🔹 1. What is a Computer Network?

A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices (e.g., printers,

routers) connected together using communication media (cables or wireless) to share
resources and information.
🔹 2. Benefits of Computer Networks:1-Easy access and sharing of data.2-Shared
access to internet.3-Sharing of expensive devices (printers, scanners).4-File and
peripheral sharing.5-Software sharing using multi-user licenses.6-Use of modern
technologies for communication and collaboration.
🔹 3. Components of a Network:Data Communication:Process of exchanging data
between devices through transmission media.
Transmission Media (Shared Channels):a-Wired:1-Metallic (Twisted Pair or Coaxial):
Transfers data as electrical signals.2-Fiber Optic: Transfers data using light pulses. Very
fast and secure.b-Wireless:1-Infrared: Short-range line-of-sight.2-Bluetooth: Medium-
range between devices.3-Radio Waves: Used in Wi-Fi.4-Microwaves: Long-distance
wireless communication.
C. Hardware Components:
Device Type Examples / Purpose
End Devices PC, Workstation, Server, Printer
Network Devices Hub, Switch, Router, Bridge, NIC, Modem
NIC (Network Interface Card) Connects a computer to the network
🔹 4. Network Access Devices:
• NIC: Connects device to the network.
• Hub: Broadcasts data to all devices.
• Switch: Directs data to the correct device (efficient LAN).
• Router: Connects different networks together (e.g., LAN to Internet).
• Modem: Converts analog signals to digital and vice versa.

🔹 5. Network Classifications (Based on Area):

Network Type Area Size Description
LAN Local (room, building) Used in homes, offices to share files/services.
MAN City/Metro area Larger than LAN, smaller than WAN.
WAN Country or global Connects multiple LANs via internet.
🔹 6. Network Models:
Peer-to-Peer (P2P):1-All computers are equal.2-No central server.3-Each device
shares resources.4-Example: Windows Workgroup.
Client/Server:1-Central server provides services (Web, Mail, DNS).2-Clients
request services from server.3-More secure and manageable.
🔹 7. Interchange (Switching) Methods:
Circuit Switching:1-Fixed path is created between devices before sending data.
2-Ensures stable and continuous connection.3-Example: Old telephone systems.
Packet Switching:1-Data is broken into small packets.2-Each packet can take a
different route.3-Efficient use of network.
Example: The Internet.
8. Topologies (Network Layouts):
Topology Description Advantages Disadvantages
All devices share a One cable failure stops the
Bus Cheap, easy setup
single main cable network, performance drops
All devices connect to Easy to manage, Hub failure stops everything,
Star
central hub/switch reliable needs more cables
Devices form a closed No collisions, no One device failure affects
Ring
loop central device needed whole network
Every device connects Very reliable, high Very expensive, complex to
Mesh
to many others speed install
Combination of two or Flexible, reliable, Expensive, complex setup and
Hybrid
more topologies efficient management
🔹 9. OSI Reference Model (7 Layers):
A framework that standardizes how data moves across networks.
Layer Function
1. Physical Cables, signals, ports, physical transmission
2. Data Link MAC address, error handling, switching
3. Network IP addressing, routing
4. Transport End-to-end connection, data delivery (TCP/UDP)
5. Session Manages sessions between apps
6. Presentation Data formatting, compression, encryption
7. Application Interface for user apps (email, web, FTP)
🔹 10. Encapsulation Process:
• As data travels from the Application layer to the Physical layer, each layer adds a
header (and sometimes a trailer).
• This helps in delivering, managing, and interpreting the data correctly across the
network.
🔹 11. IP Address vs MAC Address:
Address Type Description Can Change?
IP Address Logical address (e.g., 192.168.1.1) Yes
MAC Address Physical NIC address (e.g., 00:1A:2B...) No
🔹 1. What is a Computer Network?
A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices (e.g., printers,
routers) connected together using communication media (cables or wireless) to share
resources and information.
🔹 2. Benefits of Computer Networks:1-Easy access and sharing of data.2-Shared
access to internet.3-Sharing of expensive devices (printers, scanners).4-File and
peripheral sharing.5-Software sharing using multi-user licenses.6-Use of modern
technologies for communication and collaboration.
🔹 3. Components of a Network:Data Communication:Process of exchanging data
between devices through transmission media.
Transmission Media (Shared Channels):a-Wired:1-Metallic (Twisted Pair or Coaxial):
Transfers data as electrical signals.2-Fiber Optic: Transfers data using light pulses. Very
fast and secure.b-Wireless:1-Infrared: Short-range line-of-sight.2-Bluetooth: Medium-
range between devices.3-Radio Waves: Used in Wi-Fi.4-Microwaves: Long-distance
wireless communication.
C. Hardware Components:
Device Type Examples / Purpose
End Devices PC, Workstation, Server, Printer
Network Devices Hub, Switch, Router, Bridge, NIC, Modem
NIC (Network Interface Card) Connects a computer to the network
🔹 4. Network Access Devices:
• NIC: Connects device to the network.
• Hub: Broadcasts data to all devices.
• Switch: Directs data to the correct device (efficient LAN).
• Router: Connects different networks together (e.g., LAN to Internet).
• Modem: Converts analog signals to digital and vice versa.

🔹 5. Network Classifications (Based on Area):

