11. Explain the elements of the Object Model in detail?

The object model visualizes the elements in a software application in terms of objects. In this chapter,
we will look into the basic concepts and terminologies of object–oriented systems.

Objects and Classes

The concepts of objects and classes are intrinsically linked with each other and form the foundation of
object–oriented paradigm.

Object

An object is a real-world element in an object–oriented environment that may have a physical or a

conceptual existence. Each object has −

• Identity that distinguishes it from other objects in the system.

• State that determines the characteristic properties of an object as well as the values of the
properties that the object holds.

• Behavior that represents externally visible activities performed by an object in terms of changes
in its state.

Objects can be modelled according to the needs of the application. An object may have a physical
existence, like a customer, a car, etc.; or an intangible conceptual existence, like a project, a process, etc.

Class

A class represents a collection of objects having same characteristic properties that exhibit common
behavior. It gives the blueprint or description of the objects that can be created from it. Creation of an
object as a member of a class is called instantiation. Thus, object is an instance of a class.

The constituents of a class are −

• A set of attributes for the objects that are to be instantiated from the class. Generally, different
objects of a class have some difference in the values of the attributes. Attributes are often
referred as class data.

• A set of operations that portray the behavior of the objects of the class. Operations are also
referred as functions or methods.

Example

Let us consider a simple class, Circle, that represents the geometrical figure circle in a two–dimensional
space. The attributes of this class can be identified as follows −

• x–coord, to denote x–coordinate of the center

• y–coord, to denote y–coordinate of the center

• a, to denote the radius of the circle

Some of its operations can be defined as follows −

 • findArea(), method to calculate area

• findCircumference(), method to calculate circumference

• scale(), method to increase or decrease the radius

During instantiation, values are assigned for at least some of the attributes. If we create an object
my_circle, we can assign values like x-coord : 2, y-coord : 3, and a : 4 to depict its state. Now, if the
operation scale() is performed on my_circle with a scaling factor of 2, the value of the variable a will
become 8. This operation brings a change in the state of my_circle, i.e., the object has exhibited certain
behavior.

Encapsulation and Data Hiding

Encapsulation

Encapsulation is the process of binding both attributes and methods together within a class. Through
encapsulation, the internal details of a class can be hidden from outside. It permits the elements of the
class to be accessed from outside only through the interface provided by the class.

Data Hiding

Typically, a class is designed such that its data (attributes) can be accessed only by its class methods and
insulated from direct outside access. This process of insulating an object’s data is called data hiding or
information hiding.

Example

In the class Circle, data hiding can be incorporated by making attributes invisible from outside the class
and adding two more methods to the class for accessing class data, namely −

• setValues(), method to assign values to x-coord, y-coord, and a

• getValues(), method to retrieve values of x-coord, y-coord, and a

Here the private data of the object my_circle cannot be accessed directly by any method that is not
encapsulated within the class Circle. It should instead be accessed through the methods setValues() and
getValues().

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Message Passing

Any application requires a number of objects interacting in a harmonious manner. Objects in a system
may communicate with each other using message passing. Suppose a system has two objects: obj1 and
obj2. The object obj1 sends a message to object obj2, if obj1 wants obj2 to execute one of its methods.

The features of message passing are −

 • Message passing between two objects is generally unidirectional.

• Message passing enables all interactions between objects.

• Message passing essentially involves invoking class methods.

• Objects in different processes can be involved in message passing.

Inheritance

Inheritance is the mechanism that permits new classes to be created out of existing classes by extending
and refining its capabilities. The existing classes are called the base classes/parent classes/super-classes,
and the new classes are called the derived classes/child classes/subclasses. The subclass can inherit or
derive the attributes and methods of the super-class(es) provided that the super-class allows so. Besides,
the subclass may add its own attributes and methods and may modify any of the super-class methods.
Inheritance defines an “is – a” relationship.

Example

From a class Mammal, a number of classes can be derived such as Human, Cat, Dog, Cow, etc. Humans,
cats, dogs, and cows all have the distinct characteristics of mammals. In addition, each has its own
particular characteristics. It can be said that a cow “is – a” mammal.

Types of Inheritance

• Single Inheritance − A subclass derives from a single super-class.

