Module 1

Solar Energy
• Energy from the sun is called solar energy.
• The sun’s energy originates from nuclear fusion
reactions occurring deep within it.
• In these reactions, hydrogen nuclei fuse to form
helium nuclei, releasing immense energy. This energy
flows outward from the sun and radiates into space.
• The power received by Earth from the sun is
approximately 1.8 × 10¹¹ MW, which is thousands of
times larger than the total current consumption of all
commercial energy sources.
• This makes solar energy one of the most promising
unconventional energy sources.
• Solar energy reaches Earth in the form of radiation and
can be converted directly or indirectly into other forms
of energy, such as heat and electricity.
• The composition of solar radiation reaching Earth's
atmosphere includes:
8% Ultraviolet (UV) radiation
46% Visible light
46% Infrared (IR) radiation
Various kinds of radiation at the earth surface
• Solar radiation received at the earth’s surface is in the
attenuated form because it is subjected to the
mechanisms of absorption and scattering as it passes
through the earth’s atmosphere.
• Absorption occurs primarily because of the presence
of ozone and water vapor in the atmosphere.
• On the other hand, scattering occurs due to all gaseous
molecules as well as particulate matter in the
atmosphere.
• The scattered radiation is redistributed in all
directions, some going back to the space and some
reaching the earth’s surface
• Solar radiation received at the earth’s surface without
change of direction i.e, in line with the sun is called
direct radiation or beam radiation.
• The radiation received at the earth’s surface from all
parts of sky’s hemisphere (after being subjected to
scattering in the atmosphere) is called diffuse
radiation.
• The sum of beam radiation and diffuse radiation is
called as total or global radiation
Solar constant and Intensity of solar Radiation
• Radiation is focused to a point, or a line max temp is
achieved is about 350C
 Principle of solar energy conversion to heat:
• The principle on which the solar energy is converted
into heat is the―green house effect
• The solar radiation incident on the earth‘s surface at a
particular wavelength increases the surface temp of The
earth.
• As a result of difference in temp between the earth‘s
surface and the surroundings, the absorbed radiation is
reradiated back to the atmosphere with its wavelength
increased.
• The CO2 gas in the atmosphere is transparent to
the incoming shorter wavelength solar radiation,
while it is opaque to the long wavelength
reradiated radiation.
• As a result of this the long wavelength radiation
gets reflected repeatedly between the earth‘s
atmosphere and the earth‘s surface resulting in the
increase in temp of the earth‘s surface.
• This is the principle by which solar energy is
converted to thermal energy using collector
Main Components Main components of flat plate collectors are,
1. A transparent cover It includes one or more sheets of glass or
radiation transmitting plastic film or sheet.
2. The absorber plates It is usually metallic or black coated
surface used for absorbing radiation energy.
3. Tubes, fins, passages or channels They are integral with the
collector absorber plate or connected to it for carrying water, air or
other fluid.
4. Insulation It is provided at the back and sides to minimize heat
losses. Fiber glass or styro-foam are used for this purpose.
5. Container or casing It is used to enclose the other components
to protect them from weather.
Advantages
• Utilizes both beam as well as diffusion radiation for heating
• Requires less maintenance.

Disadvantages
• Large heat loss because large area
• Lower water temperature is achieved
Air collectors or solar air heater
• Solar radiation enters through the glass cover.
• Heat is absorbed by the absorber plate.
• The heat is transferred to the air flowing below the
absorber.
• Fins help increase the surface area and improve heat
transfer to air.
• Insulation at the bottom prevents heat loss.
• Such collectors generally use optical system in the form of
reflectors or refractors.
• A focusing collector is a special form of flat-plate collector
modified by introducing a reflecting (or refracting) surface
(concentrator) between the solar radiations and the
absorber.
• These types of collectors can have radiation increase from
low value of 1.5 to 2 to high values of the order of 10,000.
• In these collector’s radiation falling on a relatively large
area is focused on to a receiver (or absorber) of
considerably smaller area. As a result of the energy
concentration, fluids can be heated to temperatures 500°C
or more.
Parabolic trough collector
• A parabolic trough collector is a type of solar
collector that uses a curved, mirror-like surface
shaped like a parabola to focus sunlight onto a
pipe (called the absorber) that runs along its
focal line.
• Sunlight hits the parabolic mirror.
• The mirror reflects and concentrates that sunlight
onto the collector pipe placed at the focus.
• The collector pipe (often coated to absorb more
heat) contains a fluid that gets heated by this
concentrated solar energy.