Network Type Area Size Description
LAN Local (room, building) Used in homes, offices to share files/services.
MAN City/Metro area Larger than LAN, smaller than WAN.
WAN Country or global Connects multiple LANs via internet.
🔹 6. Network Models:
Peer-to-Peer (P2P):1-All computers are equal.2-No central server.3-Each device
shares resources.4-Example: Windows Workgroup.
Client/Server:1-Central server provides services (Web, Mail, DNS).2-Clients
request services from server.3-More secure and manageable.
🔹 7. Interchange (Switching) Methods:
Circuit Switching:1-Fixed path is created between devices before sending data.
2-Ensures stable and continuous connection.3-Example: Old telephone systems.
Packet Switching:1-Data is broken into small packets.2-Each packet can take a
different route.3-Efficient use of network.
Example: The Internet.
8. Topologies (Network Layouts):
Topology Description Advantages Disadvantages
All devices share a One cable failure stops the
Bus Cheap, easy setup
single main cable network, performance drops
All devices connect to Easy to manage, Hub failure stops everything,
Star
central hub/switch reliable needs more cables
Devices form a closed No collisions, no One device failure affects
Ring
loop central device needed whole network
Every device connects Very reliable, high Very expensive, complex to
Mesh
to many others speed install
Combination of two or Flexible, reliable, Expensive, complex setup and
Hybrid
more topologies efficient management
🔹 9. OSI Reference Model (7 Layers):
A framework that standardizes how data moves across networks.
Layer Function
1. Physical Cables, signals, ports, physical transmission
2. Data Link MAC address, error handling, switching
3. Network IP addressing, routing
4. Transport End-to-end connection, data delivery (TCP/UDP)
5. Session Manages sessions between apps
6. Presentation Data formatting, compression, encryption
7. Application Interface for user apps (email, web, FTP)
🔹 10. Encapsulation Process:
• As data travels from the Application layer to the Physical layer, each layer adds a
header (and sometimes a trailer).
• This helps in delivering, managing, and interpreting the data correctly across the
network.
🔹 11. IP Address vs MAC Address:
Address Type Description Can Change?
IP Address Logical address (e.g., 192.168.1.1) Yes
MAC Address Physical NIC address (e.g., 00:1A:2B...) No
🔹 1. What is a Computer Network?
A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices (e.g., printers,
routers) connected together using communication media (cables or wireless) to share
resources and information.
🔹 2. Benefits of Computer Networks:1-Easy access and sharing of data.2-Shared
access to internet.3-Sharing of expensive devices (printers, scanners).4-File and
peripheral sharing.5-Software sharing using multi-user licenses.6-Use of modern
technologies for communication and collaboration.
🔹 3. Components of a Network:Data Communication:Process of exchanging data
between devices through transmission media.
Transmission Media (Shared Channels):a-Wired:1-Metallic (Twisted Pair or Coaxial):
Transfers data as electrical signals.2-Fiber Optic: Transfers data using light pulses. Very
fast and secure.b-Wireless:1-Infrared: Short-range line-of-sight.2-Bluetooth: Medium-
range between devices.3-Radio Waves: Used in Wi-Fi.4-Microwaves: Long-distance
wireless communication.
C. Hardware Components:
Device Type Examples / Purpose
End Devices PC, Workstation, Server, Printer
Network Devices Hub, Switch, Router, Bridge, NIC, Modem
NIC (Network Interface Card) Connects a computer to the network
🔹 4. Network Access Devices:
• NIC: Connects device to the network.
• Hub: Broadcasts data to all devices.
• Switch: Directs data to the correct device (efficient LAN).
• Router: Connects different networks together (e.g., LAN to Internet).
• Modem: Converts analog signals to digital and vice versa.

🔹 5. Network Classifications (Based on Area):

Network Type Area Size Description
LAN Local (room, building) Used in homes, offices to share files/services.
MAN City/Metro area Larger than LAN, smaller than WAN.
WAN Country or global Connects multiple LANs via internet.
🔹 6. Network Models:
Peer-to-Peer (P2P):1-All computers are equal.2-No central server.3-Each device
shares resources.4-Example: Windows Workgroup.
Client/Server:1-Central server provides services (Web, Mail, DNS).2-Clients
request services from server.3-More secure and manageable.
🔹 7. Interchange (Switching) Methods:
Circuit Switching:1-Fixed path is created between devices before sending data.
2-Ensures stable and continuous connection.3-Example: Old telephone systems.
Packet Switching:1-Data is broken into small packets.2-Each packet can take a
different route.3-Efficient use of network.
Example: The Internet.
8. Topologies (Network Layouts):
Topology Description Advantages Disadvantages
All devices share a One cable failure stops the
Bus Cheap, easy setup
single main cable network, performance drops
All devices connect to Easy to manage, Hub failure stops everything,
Star
central hub/switch reliable needs more cables
Devices form a closed No collisions, no One device failure affects
Ring
loop central device needed whole network
Every device connects Very reliable, high Very expensive, complex to
Mesh
to many others speed install
Combination of two or Flexible, reliable, Expensive, complex setup and
Hybrid
more topologies efficient management
🔹 9. OSI Reference Model (7 Layers):
A framework that standardizes how data moves across networks.
Layer Function
1. Physical Cables, signals, ports, physical transmission
2. Data Link MAC address, error handling, switching
3. Network IP addressing, routing
4. Transport End-to-end connection, data delivery (TCP/UDP)
5. Session Manages sessions between apps
6. Presentation Data formatting, compression, encryption
7. Application Interface for user apps (email, web, FTP)
🔹 10. Encapsulation Process:
• As data travels from the Application layer to the Physical layer, each layer adds a
header (and sometimes a trailer).
• This helps in delivering, managing, and interpreting the data correctly across the
network.
🔹 11. IP Address vs MAC Address:
Address Type Description Can Change?
IP Address Logical address (e.g., 192.168.1.1) Yes
MAC Address Physical NIC address (e.g., 00:1A:2B...) No
🔹 1. What is a Computer Network?
A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices (e.g., printers,
routers) connected together using communication media (cables or wireless) to share
resources and information.
🔹 2. Benefits of Computer Networks:1-Easy access and sharing of data.2-Shared
access to internet.3-Sharing of expensive devices (printers, scanners).4-File and
peripheral sharing.5-Software sharing using multi-user licenses.6-Use of modern
technologies for communication and collaboration.
🔹 3. Components of a Network:Data Communication:Process of exchanging data
between devices through transmission media.
Transmission Media (Shared Channels):a-Wired:1-Metallic (Twisted Pair or Coaxial):
Transfers data as electrical signals.2-Fiber Optic: Transfers data using light pulses. Very
fast and secure.b-Wireless:1-Infrared: Short-range line-of-sight.2-Bluetooth: Medium-
range between devices.3-Radio Waves: Used in Wi-Fi.4-Microwaves: Long-distance
wireless communication.
C. Hardware Components:
Device Type Examples / Purpose
End Devices PC, Workstation, Server, Printer
Network Devices Hub, Switch, Router, Bridge, NIC, Modem
NIC (Network Interface Card) Connects a computer to the network
🔹 4. Network Access Devices:
• NIC: Connects device to the network.
• Hub: Broadcasts data to all devices.
• Switch: Directs data to the correct device (efficient LAN).
• Router: Connects different networks together (e.g., LAN to Internet).
• Modem: Converts analog signals to digital and vice versa.