• Multiple Inheritance − A subclass derives from more than one super-classes.

• Multilevel Inheritance − A subclass derives from a super-class which in turn is derived from
another class and so on.

• Hierarchical Inheritance − A class has a number of subclasses each of which may have
subsequent subclasses, continuing for a number of levels, so as to form a tree structure.

• Hybrid Inheritance − A combination of multiple and multilevel inheritance so as to form a lattice

structure.

The following figure depicts the examples of different types of inheritance.

Polymorphism

Polymorphism is originally a Greek word that means the ability to take multiple forms. In object-oriented
paradigm, polymorphism implies using operations in different ways, depending upon the instance they
are operating upon. Polymorphism allows objects with different internal structures to have a common
external interface. Polymorphism is particularly effective while implementing inheritance.
Example

Let us consider two classes, Circle and Square, each with a method findArea(). Though the name and
purpose of the methods in the classes are same, the internal implementation, i.e., the procedure of
calculating area is different for each class. When an object of class Circle invokes its findArea() method,
the operation finds the area of the circle without any conflict with the findArea() method of the Square
class.

Generalization and Specialization

Generalization and specialization represent a hierarchy of relationships between classes, where

subclasses inherit from super-classes.

Generalization

In the generalization process, the common characteristics of classes are combined to form a class in a
higher level of hierarchy, i.e., subclasses are combined to form a generalized super-class. It represents an
“is – a – kind – of” relationship. For example, “car is a kind of land vehicle”, or “ship is a kind of water
vehicle”.

Specialization

Specialization is the reverse process of generalization. Here, the distinguishing features of groups of
objects are used to form specialized classes from existing classes. It can be said that the subclasses are
the specialized versions of the super-class.

The following figure shows an example of generalization and specialization.

Links and Association

Link

A link represents a connection through which an object collaborates with other objects. Rumbaugh has
defined it as “a physical or conceptual connection between objects”. Through a link, one object may
invoke the methods or navigate through another object. A link depicts the relationship between two or
more objects.

Association
Association is a group of links having common structure and common behavior. Association depicts the
relationship between objects of one or more classes. A link can be defined as an instance of an
association.

Degree of an Association

Degree of an association denotes the number of classes involved in a connection. Degree may be unary,
binary, or ternary.

• A unary relationship connects objects of the same class.

• A binary relationship connects objects of two classes.

• A ternary relationship connects objects of three or more classes.

Cardinality Ratios of Associations

Cardinality of a binary association denotes the number of instances participating in an association. There
are three types of cardinality ratios, namely −

• One–to–One − A single object of class A is associated with a single object of class B.

• One–to–Many − A single object of class A is associated with many objects of class B.

• Many–to–Many − An object of class A may be associated with many objects of class B and
conversely an object of class B may be associated with many objects of class A.

Aggregation or Composition

Aggregation or composition is a relationship among classes by which a class can be made up of any
combination of objects of other classes. It allows objects to be placed directly within the body of other
classes. Aggregation is referred as a “part–of” or “has–a” relationship, with the ability to navigate from
the whole to its parts. An aggregate object is an object that is composed of one or more other objects.

Example

In the relationship, “a car has–a motor”, car is the whole object or the aggregate, and the motor is a
“part–of” the car. Aggregation may denote −

• Physical containment − Example, a computer is composed of monitor, CPU, mouse, keyboard,

and so on.

• Conceptual containment − Example, shareholder has–a share.

Benefits of Object Model

Now that we have gone through the core concepts pertaining to object orientation, it would be
worthwhile to note the advantages that this model has to offer.

The benefits of using the object model are −

• It helps in faster development of software.

 • It is easy to maintain. Suppose a module develops an error, then a programmer can fix that
particular module, while the other parts of the software are still up and running.

• It supports relatively hassle-free upgrades.

• It enables reuse of objects, designs, and functions.

• It reduces development risks, particularly in integration of complex systems.

12. Discuss how the quality of an abstraction can be measured?

The quality of an abstraction can be evaluated using various criteria that assess its effectiveness, clarity,
and utility. A good abstraction simplifies complex systems, promotes understanding, and reduces
cognitive load without sacrificing essential details. Below are key metrics and factors to consider when
measuring the quality of an abstraction:

1. Simplicity

• Definition: The abstraction should reduce complexity by focusing on essential details and hiding
unnecessary implementation details.

