fill a table in MySQL, use the "INSERT INTO" statement.
import mysql.connector

mydb = mysql.connector.connect(
host="localhost",
user="yourusername",
password="yourpassword",
database="mydatabase"
)

mycursor = mydb.cursor()

sql = "INSERT INTO customers (name, address) VALUES (%s, %s)"

val = ("John", "Highway 21")
mycursor.execute(sql, val)

mydb.commit()

print(mycursor.rowcount, "record inserted.")

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 126

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant. Prof. U1.42
 MCA-106, Python Programming

Insert Multiple Rows

• To insert multiple rows into a table, use the executemany() method.
• The second parameter of the executemany() method is a list of tuples,
containing the data you want to insert:
sql = "INSERT INTO customers (name, address) VALUES (%s, %s)"
val = [
('Peter', 'Lowstreet 4'),
('Amy', 'Apple st 652'),
('Hannah', 'Mountain 21'),
('Michael', 'Valley 345'),
('Sandy', 'Ocean blvd 2'),
('Betty', 'Green Grass 1'),
('Richard', 'Sky st 331'),
('Susan', 'One way 98'),
('Vicky', 'Yellow Garden 2'),
('Ben', 'Park Lane 38'),
('William', 'Central st 954'),
('Chuck', 'Main Road 989'),
('Viola', 'Sideway 1633')
]

mycursor.executemany(sql, val)
© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 127
mydb.commit()

Select From a Table

• To select from a table in MySQL, use the "SELECT"
statement:
import mysql.connector

mydb = mysql.connector.connect(
host="localhost",
user="yourusername",
password="yourpassword",
database="mydatabase"
)

mycursor = mydb.cursor()

mycursor.execute("SELECT * FROM customers")

myresult = mycursor.fetchall()

for x in myresult:
print(x)
© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 128

Selecting Columns
mycursor = mydb.cursor()

mycursor.execute("SELECT name, address FROM customers")

myresult = mycursor.fetchall()

for x in myresult:
print(x)

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 129

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant. Prof. U1.43
 MCA-106, Python Programming

Select With a Filter

When selecting records from a table, you can filter the selection by using
the "WHERE" statement:

mycursor = mydb.cursor()

sql = "SELECT * FROM customers WHERE address ='Park Lane 38'"

mycursor.execute(sql)

myresult = mycursor.fetchall()

for x in myresult:
print(x)

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 130

Prevent SQL Injection

• When query values are provided by the user, you should
escape the values.
• This is to prevent SQL injections, which is a common web
hacking technique to destroy or misuse your database.
• The mysql.connector module has methods to escape query
values:
mycursor = mydb.cursor()

sql = "SELECT * FROM customers WHERE address = %s"

adr = ("Yellow Garden 2", )

mycursor.execute(sql, adr)

myresult = mycursor.fetchall()

for x in myresult:
print(x)

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 131

Delete Record
You can delete records from an existing table by using the "DELETE
FROM" statement:

mycursor = mydb.cursor()

sql = "DELETE FROM customers WHERE address = 'Mountain 21'"

mycursor.execute(sql)

mydb.commit()

print(mycursor.rowcount, "record(s) deleted")

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 MCA-106, Python Programming

Update Records in a Table

You can update existing records in a table by using the "UPDATE"
statement:
mycursor = mydb.cursor()

sql = "UPDATE customers SET address = 'Canyon 123' WHERE address = 'Valley
345'"

mycursor.execute(sql)

mydb.commit()

print(mycursor.rowcount, "record(s) affected")

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 133

Limit the Result

You can limit the number of records returned from the query, by using the
"LIMIT" statement:
mycursor = mydb.cursor()
mycursor.execute("SELECT * FROM customers LIMIT 5")
myresult = mycursor.fetchall()
for x in myresult:
print(x)
Start From Another Position
• If you want to return five records, starting from the third record, you can
use the "OFFSET" keyword:

mycursor = mydb.cursor()
mycursor.execute("SELECT * FROM customers LIMIT 5 OFFSET 2")
myresult = mycursor.fetchall()
for x in myresult:
print(x)

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 134

Drop a Table
You can delete an existing table by using the "DROP TABLE" statement:
mycursor = mydb.cursor()
sql = "DROP TABLE customers"
mycursor.execute(sql)

Drop Only if Exist

• If the the table you want to delete is already deleted, or for any other
reason does not exist, you can use the IF EXISTS keyword to avoid
getting an error.

mycursor = mydb.cursor()
sql = "DROP TABLE IF EXISTS customers"
mycursor.execute(sql)

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© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant. Prof. U1.45
 MCA-106, Python Programming

Join Two or More Tables

• You can combine rows from two or more tables, based on a related
column between them, by using a JOIN statement.
Suppose we have a "users" table and a "products" table:
Example
• Join users and products to see the name of the users favorite product:

mycursor = mydb.cursor()
sql = "SELECT \
users.name AS user, \
products.name AS favorite \
FROM users \
INNER JOIN products ON users.fav = products.id"
mycursor.execute(sql)
myresult = mycursor.fetchall()
for x in myresult:
print(x)

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 136

LEFT JOIN
• In the example above, Hannah, and Michael were excluded from the
result, that is because INNER JOIN only shows the records where
there is a match.
• If you want to show all users, even if they do not have a favorite
product, use the LEFT JOIN statement:
Example
• Select all users and their favorite product:
sql = "SELECT \
users.name AS user, \
products.name AS favorite \
FROM users \
LEFT JOIN products ON users.fav = products.id"

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant Professor – Unit IV 137

RIGHT JOIN
If you want to return all products, and the users who have them as their
favorite, even if no user have them as their favorite, use the RIGHT JOIN
statement:
Example
• Select all products, and the user(s) who have them as their favorite:
sql = "SELECT \
users.name AS user, \
products.name AS favorite \
FROM users \
RIGHT JOIN products ON users.fav = products.id"

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© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Dr. Saumya, Assistant. Prof. U1.46