🔹 5. Network Classifications (Based on Area):

Network Type Area Size Description
LAN Local (room, building) Used in homes, offices to share files/services.
MAN City/Metro area Larger than LAN, smaller than WAN.
WAN Country or global Connects multiple LANs via internet.
🔹 6. Network Models:
Peer-to-Peer (P2P):1-All computers are equal.2-No central server.3-Each device
shares resources.4-Example: Windows Workgroup.
Client/Server:1-Central server provides services (Web, Mail, DNS).2-Clients
request services from server.3-More secure and manageable.
🔹 7. Interchange (Switching) Methods:
Circuit Switching:1-Fixed path is created between devices before sending data.
2-Ensures stable and continuous connection.3-Example: Old telephone systems.
Packet Switching:1-Data is broken into small packets.2-Each packet can take a
different route.3-Efficient use of network.
Example: The Internet.
8. Topologies (Network Layouts):
Topology Description Advantages Disadvantages
All devices share a One cable failure stops the
Bus Cheap, easy setup
single main cable network, performance drops
All devices connect to Easy to manage, Hub failure stops everything,
Star
central hub/switch reliable needs more cables
Devices form a closed No collisions, no One device failure affects
Ring
loop central device needed whole network
Every device connects Very reliable, high Very expensive, complex to
Mesh
to many others speed install
Combination of two or Flexible, reliable, Expensive, complex setup and
Hybrid
more topologies efficient management
🔹 9. OSI Reference Model (7 Layers):
A framework that standardizes how data moves across networks.
Layer Function
1. Physical Cables, signals, ports, physical transmission
2. Data Link MAC address, error handling, switching
3. Network IP addressing, routing
4. Transport End-to-end connection, data delivery (TCP/UDP)
5. Session Manages sessions between apps
6. Presentation Data formatting, compression, encryption
7. Application Interface for user apps (email, web, FTP)
🔹 10. Encapsulation Process:
• As data travels from the Application layer to the Physical layer, each layer adds a
header (and sometimes a trailer).
• This helps in delivering, managing, and interpreting the data correctly across the
network.
🔹 11. IP Address vs MAC Address:
Address Type Description Can Change?
IP Address Logical address (e.g., 192.168.1.1) Yes
MAC Address Physical NIC address (e.g., 00:1A:2B...) No
🔹 1. What is a Computer Network?
A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices (e.g., printers,
routers) connected together using communication media (cables or wireless) to share
resources and information.
🔹 2. Benefits of Computer Networks:1-Easy access and sharing of data.2-Shared
access to internet.3-Sharing of expensive devices (printers, scanners).4-File and
peripheral sharing.5-Software sharing using multi-user licenses.6-Use of modern
technologies for communication and collaboration.
🔹 3. Components of a Network:Data Communication:Process of exchanging data
between devices through transmission media.
Transmission Media (Shared Channels):a-Wired:1-Metallic (Twisted Pair or Coaxial):
Transfers data as electrical signals.2-Fiber Optic: Transfers data using light pulses. Very
fast and secure.b-Wireless:1-Infrared: Short-range line-of-sight.2-Bluetooth: Medium-
range between devices.3-Radio Waves: Used in Wi-Fi.4-Microwaves: Long-distance
wireless communication.
C. Hardware Components:
Device Type Examples / Purpose
End Devices PC, Workstation, Server, Printer
Network Devices Hub, Switch, Router, Bridge, NIC, Modem
NIC (Network Interface Card) Connects a computer to the network
🔹 4. Network Access Devices:
• NIC: Connects device to the network.
• Hub: Broadcasts data to all devices.
• Switch: Directs data to the correct device (efficient LAN).
• Router: Connects different networks together (e.g., LAN to Internet).
• Modem: Converts analog signals to digital and vice versa.

🔹 5. Network Classifications (Based on Area):

Network Type Area Size Description
LAN Local (room, building) Used in homes, offices to share files/services.
MAN City/Metro area Larger than LAN, smaller than WAN.
WAN Country or global Connects multiple LANs via internet.
🔹 6. Network Models:
Peer-to-Peer (P2P):1-All computers are equal.2-No central server.3-Each device
shares resources.4-Example: Windows Workgroup.
Client/Server:1-Central server provides services (Web, Mail, DNS).2-Clients
request services from server.3-More secure and manageable.
🔹 7. Interchange (Switching) Methods:
Circuit Switching:1-Fixed path is created between devices before sending data.
2-Ensures stable and continuous connection.3-Example: Old telephone systems.
Packet Switching:1-Data is broken into small packets.2-Each packet can take a
different route.3-Efficient use of network.
Example: The Internet.
8. Topologies (Network Layouts):
Topology Description Advantages Disadvantages
All devices share a One cable failure stops the
Bus Cheap, easy setup
single main cable network, performance drops
All devices connect to Easy to manage, Hub failure stops everything,
Star
central hub/switch reliable needs more cables
Devices form a closed No collisions, no One device failure affects
Ring
loop central device needed whole network
Every device connects Very reliable, high Very expensive, complex to
Mesh
to many others speed install
Combination of two or Flexible, reliable, Expensive, complex setup and
Hybrid
more topologies efficient management
🔹 9. OSI Reference Model (7 Layers):
A framework that standardizes how data moves across networks.
Layer Function
1. Physical Cables, signals, ports, physical transmission
2. Data Link MAC address, error handling, switching
3. Network IP addressing, routing
4. Transport End-to-end connection, data delivery (TCP/UDP)
5. Session Manages sessions between apps
6. Presentation Data formatting, compression, encryption
7. Application Interface for user apps (email, web, FTP)
🔹 10. Encapsulation Process:
• As data travels from the Application layer to the Physical layer, each layer adds a
header (and sometimes a trailer).
• This helps in delivering, managing, and interpreting the data correctly across the
network.
🔹 11. IP Address vs MAC Address:
Address Type Description Can Change?
IP Address Logical address (e.g., 192.168.1.1) Yes
MAC Address Physical NIC address (e.g., 00:1A:2B...) No
🔹 1. What is a Computer Network?
A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices (e.g., printers,
routers) connected together using communication media (cables or wireless) to share
resources and information.
🔹 2. Benefits of Computer Networks:1-Easy access and sharing of data.2-Shared
access to internet.3-Sharing of expensive devices (printers, scanners).4-File and
peripheral sharing.5-Software sharing using multi-user licenses.6-Use of modern
technologies for communication and collaboration.
🔹 3. Components of a Network:Data Communication:Process of exchanging data
between devices through transmission media.
Transmission Media (Shared Channels):a-Wired:1-Metallic (Twisted Pair or Coaxial):
Transfers data as electrical signals.2-Fiber Optic: Transfers data using light pulses. Very
fast and secure.b-Wireless:1-Infrared: Short-range line-of-sight.2-Bluetooth: Medium-
range between devices.3-Radio Waves: Used in Wi-Fi.4-Microwaves: Long-distance
wireless communication.
C. Hardware Components:
Device Type Examples / Purpose
End Devices PC, Workstation, Server, Printer
Network Devices Hub, Switch, Router, Bridge, NIC, Modem
NIC (Network Interface Card) Connects a computer to the network
🔹 4. Network Access Devices:
• NIC: Connects device to the network.
• Hub: Broadcasts data to all devices.
• Switch: Directs data to the correct device (efficient LAN).
• Router: Connects different networks together (e.g., LAN to Internet).
• Modem: Converts analog signals to digital and vice versa.