• Measurement:

o Does the abstraction reduce the mental effort required to understand and use it?

o Are there unnecessary or redundant components?

2. Generalization

• Definition: A good abstraction should apply to a broad range of scenarios while remaining
specific enough to solve a problem effectively.

• Measurement:

o Can the abstraction be reused in multiple contexts or domains?

o Does it avoid over-generalization, which could lead to loss of clarity or relevance?

3. Consistency

• Definition: The abstraction should behave predictably and adhere to established principles,
patterns, or conventions.

• Measurement:

o Does the abstraction align with the user's expectations and domain-specific standards?

o Are its interfaces and interactions consistent across use cases?

4. Completeness

• Definition: The abstraction should fully address the problem it is meant to solve without
requiring the user to deal with hidden complexities.
 • Measurement:

o Does the abstraction provide all the necessary tools and information for its intended
purpose?

o Does it leave out critical details that users must work around?

5. Clarity

• Definition: The abstraction should be intuitive and easy to understand.

• Measurement:

o Is the abstraction self-explanatory or well-documented?

o Can users grasp its purpose and usage with minimal effort?

6. Encapsulation

• Definition: The abstraction should effectively encapsulate underlying details to protect users
from dealing with lower-level complexities.

• Measurement:

o Are the internal workings hidden while exposing only what is necessary?

o Does the abstraction ensure a clean separation of concerns?

7. Minimalism

• Definition: A good abstraction avoids unnecessary features or components, which can make it
bloated or harder to use.

• Measurement:

o Does the abstraction include only the features needed for its purpose?

o Are there any elements that could be removed without affecting functionality?

8. Adaptability and Flexibility

• Definition: The abstraction should be flexible enough to adapt to changing requirements

without major redesigns.

• Measurement:

o Can the abstraction handle foreseeable changes or extensions?

o Does it allow users to customize or extend its behavior when needed?

9. Performance

• Definition: While hiding complexity, the abstraction should not impose significant performance
overhead.

• Measurement:
 o Does the abstraction introduce inefficiencies that could have been avoided?

o How does its performance compare to direct, lower-level implementations?

10. Error Handling and Robustness

• Definition: The abstraction should provide clear mechanisms for handling errors or unexpected
conditions.

• Measurement:

o Does the abstraction make it easy to detect, handle, and recover from errors?

o Are failure scenarios well-documented and manageable?

11. Orthogonality

• Definition: Each component of the abstraction should serve a distinct purpose without
overlapping responsibilities.

• Measurement:

o Are different features or components independent of each other?

o Does modifying one aspect of the abstraction minimize unintended consequences?

Examples:

• In software engineering, a well-designed API is an example of a high-quality abstraction if it

simplifies interactions with complex systems, has intuitive naming conventions, hides
unnecessary details, and is reusable.

• In data science, a well-crafted data model is a good abstraction when it represents complex
relationships while being easy to query and extend.

13. Discuss clearly about different Models of Object-Oriented Development with a neat sketch?

Object-Oriented Development (OOD) involves using object-oriented principles to design and build
software. The process is typically organized into several models, each representing a different aspect of
the system under development. These models help in analyzing, designing, and implementing object-
oriented systems systematically. Below is a discussion of the different models used in OOD, along with a
sketch to illustrate their relationships.

1. Object Model

• Purpose: Describes the static structure of the system, focusing on objects, their attributes,
operations, and relationships.

• Key Elements:

o Objects: Represent real-world entities.

 o Classes: Define the blueprint for objects.

o Attributes: Represent the properties of objects.

o Methods/Operations: Define the behavior of objects.

o Relationships:

▪ Association: Links between objects.

▪ Inheritance: "Is-a" relationship for sharing behavior and structure.

▪ Aggregation/Composition: "Has-a" relationships.

• Output: Class diagrams, object diagrams.

2. Dynamic Model

• Purpose: Captures the dynamic behavior of objects and their interactions over time.