• This hot fluid can then be used to: Produce
steam, Generate electricity and Heat buildings or
water
• There are two ways to keep sunlight focused on the pipe
(absorber):
• Rotate the reflector (trough)
• Rotate the pipe (absorber)
• Both methods involve turning around a single axis that runs
along the length of the trough.
• Parabolic trough reflectors have been made of highly
polished aluminum, of silvered glass or of a thin film of
aluminized plastic.
• The concentration ratio in the range of 20-80 may be
achieved from these collectors.
Cylindrical parabolic Concentrator
• It consists of a cylindrical parabolic trough
reflector and a metal tube receiver at its focal line
as shown in figure above.
• The receiver tube is blackened at the outside
surface to increase absorption.
• It is rotated about one axis to track the sun. The
heat transfer fluid flows through the receiver
tube, carrying the thermal energy to the next
stage of the system.
• This type of collector may be oriented in any one of
the three directions: East-West, North-South or
polar.
• The polar configuration intercepts more solar
radiation per unit area as compared to other modes
and thus gives best performance.
• The concentration ratio in the range of 5-30 may be
achieved from these collectors.
• In another kind of focusing collector, a number of plane or
slightly curved (concave) mirror strips are mounted on a flat
base.
• The angles of the individual mirrors are such that they reflect
solar radiation from a specific direction on to the same focal
line.
• The angles of the mirrors must be adjusted to allow for
changes in the sun’s elevation, while the focal line (for
collector pipe) remains in a fixed position.
• Alternatively, as mentioned for parabolic trough collectors,
the mirror strips may be fixed and the collector pipe moved
continuously so as to remain on the focal line.
• The concentration ratio in the range of 2-10 may be achieved from
these collectors.
• In this collector a Fresnel lens, which consists of fine, linear
grooves on the surface of refracting material (generally
optical quality plastic) on one side and flat on the other side,
is used.
• The angle of each groove is designed to make the optical
behavior like a spherical lens.
• The beam radiation, which is incident normally, converges on
focal line, where a receiver tube is provided to absorb the
radiation.
• A concentration ratio of 10-30 may be realized which yields
temperatures between 150-300°C.
• In central tower receiver collector, the receiver is located at the
top of a tower.
• Beam radiation is reflected on it from a large number of
independently controlled; almost flat mirrors, known as
heliostats, spread over a large area on the ground, surrounding the
tower.
• Thousands of such heliostats track the sun to direct the beam
radiation on the receiver from all sides.
• The heliostats, together act like a dilute paraboloid of very big
size.
• Concentration ratio of as high value as 3,000 can be obtained.
• The absorbed energy can be extracted from the receiver and
delivered at a temperature and pressure suitable for driving
turbines for power generation
• Parabola Shape Rotated = Paraboloid
• a U-shape (parabola).If you spin it around its center,
you get a bowl shape → this is a paraboloid.
• Focus Point: All sunlight that hits the dish bounces to
one point. That point gets very hot — used to heat
air, water, or even make steam for electricity.
• Needs 2-Axis Tracking The dish follows the sun in
both directions (left–right and up–down) to stay
focused.
• Very High Temperatures It can reach up to 3000°C (super
hot).
• Perfect for applications needing intense heat.
• Big Size Commercial dishes are around 6 to 7 meters wide.
High Concentration Ratio This means it focuses sunlight
from a large area onto a small point.
• Ratios from 10 to several thousands.
Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC)

Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC)

• A Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC) uses
two parabolic mirror segments.
• These mirrors are attached to a flat receiver.
• Each segment is arranged so that: The focus of
one mirror is at the bottom endpoint of the other.
• These endpoints are in contact with the receiver.
• Large acceptance angle → can capture sunlight over
a wide range of angles without needing constant
adjustment (10° to 40°)
• No continuous tracking required, only intermittent
adjustments.
• Central rays hit the absorber directly.
• Edge rays undergo one or more reflections before
reaching the absorber.
• Concentration ratio:typically, in the range of 3 to 7
 Solar radiation measurements

• Solar radiation is the energy emitted by the sun,

reaching Earth in the form of electromagnetic
waves — primarily visible light, infrared, and
UV radiation.
Instruments Used
1. Pyranometer
2. Pyrheliometer
3. Sunshine Recorder
1. Pyranometer
• Measures solar radiation on a horizontal surface over a
hemispherical field of view.
• Used for:
• Global radiation (direct + diffuse)
• Diffuse radiation (when shaded from direct
sunlight)
1. Black Surface (Sensor Plate):
• Absorbs incoming solar radiation (like sunlight).