🔹 5. Network Classifications (Based on Area):

Network Type Area Size Description
LAN Local (room, building) Used in homes, offices to share files/services.
MAN City/Metro area Larger than LAN, smaller than WAN.
WAN Country or global Connects multiple LANs via internet.
🔹 6. Network Models:
Peer-to-Peer (P2P):1-All computers are equal.2-No central server.3-Each device
shares resources.4-Example: Windows Workgroup.
Client/Server:1-Central server provides services (Web, Mail, DNS).2-Clients
request services from server.3-More secure and manageable.
🔹 7. Interchange (Switching) Methods:
Circuit Switching:1-Fixed path is created between devices before sending data.
2-Ensures stable and continuous connection.3-Example: Old telephone systems.
Packet Switching:1-Data is broken into small packets.2-Each packet can take a
different route.3-Efficient use of network.
Example: The Internet.
8. Topologies (Network Layouts):
Topology Description Advantages Disadvantages
All devices share a One cable failure stops the
Bus Cheap, easy setup
single main cable network, performance drops
All devices connect to Easy to manage, Hub failure stops everything,
Star
central hub/switch reliable needs more cables
Devices form a closed No collisions, no One device failure affects
Ring
loop central device needed whole network
Every device connects Very reliable, high Very expensive, complex to
Mesh
to many others speed install
Combination of two or Flexible, reliable, Expensive, complex setup and
Hybrid
more topologies efficient management
🔹 9. OSI Reference Model (7 Layers):
A framework that standardizes how data moves across networks.
Layer Function
1. Physical Cables, signals, ports, physical transmission
2. Data Link MAC address, error handling, switching
3. Network IP addressing, routing
4. Transport End-to-end connection, data delivery (TCP/UDP)
5. Session Manages sessions between apps
6. Presentation Data formatting, compression, encryption
7. Application Interface for user apps (email, web, FTP)
🔹 10. Encapsulation Process:
• As data travels from the Application layer to the Physical layer, each layer adds a
header (and sometimes a trailer).
• This helps in delivering, managing, and interpreting the data correctly across the
network.
🔹 11. IP Address vs MAC Address:
Address Type Description Can Change?
IP Address Logical address (e.g., 192.168.1.1) Yes
MAC Address Physical NIC address (e.g., 00:1A:2B...) No
🔹 1. What is a Computer Network?
A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices (e.g., printers,
routers) connected together using communication media (cables or wireless) to share
resources and information.
🔹 2. Benefits of Computer Networks:1-Easy access and sharing of data.2-Shared
access to internet.3-Sharing of expensive devices (printers, scanners).4-File and
peripheral sharing.5-Software sharing using multi-user licenses.6-Use of modern
technologies for communication and collaboration.
🔹 3. Components of a Network:Data Communication:Process of exchanging data
between devices through transmission media.
Transmission Media (Shared Channels):a-Wired:1-Metallic (Twisted Pair or Coaxial):
Transfers data as electrical signals.2-Fiber Optic: Transfers data using light pulses. Very
fast and secure.b-Wireless:1-Infrared: Short-range line-of-sight.2-Bluetooth: Medium-
range between devices.3-Radio Waves: Used in Wi-Fi.4-Microwaves: Long-distance
wireless communication.
C. Hardware Components:
Device Type Examples / Purpose
End Devices PC, Workstation, Server, Printer
Network Devices Hub, Switch, Router, Bridge, NIC, Modem
NIC (Network Interface Card) Connects a computer to the network
🔹 4. Network Access Devices:
• NIC: Connects device to the network.
• Hub: Broadcasts data to all devices.
• Switch: Directs data to the correct device (efficient LAN).
• Router: Connects different networks together (e.g., LAN to Internet).
• Modem: Converts analog signals to digital and vice versa.

🔹 5. Network Classifications (Based on Area):

Network Type Area Size Description
LAN Local (room, building) Used in homes, offices to share files/services.
MAN City/Metro area Larger than LAN, smaller than WAN.
WAN Country or global Connects multiple LANs via internet.
🔹 6. Network Models:
Peer-to-Peer (P2P):1-All computers are equal.2-No central server.3-Each device
shares resources.4-Example: Windows Workgroup.
Client/Server:1-Central server provides services (Web, Mail, DNS).2-Clients
request services from server.3-More secure and manageable.
🔹 7. Interchange (Switching) Methods:
Circuit Switching:1-Fixed path is created between devices before sending data.
2-Ensures stable and continuous connection.3-Example: Old telephone systems.
Packet Switching:1-Data is broken into small packets.2-Each packet can take a
different route.3-Efficient use of network.
Example: The Internet.
8. Topologies (Network Layouts):
Topology Description Advantages Disadvantages
All devices share a One cable failure stops the
Bus Cheap, easy setup
single main cable network, performance drops
All devices connect to Easy to manage, Hub failure stops everything,
Star
central hub/switch reliable needs more cables
Devices form a closed No collisions, no One device failure affects
Ring
loop central device needed whole network
Every device connects Very reliable, high Very expensive, complex to
Mesh
to many others speed install
Combination of two or Flexible, reliable, Expensive, complex setup and
Hybrid
more topologies efficient management
🔹 9. OSI Reference Model (7 Layers):
A framework that standardizes how data moves across networks.
Layer Function
1. Physical Cables, signals, ports, physical transmission
2. Data Link MAC address, error handling, switching
3. Network IP addressing, routing
4. Transport End-to-end connection, data delivery (TCP/UDP)
5. Session Manages sessions between apps
6. Presentation Data formatting, compression, encryption
7. Application Interface for user apps (email, web, FTP)
🔹 10. Encapsulation Process:
• As data travels from the Application layer to the Physical layer, each layer adds a
header (and sometimes a trailer).
• This helps in delivering, managing, and interpreting the data correctly across the
network.
🔹 11. IP Address vs MAC Address:
Address Type Description Can Change?
IP Address Logical address (e.g., 192.168.1.1) Yes
MAC Address Physical NIC address (e.g., 00:1A:2B...) No
🔹 1. What is a Computer Network?
A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices (e.g., printers,
routers) connected together using communication media (cables or wireless) to share
resources and information.
🔹 2. Benefits of Computer Networks:1-Easy access and sharing of data.2-Shared
access to internet.3-Sharing of expensive devices (printers, scanners).4-File and
peripheral sharing.5-Software sharing using multi-user licenses.6-Use of modern
technologies for communication and collaboration.
🔹 3. Components of a Network:Data Communication:Process of exchanging data
between devices through transmission media.
Transmission Media (Shared Channels):a-Wired:1-Metallic (Twisted Pair or Coaxial):
Transfers data as electrical signals.2-Fiber Optic: Transfers data using light pulses. Very
fast and secure.b-Wireless:1-Infrared: Short-range line-of-sight.2-Bluetooth: Medium-
range between devices.3-Radio Waves: Used in Wi-Fi.4-Microwaves: Long-distance
wireless communication.
C. Hardware Components:
Device Type Examples / Purpose
End Devices PC, Workstation, Server, Printer
Network Devices Hub, Switch, Router, Bridge, NIC, Modem
NIC (Network Interface Card) Connects a computer to the network
🔹 4. Network Access Devices:
• NIC: Connects device to the network.
• Hub: Broadcasts data to all devices.
• Switch: Directs data to the correct device (efficient LAN).
• Router: Connects different networks together (e.g., LAN to Internet).
• Modem: Converts analog signals to digital and vice versa.