• Key Elements:

o State Diagrams: Show how objects transition between states based on events.

o Interaction Diagrams: Illustrate how objects collaborate through message passing.

o Sequence Diagrams: Represent the flow of messages over time.

o Activity Diagrams: Highlight workflows or processes.

• Output: State diagrams, sequence diagrams, activity diagrams.

3. Functional Model

• Purpose: Represents the functional aspects of the system, focusing on what the system does
rather than how it behaves.

• Key Elements:

o Data Flow Diagrams (DFDs): Depict the flow of data between functions.

o Use Case Diagrams: Show interactions between actors and the system.

o Scenarios: Describe specific use cases or user stories.

• Output: Use case diagrams, DFDs, and textual use case descriptions.

4. Implementation Model

• Purpose: Translates the design into code and defines how objects and components are
implemented in the chosen programming language.
 • Key Elements:

o Code Structure: Class definitions, interfaces, modules.

o Database Mapping: Mapping object models to database schema (if applicable).

o Component Diagrams: Represent physical components like libraries or executables.

• Output: Source code, component diagrams.

5. Deployment Model

• Purpose: Describes the physical deployment of the system, showing how software components
map to hardware nodes.

• Key Elements:

o Nodes: Represent hardware or execution environments.

o Artifacts: Represent software components deployed on nodes.

o Connections: Show communication between nodes.

• Output: Deployment diagrams.

Relationships Between Models

These models are interrelated and complement each other:

1. The Object Model focuses on static aspects (classes and relationships).

2. The Dynamic Model adds behavior (object interactions and state changes).

3. The Functional Model emphasizes what the system does (functional requirements).

4. The Implementation Model operationalizes the design into code.

5. The Deployment Model ensures the system operates as intended in its physical environment.

14. How does one properly identify the classes and objects that are relevant to a particular application?
Explain?

15. What is object diagram?

An Object Diagram in OOAD is used to represent a snapshot of the system at a particular moment in
time, showing specific instances of classes (objects) and their relationships. Unlike class diagrams, which
define the structure of the system in terms of types, object diagrams illustrate the state of the system
with actual objects and their links, providing a more concrete view of how classes are instantiated and
related.
Key Modeling Techniques for Object Diagrams

Below are various modeling techniques and best practices for creating object diagrams:

1. Identify Concrete Objects

Instantiation of Classes: Start by identifying the concrete instances of classes (objects) you want to
represent. These are typically created during runtime and represent real-world entities or system
components.

● Naming: Objects in an object diagram are named as instances of a class, typically with the form
objectName: ClassName. For example, john: Person represents an instance john of the class Person.

○ Example: order1: Order, car1: Car, account: BankAccount

2. Define Object Attributes

● For each object, show the values of the attributes at a particular point in time. These
attribute values provide a snapshot of the object's state.

● The format for attributes is attributeName=value. For example:

○ age=30 ○ balance=500.75

3. Define Relationships Between Objects

● Links: Relationships between objects are represented as links in object diagrams.

Links are the specific instances of associations between objects, based on the class
relationships defined in the class diagram. ● Use solid lines to connect objects and optionally
show multiplicity (e.g., one-to-many, many-to-many) near the ends of the lines to specify
how many objects are involved in the relationship.

● Navigation of Links: Object diagrams show navigability of relationships by placing an

arrow at the end of a link to show the direction of the relationship (similar to how
associations are represented in class diagrams).

Roles: If necessary, you can label the links with role names to clarify the nature of the relationship.
For example, customer1 -(purchases) --> order1.

4. Use of Object States

● In some object diagrams, you can include the state of the object at a particular moment by
showing certain attributes' values. For example, in a shopping cart scenario, you may want to show
the state of an

Order object with attributes like:

○ orderStatus="Pending"

○ totalAmount=150.00

5. Referencing Class Names

● In object diagrams, the class names of the objects are usually written in a different
font style (italicized) or placed in a compartment at the top of the object box.

● For example, an object order1: Order will have the name Order in italics or in the top
section of the object box, and order1 is the specific instance.

6. Multiplicity and Constraints

 ● You can model multiplicity and constraints by adding multiplicity labels near
relationships. For example, you might show a one-to-many relationship between a Customer
and Order objects (one customer can have multiple orders).