• Gets heated up proportionally to the solar energy it
absorbs.
2. Thermopile:
• Made of multiple thermocouples.
• Hot junctions: Connected to the black absorbing
surface.
• Cold junctions: Located below a guard plate, shielded
from radiation to stay cool.
3. GlassDome (Hemisphere):
• Covers the sensor to:
• Allow sunlight to enter.
• Filter out unwanted longwave radiation.
• Protect from wind and dust.
Thermopile Action:
• The hot junctions of the thermopile are connected to the
black surface.
• The cold junctions are located below, under a guard plate to
stay cooler.
• This temperature difference creates a small voltage called
EMF.
• EMF is usually in the range of 0 to 10 millivolts (mV).
• The voltage produced is directly related to the amount
of solar radiation.
• So, the EMF is a measure of global radiation (both
direct and diffuse sunlight).
2. Pyrheliometer
• Instrument measures direct solar radiation by
pointing directly at the sun and focusing the
radiation onto a black absorber plate connected
to a thermopile (which converts heat into
electricity).
Sunshine recorder
•A sunshine recorder is a meteorological
instrument used to measure the duration of
bright sunshine during a day.
• A glass sphere focuses the sun’s rays onto a card strip.
• The strip is held in a groove in a curved bowl (that follows
the sun’s path).
• When the sun is shining brightly, the focused light burns
the card, leaving a burn mark.
• As the sun moves across the sky, the focused spot moves
along the card, creating a long burn trace.
• The length of the burn shows how long the sun was
shining.
Thermal Energy Storage System
• The thermal energy of sun can be stored in a well
insulated fluids or solids.
• It is either stored as i) Sensible heat ii) Latent heat
• In the first type of storage the temp of the medium
changes during charging or discharging of the storage
• whereas in the second type the temp of the medium
remains constant, but it undergoes a phase
transformation ( transition from solid to liquid or from
liquid to vapor)
i) Sensible heat:
• In this type of storage there is no change in
phase.
• Heating a liquid or solid which does not change
phase. But it stores energy.
• Heat that causes a change in temperature in an
object is called Sensible heat
• The quantity of heat stored is proportional to the temp rise of the
material.
• IF T1 and T2 the lower and higher temperature then, energy
storage using basic equation is
• Oils are used for intermediate temperature ranging
from 100 to 300C.
• Main problem with heat transfer of oil is that they
tend to degrade with time.
• Solid materials like rocks, metals, concrete and
bricks also used for thermal storage.
Applications of solar energy
• The most common type of solar water heater are shown in
Fig.
• A tilted flat plate solar collector with water as heat transfer
fluid is used.
• A thermally insulated hot water storage tank is mounted
above the collector.
• The heated water of the collector rises up to the hot water
tank and replaces an equal quantity of cold water, which
enters the collector.
• The cycle repeats, resulting in all the water of the hot water
tank getting heated up. When hot water is taken out from hot
water outlet, the same is replaced by cold water from the
cold-water make up tank, fixed above the hot water tank.
• The scheme is known as passive heating scheme, as
water is circulated in the loop naturally due to thermo-
siphon action.
• When the collector is fixed above the level of hot
water tank, a pump is required to induce circulation of
water in the loop and the scheme will be known as
active (or forced) solar thermal system.
• An auxiliary electrical immersion heater may be used
as back up for use during cloudy periods. In average
Indian climatic conditions, solar water heater can be
used for about 300 days in a year.
• A typical 100 liters per day Rooftop solar water heater
costs approximately Rs/- 13,000 to 15,000 and delivers
water at 60-80°C. It has a life span of 10-12 years and
payback period of 2-6 years.
• In other schemes the hot water from collector delivers
heat to service water through a heat exchanger. In this
scheme, an anti-freeze solution may be used as heat
transport medium to avoid freezing during cold nights.
 Solar Pond
• In order to reduce the cost of large solar thermal installations,
it is necessary to devise more economical ways of collecting
and storing solar energy.
• In this context, attention has been focused on the possibility
of using large expanses of water of small depth for absorbing
and storing solar radiation instead of using flat-plate
collectors and hot water storage tanks.
• However, experience shows that the water in such a pond
usually heats up only a few degrees, because of the natural
convection currents which are set into motion as soon as heat
is absorbed at the bottom.
• Solar Pond An artificially constructed pond in which
significant temperature rises are caused to occur in the
lower regions by preventing convection is called a
solar pond.