🔹 5. Network Classifications (Based on Area):

Network Type Area Size Description
LAN Local (room, building) Used in homes, offices to share files/services.
MAN City/Metro area Larger than LAN, smaller than WAN.
WAN Country or global Connects multiple LANs via internet.
🔹 6. Network Models:
Peer-to-Peer (P2P):1-All computers are equal.2-No central server.3-Each device
shares resources.4-Example: Windows Workgroup.
Client/Server:1-Central server provides services (Web, Mail, DNS).2-Clients
request services from server.3-More secure and manageable.
🔹 7. Interchange (Switching) Methods:
Circuit Switching:1-Fixed path is created between devices before sending data.
2-Ensures stable and continuous connection.3-Example: Old telephone systems.
Packet Switching:1-Data is broken into small packets.2-Each packet can take a
different route.3-Efficient use of network.
Example: The Internet.
8. Topologies (Network Layouts):
Topology Description Advantages Disadvantages
All devices share a One cable failure stops the
Bus Cheap, easy setup
single main cable network, performance drops
All devices connect to Easy to manage, Hub failure stops everything,
Star
central hub/switch reliable needs more cables
Devices form a closed No collisions, no One device failure affects
Ring
loop central device needed whole network
Every device connects Very reliable, high Very expensive, complex to
Mesh
to many others speed install
Combination of two or Flexible, reliable, Expensive, complex setup and
Hybrid
more topologies efficient management
🔹 9. OSI Reference Model (7 Layers):
A framework that standardizes how data moves across networks.
Layer Function
1. Physical Cables, signals, ports, physical transmission
2. Data Link MAC address, error handling, switching
3. Network IP addressing, routing
4. Transport End-to-end connection, data delivery (TCP/UDP)
5. Session Manages sessions between apps
6. Presentation Data formatting, compression, encryption
7. Application Interface for user apps (email, web, FTP)
🔹 10. Encapsulation Process:
• As data travels from the Application layer to the Physical layer, each layer adds a
header (and sometimes a trailer).
• This helps in delivering, managing, and interpreting the data correctly across the
network.
🔹 11. IP Address vs MAC Address:
Address Type Description Can Change?
IP Address Logical address (e.g., 192.168.1.1) Yes
MAC Address Physical NIC address (e.g., 00:1A:2B...) No
🔹 1. What is a Computer Network?
A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices (e.g., printers,
routers) connected together using communication media (cables or wireless) to share
resources and information.
🔹 2. Benefits of Computer Networks:1-Easy access and sharing of data.2-Shared
access to internet.3-Sharing of expensive devices (printers, scanners).4-File and
peripheral sharing.5-Software sharing using multi-user licenses.6-Use of modern
technologies for communication and collaboration.
🔹 3. Components of a Network:Data Communication:Process of exchanging data
between devices through transmission media.
Transmission Media (Shared Channels):a-Wired:1-Metallic (Twisted Pair or Coaxial):
Transfers data as electrical signals.2-Fiber Optic: Transfers data using light pulses. Very
fast and secure.b-Wireless:1-Infrared: Short-range line-of-sight.2-Bluetooth: Medium-
range between devices.3-Radio Waves: Used in Wi-Fi.4-Microwaves: Long-distance
wireless communication.
C. Hardware Components:
Device Type Examples / Purpose
End Devices PC, Workstation, Server, Printer
Network Devices Hub, Switch, Router, Bridge, NIC, Modem
NIC (Network Interface Card) Connects a computer to the network
🔹 4. Network Access Devices:
• NIC: Connects device to the network.
• Hub: Broadcasts data to all devices.
• Switch: Directs data to the correct device (efficient LAN).
• Router: Connects different networks together (e.g., LAN to Internet).
• Modem: Converts analog signals to digital and vice versa.

🔹 5. Network Classifications (Based on Area):