● Constraints can be applied to specific links to express rules or limitations, such as “A

customer can only have one active order.”

7. Abstract and Concrete Objects

Object diagrams typically focus on concrete instances rather than abstract objects or classes.
Abstract classes and their instances should be clearly represented as instances of concrete
subclasses.

8. Show Object Lifetimes

● Temporal Aspect: You can indicate the lifetime of objects by showing when an object comes into
existence and when it is destroyed, particularly in sequence or communication diagrams, but not
explicitly in an object diagram. However, it’s sometimes implied by the context and how objects
interact.

9. Use of Object Diagrams for Debugging and Testing

● Object diagrams are often useful in debugging or for visualizing test cases. If you're analyzing a
scenario, you can show objects in their current state, helping to debug issues related to object
interactions.

10. Illustrate Complex Object Relationships

● For complex relationships, aggregation, composition, and inheritance can also be

represented in object diagrams, but they should show the concrete objects that are instances
of the relationships, rather than just abstract associations.

● For instance, if a Car has a composition relationship with Wheel (i.e., the car has
wheels, and if the car is destroyed, so are the wheels), the object diagram will show
instances of Car and Wheel connected by a solid diamond.

11. Representation of Multiple Object Instances

● Object diagrams can represent multiple instances of the same class. In this case, you can show
multiple objects of the same class (e.g., several Employee objects with different attribute values).

12. Using Object Diagrams for Scenario Modeling

Object diagrams are often used in scenario-based modeling, where they can represent particular
states of a system during the execution of a use case.

● A scenario might be represented as an object diagram where different objects are instantiated with
various values and links representing the interaction between those objects during a particular flow
of the system.

Example Object Diagram

Here is a simple example of an object diagram that represents instances of classes with their
attributes and relationships:

16. How class diagram is important in UML? Explain with an example?

a Class Diagram represents the static structure of a system by showing its classes, their attributes,
operations, and the relationships between the objects. Modelling a class diagram effectively involves
using a variety of techniques and best practices to ensure the diagram is clear, understandable, and
reflective of the system's architecture.

Here are key modelling techniques for creating a class diagram:

1. Identify Classes

● Identify the key objects in the system and group them as classes.

These might correspond to real-world entities (e.g., Person, Car, Order), system components (e.g.,
Controller, Database), or abstract concepts (e.g., Transaction, Workflow).

● Use noun-based identification: Look for nouns in the system’s requirements or

problem domain, as they often correspond to classes.

2. Define Attributes

● For each class, define its attributes. These are the properties or fields that describe
the class. For example, a Person class may have attributes like name, age, and address.

● Include the visibility of attributes (public, private, protected), typically using the
following notation:

○ + for public attributes (e.g., +name)

○ - for private attributes (e.g., -password)

○ # for protected attributes (e.g., #balance)

3. Define Methods/Operations

● Identify the functions or methods (operations) that the class will perform. For
example, the Person class might have methods like getFullName(), updateAddress(), etc.
 ● Similarly to attributes, methods should be defined with visibility, return types, and
parameters. For example:

○ +calculateSalary() : double

○ -setPassword(newPassword: String)

4. Define Relationships

● Association: Use solid lines to indicate associations between classes, with or without
arrowheads, depending on the direction of the relationship. An association shows that one
class is related to another but doesn’t imply ownership.

○ Multiplicity: Add multiplicity constraints (e.g., 1, 0..1, *, 1..*) to show how

many instances of a class can be associated with another class.

● Aggregation: A special type of association that represents a whole/part relationship,

typically using a hollow diamond at the whole's end (e.g., Car and Wheel).

○ Example: A Car class has an aggregation relationship with a Wheel class.

● Composition: A stronger form of aggregation, indicating that the part cannot exist
without the whole. This is represented by a filled diamond. For example, a House class could
have a Room class in a composition relationship, meaning if a house is destroyed, the rooms
are also destroyed.

● Inheritance (Generalization): Use a line with a hollow triangle at the base to indicate
inheritance. For example, a Dog class can inherit from an Animal class. This signifies that Dog
is a specialized type of Animal.