• The usual method adopted to prevent convection is to
dissolve a salt in the water and to maintain a
concentration gradient.
• For such ponds, the more specific term salt-gradient
solar pond is used.
 Drying
• One of the traditional uses of solar energy has been for drying of
agricultural products.
• The drying process removes moisture and helps in the
preservation of the product.
• Traditionally, drying is done on open ground. The disadvantages
associated with this are that the process is slow, and that insects
and dust get mixed with the product.
• The use of dryers help to eliminate these disadvantages. Drying
can then be done faster and in a controlled fashion.
• In addition, a better-quality product is obtained
• A cabinet-type solar dryer, suitable for small-scale use, is shown
in Fig.
• The dryer consists of an enclosure with a transparent cover.
• The material to be dried is placed on perforated trays. Solar
radiation entering the enclosure is absorbed in the product itself
and the surrounding the internal surfaces of the enclosure.
• As a result, moisture is removed from the product and the air
inside is heated. Suitable openings at the bottom and top ensure a
natural circulation.
• Temperatures ranging from 50°C to 80°C are usually attained and
the drying time ranges from 2 to 4 days. Typical products which
can be dried in such devices are dates, apricots, chillies, grapes,
etc
• An indirect type of active device is used when the solar radiation
falling directly on the product is not adequate, or the temperature of
the product needs to be controlled.
• One such system is shown in Fig.
• Here, the air is heated separately in an array of solar air heaters and
then ducted to the chamber in which the product to be dried is stored.
• Such dryers are suitable for food grains, tea, spices, etc. and for
products like leather and ceramics.
Cooling System: Refrigeration system - Lithium
Bromide – water absorption cooling system
• A flat plate collector is used to supply heat to the
generator and water vapours are raised at a
temperature lower than 100°C at low pressure.
• These vapours are condensed in condenser by cooling
water supplied from cooling tower.
• The condensed water is evaporated by passing it
through the expansion valve and maintaining lower
pressure in the evaporator. Cooling effect is produced
here and heat is absorbed from the space to be cooled
through heat transport fluid.
• The water vapours from evaporator go to the absorber
where it is absorbed in lithium bromide solution.
• In the absorber, the liberated heat due to absorption
process is removed by cooling water from the cooling
tower.
• The generator temperature is maintained between 75-
100°C to avoid crystallization of lithium bromide,
which may lead to choking of the system.
 Solar Thermal Electric Conversion
• Solar thermal power generation employs power cycles which
are broadly classified as low, modium and high temperature
cycles.
• Low temperature cycles generally use flat-plate collectors so
that maximum temperatures are limited to about 100°C.
• Medium temperature cycles work at maximum temperatures
ranging from 150 to 300°C,
• while high temperature cycles work at temperatures above
300°C.
• (i) Low temperature cycles using flat plate
collector or solar pond.
• (ii) Concentrating collectors for medium and
high temperature cycle.
• The flat plate collector and solar ponds are classified as low
temperature collectors because temperature achieved is of the order of
60°C to 100°C, with collection efficiency of 30 to 50%.
• If Rankine cycle solar thermal power production systems is
employed, since the temperature of the fluid (water) is usually below
100°C (with solar pond the maximum temperature is limited
approximately 80°C) and it is not possible to generate steam with flat
plate collector or solar pond, so this can be used directly to run the
prime mover.
• Therefore, some other organic fluid is used (Freon group etc.) which
evaporates at low temperature and high pressure by absorbing the heat
from the heated water. The vapour formed can be used to run a turbine
or engine which may generate power, which will be sufficient to light
the group of houses for rural areas and for irrigation purposes.
• A low temperature thermal electric power production scheme
using solar pond is shown schematically in Fig. (1.35).
• Thermal energy from a solar pond is used to derive a Rankine
cycle heat engine. Hot water from the bottom level of the
condenser, and the temperature is more like a conventional
power plant, The electric power which can be generated is of
the order of 150 kW drives electric motors to operate a deep-
well pumps.
 Photovoltaic cell or Solar cell
• A Photovoltaic (PV) cell, commonly known as a
solar cell, is a semiconductor device that
converts sunlight directly into electricity through
the photovoltaic effect.
• "The junction of dissimilar materials (n and p type silicon) creates a
voltage"
• "Energy from sunlight knocks out electrons, creating a electron and a
hole in the junction“
• "Connecting both sides to an external circuit causes current to flow
In essence, sunlight on a solar cell creates a small battery with
voltages typically 0.5 v. DC"