Network Type Area Size Description
LAN Local (room, building) Used in homes, offices to share files/services.
MAN City/Metro area Larger than LAN, smaller than WAN.
WAN Country or global Connects multiple LANs via internet.
🔹 6. Network Models:
Peer-to-Peer (P2P):1-All computers are equal.2-No central server.3-Each device
shares resources.4-Example: Windows Workgroup.
Client/Server:1-Central server provides services (Web, Mail, DNS).2-Clients
request services from server.3-More secure and manageable.
🔹 7. Interchange (Switching) Methods:
Circuit Switching:1-Fixed path is created between devices before sending data.
2-Ensures stable and continuous connection.3-Example: Old telephone systems.
Packet Switching:1-Data is broken into small packets.2-Each packet can take a
different route.3-Efficient use of network.
Example: The Internet.
8. Topologies (Network Layouts):
Topology Description Advantages Disadvantages
All devices share a One cable failure stops the
Bus Cheap, easy setup
single main cable network, performance drops
All devices connect to Easy to manage, Hub failure stops everything,
Star
central hub/switch reliable needs more cables
Devices form a closed No collisions, no One device failure affects
Ring
loop central device needed whole network
Every device connects Very reliable, high Very expensive, complex to
Mesh
to many others speed install
Combination of two or Flexible, reliable, Expensive, complex setup and
Hybrid
more topologies efficient management
🔹 9. OSI Reference Model (7 Layers):
A framework that standardizes how data moves across networks.
Layer Function
1. Physical Cables, signals, ports, physical transmission
2. Data Link MAC address, error handling, switching
3. Network IP addressing, routing
4. Transport End-to-end connection, data delivery (TCP/UDP)
5. Session Manages sessions between apps
6. Presentation Data formatting, compression, encryption
7. Application Interface for user apps (email, web, FTP)
🔹 10. Encapsulation Process:
• As data travels from the Application layer to the Physical layer, each layer adds a
header (and sometimes a trailer).
• This helps in delivering, managing, and interpreting the data correctly across the
network.
🔹 11. IP Address vs MAC Address:
Address Type Description Can Change?
IP Address Logical address (e.g., 192.168.1.1) Yes
MAC Address Physical NIC address (e.g., 00:1A:2B...) No
🔹 1. What is a Computer Network?
A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices (e.g., printers,
routers) connected together using communication media (cables or wireless) to share
resources and information.
🔹 2. Benefits of Computer Networks:1-Easy access and sharing of data.2-Shared
access to internet.3-Sharing of expensive devices (printers, scanners).4-File and
peripheral sharing.5-Software sharing using multi-user licenses.6-Use of modern
technologies for communication and collaboration.
🔹 3. Components of a Network:Data Communication:Process of exchanging data
between devices through transmission media.
Transmission Media (Shared Channels):a-Wired:1-Metallic (Twisted Pair or Coaxial):
Transfers data as electrical signals.2-Fiber Optic: Transfers data using light pulses. Very
fast and secure.b-Wireless:1-Infrared: Short-range line-of-sight.2-Bluetooth: Medium-
range between devices.3-Radio Waves: Used in Wi-Fi.4-Microwaves: Long-distance
wireless communication.
C. Hardware Components:
Device Type Examples / Purpose
End Devices PC, Workstation, Server, Printer
Network Devices Hub, Switch, Router, Bridge, NIC, Modem
NIC (Network Interface Card) Connects a computer to the network
🔹 4. Network Access Devices:
• NIC: Connects device to the network.
• Hub: Broadcasts data to all devices.
• Switch: Directs data to the correct device (efficient LAN).
• Router: Connects different networks together (e.g., LAN to Internet).
• Modem: Converts analog signals to digital and vice versa.

🔹 5. Network Classifications (Based on Area):

Network Type Area Size Description
LAN Local (room, building) Used in homes, offices to share files/services.
MAN City/Metro area Larger than LAN, smaller than WAN.
WAN Country or global Connects multiple LANs via internet.
🔹 6. Network Models:
Peer-to-Peer (P2P):1-All computers are equal.2-No central server.3-Each device
shares resources.4-Example: Windows Workgroup.
Client/Server:1-Central server provides services (Web, Mail, DNS).2-Clients
request services from server.3-More secure and manageable.
🔹 7. Interchange (Switching) Methods:
Circuit Switching:1-Fixed path is created between devices before sending data.
2-Ensures stable and continuous connection.3-Example: Old telephone systems.
Packet Switching:1-Data is broken into small packets.2-Each packet can take a
different route.3-Efficient use of network.
Example: The Internet.
8. Topologies (Network Layouts):
Topology Description Advantages Disadvantages
All devices share a One cable failure stops the
Bus Cheap, easy setup
single main cable network, performance drops
All devices connect to Easy to manage, Hub failure stops everything,
Star
central hub/switch reliable needs more cables
Devices form a closed No collisions, no One device failure affects
Ring
loop central device needed whole network
Every device connects Very reliable, high Very expensive, complex to
Mesh
to many others speed install
Combination of two or Flexible, reliable, Expensive, complex setup and
Hybrid
more topologies efficient management
🔹 9. OSI Reference Model (7 Layers):
A framework that standardizes how data moves across networks.
Layer Function
1. Physical Cables, signals, ports, physical transmission
2. Data Link MAC address, error handling, switching
3. Network IP addressing, routing
4. Transport End-to-end connection, data delivery (TCP/UDP)
5. Session Manages sessions between apps
6. Presentation Data formatting, compression, encryption
7. Application Interface for user apps (email, web, FTP)
🔹 10. Encapsulation Process:
• As data travels from the Application layer to the Physical layer, each layer adds a
header (and sometimes a trailer).
• This helps in delivering, managing, and interpreting the data correctly across the
network.
🔹 11. IP Address vs MAC Address:
Address Type Description Can Change?
IP Address Logical address (e.g., 192.168.1.1) Yes
MAC Address Physical NIC address (e.g., 00:1A:2B...) No
🔹 1. What is a Computer Network?
A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices (e.g., printers,
routers) connected together using communication media (cables or wireless) to share
resources and information.
🔹 2. Benefits of Computer Networks:1-Easy access and sharing of data.2-Shared
access to internet.3-Sharing of expensive devices (printers, scanners).4-File and
peripheral sharing.5-Software sharing using multi-user licenses.6-Use of modern
technologies for communication and collaboration.
🔹 3. Components of a Network:Data Communication:Process of exchanging data
between devices through transmission media.
Transmission Media (Shared Channels):a-Wired:1-Metallic (Twisted Pair or Coaxial):
Transfers data as electrical signals.2-Fiber Optic: Transfers data using light pulses. Very
fast and secure.b-Wireless:1-Infrared: Short-range line-of-sight.2-Bluetooth: Medium-
range between devices.3-Radio Waves: Used in Wi-Fi.4-Microwaves: Long-distance
wireless communication.
C. Hardware Components:
Device Type Examples / Purpose
End Devices PC, Workstation, Server, Printer
Network Devices Hub, Switch, Router, Bridge, NIC, Modem
NIC (Network Interface Card) Connects a computer to the network
🔹 4. Network Access Devices:
• NIC: Connects device to the network.
• Hub: Broadcasts data to all devices.
• Switch: Directs data to the correct device (efficient LAN).
• Router: Connects different networks together (e.g., LAN to Internet).
• Modem: Converts analog signals to digital and vice versa.

🔹 5. Network Classifications (Based on Area):