○ Example: Dog inherits from Animal, so Dog will inherit attributes and
methods of Animal.

● Realization: Represented with a dashed line and a hollow triangle, realization is used
to show that a class implements an interface. For instance, Car might implement the Vehicle
interface.

● Dependency: Represented by a dashed line with an arrow, dependency shows that

one class depends on another, typically for method invocations or usage.

5. Use of Interfaces

● Interfaces: An interface defines a contract that classes can implement. In the class diagram, you
can represent interfaces with a «interface» stereotype, and the implementing classes with a solid
line from the class to the interface, typically with a dashed arrow or line with the implements
keyword.

○ Example: A Vehicle interface with start() and stop() methods could be implemented by Car and
Bike.

6. Abstract Classes and Methods

 ● An abstract class cannot be instantiated directly and may contain abstract methods
that must be implemented by its subclasses. Represent abstract classes with the keyword
abstract or italicized class names.

● Use abstract methods to indicate methods that don’t have implementations in the
abstract class but must be implemented in subclasses.

7. Use Stereotypes

● Stereotypes are used to add additional semantic meaning to classes, methods,

relationships, etc. In UML, stereotypes are enclosed in << >>.

○ Example: <<entity>>, <<controller>>,

<<boundary>>, <<interface>>

● For example, a Controller class may be stereotyped as <<controller>> to denote it

has a specific role within an architecture.

8. Design Patterns Representation

● Represent well-known design patterns in class diagrams to highlight structural

relationships in a system.

○ Example: For a Factory Method Pattern, you can represent the interface with a method to create
objects, and the concrete classes implementing this factory.

● For Composite Pattern, use a class diagram to show that a Composite class contains
both Leaf and Composite objects,

where both implement a common interface.

9. Refine with Constraints

● Add OCL (Object Constraint Language) or textual constraints to represent business rules and
restrictions, such as "A customer can only have one address at a time" or "A Person can have only
one Passport".

10. Modeling Package and Subsystems

● Use Packages to group related classes. This is especially helpful in large systems to show the
modularity and organization of classes. Each package can be represented as a folder icon, and you
can draw dependencies between packages.

11. Avoid Overcrowding

● Keep your diagrams simple and avoid overcrowding. If your system has many classes
or relationships, break it down into smaller, manageable sub-diagrams.

● Layering: You can use layers or separate diagrams for different levels of the system,
like domain logic, data access, or presentation layers.

12. Version Control

● Use versioning to model the evolution of your system over time. UML allows you to show class
versioning to reflect changes in the system architecture, especially when dealing with object-
oriented frameworks.

Example Class Diagram

Here is a simple class diagram example that includes various relationships:

17. Write and explain four basic principles of modelling?

Modeling is a fundamental aspect of software engineering and system design, allowing us to abstract
and represent complex systems in a simplified, understandable form. Here are the four basic
principles of modeling explained in detail:

1. Abstraction

• Definition: Abstraction involves focusing on the essential aspects of a system while ignoring
irrelevant details.

• Purpose: It simplifies the system by highlighting critical components and suppressing

unnecessary complexities.

• Key Idea: Models should capture only what is necessary for the specific problem or
audience.

• Example:
 o In a library system, instead of modeling every physical detail of a book (e.g., size,
weight, color), the abstraction focuses on attributes like title, author, and ISBN,
which are relevant to library operations.

• Importance:

o Promotes clarity and reduces cognitive load.

o Allows different stakeholders to focus on aspects relevant to them.

2. Accuracy

• Definition: A model should faithfully represent the system or concept it is intended to

describe.

• Purpose: To ensure the model is useful for decision-making and does not mislead
stakeholders.

• Key Idea: The model must be an accurate reflection of reality or the desired system behavior
within the chosen level of abstraction.

• Example:

o A model of a car's engine must accurately represent the flow of fuel and energy,
even if it omits details like color or surface finish.

• Importance:

o Ensures validity in simulations, predictions, and implementations.

o Avoids incorrect assumptions and design flaws.

3. Understandability

• Definition: A model should be easy to understand by its intended audience.

• Purpose: To facilitate communication and collaboration among stakeholders, including

developers, designers, and business users.

• Key Idea: The complexity of the model should match the expertise and needs of the
audience.

• Example:

o A use case diagram for non-technical stakeholders focuses on user interactions

rather than internal system details, making it more accessible.

• Importance:

o Improves stakeholder involvement and feedback.

o Reduces the risk of misunderstandings and misinterpretations.

4. Reusability

• Definition: A model should be designed to be reusable in different contexts or systems

where applicable.

• Purpose: To save time and effort in future projects by leveraging existing models or
components.

• Key Idea: Models should be generalized enough to apply to multiple situations without
significant rework.

• Example:

o A payment processing model could be reused across e-commerce, subscription

systems, or ticketing platforms, provided it is designed with general principles.

• Importance:

o Enhances efficiency and reduces duplication of effort.

o Encourages consistency across systems and projects.

18. What is a nature of Class and Object? How to identify Classes and Objects with suitable
Examples?

Class:

• A class is a blueprint or template used to define objects. It encapsulates data (attributes) and
behaviors (methods) that describe a particular type of entity in the problem domain.

• It is abstract, meaning it provides the structure but doesn't represent a specific instance.

• Nature of a Class:

o Encapsulation: Combines data and behaviors.

o Reusability: Classes can be reused across different parts of the system.

o Abstraction: Provides an abstract representation of an entity.

o Relationships: Classes may interact with other classes (e.g., inheritance, association).

Object:

• An object is a specific instance of a class. It represents a real-world entity with defined

attributes and behaviors.

• Objects are concrete, meaning they hold specific values for the attributes defined by the
class.

• Nature of an Object:

o Identity: Every object has a unique identity.

o State: Objects have specific attribute values at a given point in time.

o Behavior: Objects can perform actions (methods) defined by their class.

Steps to Identify Classes and Objects

1. Analyze the Problem Domain:

o Study the requirements, use cases, or user stories to understand the system.

o Focus on entities, their attributes, and behaviors.

2. Extract Nouns and Verbs:

o Identify nouns in the requirements as potential classes or objects.

o Identify verbs as potential methods or behaviors.

3. Categorize Candidates:

o Check if a noun represents:

▪ A real-world entity (e.g., Customer, Product).

▪ A concept or role (e.g., User, Admin).

▪ An event or interaction (e.g., Transaction, Order).

o Discard irrelevant or redundant nouns (e.g., "System" or "User Interface").

4. Define Relationships:

o Determine associations between entities (e.g., "A Customer places an Order").

o Identify inheritance hierarchies (e.g., "Admin and Customer are types of Users").

5. Validate through Scenarios:

o Simulate how the identified classes and objects interact in real-world scenarios to
ensure completeness.

Examples of Identifying Classes and Objects

Example 1: Library Management System

• Requirement: "A member can borrow books from the library. Each book has a title, author,
and ISBN. Borrowing details are recorded."

• Steps:

o Nouns (Classes):

▪ Member: Represents a library user.

▪ Book: Represents books in the library.

▪ Borrowing: Represents the act of borrowing.

o Attributes:

▪ Member: name, memberID.

▪ Book: title, author, ISBN, availability.

 ▪ Borrowing: borrowDate, dueDate.

o Methods:

▪ Member: borrowBook(), returnBook().

▪ Book: checkAvailability().

▪ Borrowing: recordBorrowing(), updateStatus().

Identified Classes and Objects:

• Classes: Member, Book, Borrowing.

• Objects: A specific member ("John Doe"), a specific book ("The Great Gatsby"), and a specific
borrowing record.

Example 2: Online Shopping System

• Requirement: "A customer can browse products, add them to a cart, and place an order."

• Steps:

o Nouns (Classes):

▪ Customer: Represents users of the system.

▪ Product: Represents items available for purchase.

▪ Cart: Represents a collection of products selected by a customer.

▪ Order: Represents a confirmed purchase.

o Attributes:

▪ Customer: name, email, address.

▪ Product: productID, name, price.

▪ Cart: items, totalAmount.

▪ Order: orderID, orderDate, status.

o Methods:

▪ Customer: addToCart(), placeOrder().

▪ Product: getDetails(), checkStock().