Network Type Area Size Description
LAN Local (room, building) Used in homes, offices to share files/services.
MAN City/Metro area Larger than LAN, smaller than WAN.
WAN Country or global Connects multiple LANs via internet.
🔹 6. Network Models:
Peer-to-Peer (P2P):1-All computers are equal.2-No central server.3-Each device
shares resources.4-Example: Windows Workgroup.
Client/Server:1-Central server provides services (Web, Mail, DNS).2-Clients
request services from server.3-More secure and manageable.
🔹 7. Interchange (Switching) Methods:
Circuit Switching:1-Fixed path is created between devices before sending data.
2-Ensures stable and continuous connection.3-Example: Old telephone systems.
Packet Switching:1-Data is broken into small packets.2-Each packet can take a
different route.3-Efficient use of network.
Example: The Internet.
8. Topologies (Network Layouts):
Topology Description Advantages Disadvantages
All devices share a One cable failure stops the
Bus Cheap, easy setup
single main cable network, performance drops
All devices connect to Easy to manage, Hub failure stops everything,
Star
central hub/switch reliable needs more cables
Devices form a closed No collisions, no One device failure affects
Ring
loop central device needed whole network
Every device connects Very reliable, high Very expensive, complex to
Mesh
to many others speed install
Combination of two or Flexible, reliable, Expensive, complex setup and
Hybrid
more topologies efficient management
🔹 9. OSI Reference Model (7 Layers):
A framework that standardizes how data moves across networks.
Layer Function
1. Physical Cables, signals, ports, physical transmission
2. Data Link MAC address, error handling, switching
3. Network IP addressing, routing
4. Transport End-to-end connection, data delivery (TCP/UDP)
5. Session Manages sessions between apps
6. Presentation Data formatting, compression, encryption
7. Application Interface for user apps (email, web, FTP)
🔹 10. Encapsulation Process:
• As data travels from the Application layer to the Physical layer, each layer adds a
header (and sometimes a trailer).
• This helps in delivering, managing, and interpreting the data correctly across the
network.
🔹 11. IP Address vs MAC Address:
Address Type Description Can Change?
IP Address Logical address (e.g., 192.168.1.1) Yes
MAC Address Physical NIC address (e.g., 00:1A:2B...) No
🔹 1. What is a Computer Network?
A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices (e.g., printers,
routers) connected together using communication media (cables or wireless) to share
resources and information.
🔹 2. Benefits of Computer Networks:1-Easy access and sharing of data.2-Shared
access to internet.3-Sharing of expensive devices (printers, scanners).4-File and
peripheral sharing.5-Software sharing using multi-user licenses.6-Use of modern
technologies for communication and collaboration.
🔹 3. Components of a Network:Data Communication:Process of exchanging data
between devices through transmission media.
Transmission Media (Shared Channels):a-Wired:1-Metallic (Twisted Pair or Coaxial):
Transfers data as electrical signals.2-Fiber Optic: Transfers data using light pulses. Very
fast and secure.b-Wireless:1-Infrared: Short-range line-of-sight.2-Bluetooth: Medium-
range between devices.3-Radio Waves: Used in Wi-Fi.4-Microwaves: Long-distance
wireless communication.
C. Hardware Components:
Device Type Examples / Purpose
End Devices PC, Workstation, Server, Printer
Network Devices Hub, Switch, Router, Bridge, NIC, Modem
NIC (Network Interface Card) Connects a computer to the network
🔹 4. Network Access Devices:
• NIC: Connects device to the network.
• Hub: Broadcasts data to all devices.
• Switch: Directs data to the correct device (efficient LAN).
• Router: Connects different networks together (e.g., LAN to Internet).
• Modem: Converts analog signals to digital and vice versa.

🔹 5. Network Classifications (Based on Area):

Network Type Area Size Description
LAN Local (room, building) Used in homes, offices to share files/services.
MAN City/Metro area Larger than LAN, smaller than WAN.
WAN Country or global Connects multiple LANs via internet.
🔹 6. Network Models:
Peer-to-Peer (P2P):1-All computers are equal.2-No central server.3-Each device
shares resources.4-Example: Windows Workgroup.
Client/Server:1-Central server provides services (Web, Mail, DNS).2-Clients
request services from server.3-More secure and manageable.
🔹 7. Interchange (Switching) Methods:
Circuit Switching:1-Fixed path is created between devices before sending data.
2-Ensures stable and continuous connection.3-Example: Old telephone systems.
Packet Switching:1-Data is broken into small packets.2-Each packet can take a
different route.3-Efficient use of network.
Example: The Internet.
8. Topologies (Network Layouts):
Topology Description Advantages Disadvantages
All devices share a One cable failure stops the
Bus Cheap, easy setup
single main cable network, performance drops
All devices connect to Easy to manage, Hub failure stops everything,
Star
central hub/switch reliable needs more cables
Devices form a closed No collisions, no One device failure affects
Ring
loop central device needed whole network
Every device connects Very reliable, high Very expensive, complex to
Mesh
to many others speed install
Combination of two or Flexible, reliable, Expensive, complex setup and
Hybrid
more topologies efficient management
🔹 9. OSI Reference Model (7 Layers):
A framework that standardizes how data moves across networks.
Layer Function
1. Physical Cables, signals, ports, physical transmission
2. Data Link MAC address, error handling, switching
3. Network IP addressing, routing
4. Transport End-to-end connection, data delivery (TCP/UDP)
5. Session Manages sessions between apps
6. Presentation Data formatting, compression, encryption
7. Application Interface for user apps (email, web, FTP)
🔹 10. Encapsulation Process:
• As data travels from the Application layer to the Physical layer, each layer adds a
header (and sometimes a trailer).
• This helps in delivering, managing, and interpreting the data correctly across the
network.
🔹 11. IP Address vs MAC Address:
Address Type Description Can Change?
IP Address Logical address (e.g., 192.168.1.1) Yes
MAC Address Physical NIC address (e.g., 00:1A:2B...) No
🔹 1. What is a Computer Network?
A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices (e.g., printers,
routers) connected together using communication media (cables or wireless) to share
resources and information.
🔹 2. Benefits of Computer Networks:1-Easy access and sharing of data.2-Shared
access to internet.3-Sharing of expensive devices (printers, scanners).4-File and
peripheral sharing.5-Software sharing using multi-user licenses.6-Use of modern
technologies for communication and collaboration.
🔹 3. Components of a Network:Data Communication:Process of exchanging data
between devices through transmission media.
Transmission Media (Shared Channels):a-Wired:1-Metallic (Twisted Pair or Coaxial):
Transfers data as electrical signals.2-Fiber Optic: Transfers data using light pulses. Very
fast and secure.b-Wireless:1-Infrared: Short-range line-of-sight.2-Bluetooth: Medium-
range between devices.3-Radio Waves: Used in Wi-Fi.4-Microwaves: Long-distance
wireless communication.
C. Hardware Components:
Device Type Examples / Purpose
End Devices PC, Workstation, Server, Printer
Network Devices Hub, Switch, Router, Bridge, NIC, Modem
NIC (Network Interface Card) Connects a computer to the network
🔹 4. Network Access Devices:
• NIC: Connects device to the network.
• Hub: Broadcasts data to all devices.
• Switch: Directs data to the correct device (efficient LAN).
• Router: Connects different networks together (e.g., LAN to Internet).
• Modem: Converts analog signals to digital and vice versa.