▪ Cart: calculateTotal(), removeItem().

▪ Order: confirmOrder(), trackOrder().

Identified Classes and Objects:

• Classes: Customer, Product, Cart, Order.

• Objects:
 o Customer: A specific customer ("Jane Smith").

o Product: A specific product ("Laptop").

o Cart: A specific cart with selected products.

o Order: A specific order with a unique ID.

19. Draw collaboration diagram for simple Telephone call?

20. Explain collaboration diagram?

The collaboration diagram is used to show the relationship between the objects in a system. Both the
sequence and the collaboration diagrams represent the same information but differently. Instead of
showing the flow of messages, it depicts the architecture of the object residing in the system as it is
based on object-oriented programming. An object consists of several features. Multiple objects
present in the system are connected to each other. The collaboration diagram, which is also known
as a communication diagram, is used to portray the object's architecture in the system.

Notations of a Collaboration Diagram

Following are the components of a component diagram that are enlisted below:

1. Objects: The representation of an object is done by an object symbol with its name
and class underlined, separated by a colon.

In the collaboration diagram, objects are utilized in the following ways: o The object is represented
by specifying their name and class. o It is not mandatory for every class to appear. o A class may
constitute more than one object.
o In the collaboration diagram, firstly, the object is created, and then its class is specified. o To
differentiate one object from another object, it is necessary to name them.

2. Actors: In the collaboration diagram, the actor plays the main role as it invokes the
interaction. Each actor has its respective role and name. In this, one actor initiates the use
case.

3. Links: The link is an instance of association, which associates the objects and actors.
It portrays a relationship between the objects through which the messages are sent. It is
represented by a solid line. The link helps an object to connect with or navigate to another
object, such that the message flows are attached to links.

4. Messages: It is a communication between objects which carries information and

includes a sequence number, so that the activity may take place. It is represented by a
labeled arrow, which is placed near a link. The messages are sent from the sender to the
receiver, and the direction must be navigable in that particular direction. The receiver must
understand the message.

The collaborations are used when it is essential to depict the relationship between the object. Both
the sequence and collaboration diagrams represent the same information, but the way of portraying
it quite different. The collaboration diagrams are best suited for analyzing use cases.

Following are some of the use cases enlisted below for which the collaboration diagram is
implemented:
 1. To model collaboration among the objects or roles that carry the functionalities of
use cases and operations.

2. To model the mechanism inside the architectural design of the system.

3. To capture the interactions that represent the flow of messages between the objects
and the roles inside the collaboration.

4. To model different scenarios within the use case or operation, involving a

collaboration of several objects and interactions.

5. To support the identification of objects participating in the use case.

6. In the collaboration diagram, each message constitutes a sequence number, such

that the top-level message is marked as one and so on. The messages sent during the same
call are denoted with the same decimal prefix, but with different suffixes of 1, 2, etc. as per
their occurrence.

Steps for creating a Collaboration Diagram

1. Determine the behavior for which the realization and implementation are specified.

2. Discover the structural elements that are class roles, objects, and subsystems for
performing the functionality of collaboration.

o Choose the context of an interaction: system, subsystem, use case, and operation.

3. Think through alternative situations that may be involved.

o Implementation of a collaboration diagram at an instance level, if needed.

o A specification level diagram may be made in the instance level sequence diagram
for summarizing alternative situations.

Example of a Collaboration Diagram

Benefits of a Collaboration Diagram

1. The collaboration diagram is also known as Communication Diagram.

2. It mainly puts emphasis on the structural aspect of an interaction diagram, i.e., how
lifelines are connected.

3. The syntax of a collaboration diagram is similar to the sequence diagram; just the
difference is that the lifeline does not consist of tails.

4. The messages transmitted over sequencing is represented by numbering each

individual message.

5. The collaboration diagram is semantically weak in comparison to the sequence

diagram.

6. The special case of a collaboration diagram is the object diagram.

7. It focuses on the elements and not the message flow, like sequence diagrams.

8. Since the collaboration diagrams are not that expensive, the sequence diagram can
be directly converted to the collaboration diagram.

9. There may be a chance of losing some amount of information while implementing a

collaboration diagram with respect to the sequence diagram.