🔹 5. Network Classifications (Based on Area):

Network Type Area Size Description
LAN Local (room, building) Used in homes, offices to share files/services.
MAN City/Metro area Larger than LAN, smaller than WAN.
WAN Country or global Connects multiple LANs via internet.
🔹 6. Network Models:
Peer-to-Peer (P2P):1-All computers are equal.2-No central server.3-Each device
shares resources.4-Example: Windows Workgroup.
Client/Server:1-Central server provides services (Web, Mail, DNS).2-Clients
request services from server.3-More secure and manageable.
🔹 7. Interchange (Switching) Methods:
Circuit Switching:1-Fixed path is created between devices before sending data.
2-Ensures stable and continuous connection.3-Example: Old telephone systems.
Packet Switching:1-Data is broken into small packets.2-Each packet can take a
different route.3-Efficient use of network.
Example: The Internet.
8. Topologies (Network Layouts):
Topology Description Advantages Disadvantages
All devices share a One cable failure stops the
Bus Cheap, easy setup
single main cable network, performance drops
All devices connect to Easy to manage, Hub failure stops everything,
Star
central hub/switch reliable needs more cables
Devices form a closed No collisions, no One device failure affects
Ring
loop central device needed whole network
Every device connects Very reliable, high Very expensive, complex to
Mesh
to many others speed install
Combination of two or Flexible, reliable, Expensive, complex setup and
Hybrid
more topologies efficient management
🔹 9. OSI Reference Model (7 Layers):
A framework that standardizes how data moves across networks.
Layer Function
1. Physical Cables, signals, ports, physical transmission
2. Data Link MAC address, error handling, switching
3. Network IP addressing, routing
4. Transport End-to-end connection, data delivery (TCP/UDP)
5. Session Manages sessions between apps
6. Presentation Data formatting, compression, encryption
7. Application Interface for user apps (email, web, FTP)
🔹 10. Encapsulation Process:
• As data travels from the Application layer to the Physical layer, each layer adds a
header (and sometimes a trailer).
• This helps in delivering, managing, and interpreting the data correctly across the
network.
🔹 11. IP Address vs MAC Address:
Address Type Description Can Change?
IP Address Logical address (e.g., 192.168.1.1) Yes
MAC Address Physical NIC address (e.g., 00:1A:2B...) No
🔹 1. What is a Computer Network?
A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices (e.g., printers,
routers) connected together using communication media (cables or wireless) to share
resources and information.
🔹 2. Benefits of Computer Networks:1-Easy access and sharing of data.2-Shared
access to internet.3-Sharing of expensive devices (printers, scanners).4-File and
peripheral sharing.5-Software sharing using multi-user licenses.6-Use of modern
technologies for communication and collaboration.
🔹 3. Components of a Network:Data Communication:Process of exchanging data
between devices through transmission media.
Transmission Media (Shared Channels):a-Wired:1-Metallic (Twisted Pair or Coaxial):
Transfers data as electrical signals.2-Fiber Optic: Transfers data using light pulses. Very
fast and secure.b-Wireless:1-Infrared: Short-range line-of-sight.2-Bluetooth: Medium-
range between devices.3-Radio Waves: Used in Wi-Fi.4-Microwaves: Long-distance
wireless communication.
C. Hardware Components:
Device Type Examples / Purpose
End Devices PC, Workstation, Server, Printer
Network Devices Hub, Switch, Router, Bridge, NIC, Modem
NIC (Network Interface Card) Connects a computer to the network
🔹 4. Network Access Devices:
• NIC: Connects device to the network.
• Hub: Broadcasts data to all devices.
• Switch: Directs data to the correct device (efficient LAN).
• Router: Connects different networks together (e.g., LAN to Internet).
• Modem: Converts analog signals to digital and vice versa.

🔹 5. Network Classifications (Based on Area):

Network Type Area Size Description
LAN Local (room, building) Used in homes, offices to share files/services.
MAN City/Metro area Larger than LAN, smaller than WAN.
WAN Country or global Connects multiple LANs via internet.
🔹 6. Network Models:
Peer-to-Peer (P2P):1-All computers are equal.2-No central server.3-Each device
shares resources.4-Example: Windows Workgroup.
Client/Server:1-Central server provides services (Web, Mail, DNS).2-Clients
request services from server.3-More secure and manageable.
🔹 7. Interchange (Switching) Methods:
Circuit Switching:1-Fixed path is created between devices before sending data.
2-Ensures stable and continuous connection.3-Example: Old telephone systems.
Packet Switching:1-Data is broken into small packets.2-Each packet can take a
different route.3-Efficient use of network.
Example: The Internet.
8. Topologies (Network Layouts):
Topology Description Advantages Disadvantages
All devices share a One cable failure stops the
Bus Cheap, easy setup
single main cable network, performance drops
All devices connect to Easy to manage, Hub failure stops everything,
Star
central hub/switch reliable needs more cables
Devices form a closed No collisions, no One device failure affects
Ring
loop central device needed whole network
Every device connects Very reliable, high Very expensive, complex to
Mesh
to many others speed install
Combination of two or Flexible, reliable, Expensive, complex setup and
Hybrid
more topologies efficient management
🔹 9. OSI Reference Model (7 Layers):
A framework that standardizes how data moves across networks.
Layer Function
1. Physical Cables, signals, ports, physical transmission
2. Data Link MAC address, error handling, switching
3. Network IP addressing, routing
4. Transport End-to-end connection, data delivery (TCP/UDP)
5. Session Manages sessions between apps
6. Presentation Data formatting, compression, encryption
7. Application Interface for user apps (email, web, FTP)
🔹 10. Encapsulation Process:
• As data travels from the Application layer to the Physical layer, each layer adds a
header (and sometimes a trailer).
• This helps in delivering, managing, and interpreting the data correctly across the
network.
🔹 11. IP Address vs MAC Address:
Address Type Description Can Change?
IP Address Logical address (e.g., 192.168.1.1) Yes
MAC Address Physical NIC address (e.g., 00:1A:2B...) No
🔹 1. What is a Computer Network?
A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices (e.g., printers,
routers) connected together using communication media (cables or wireless) to share
resources and information.
🔹 2. Benefits of Computer Networks:1-Easy access and sharing of data.2-Shared
access to internet.3-Sharing of expensive devices (printers, scanners).4-File and
peripheral sharing.5-Software sharing using multi-user licenses.6-Use of modern
technologies for communication and collaboration.
🔹 3. Components of a Network:Data Communication:Process of exchanging data
between devices through transmission media.
Transmission Media (Shared Channels):a-Wired:1-Metallic (Twisted Pair or Coaxial):
Transfers data as electrical signals.2-Fiber Optic: Transfers data using light pulses. Very
fast and secure.b-Wireless:1-Infrared: Short-range line-of-sight.2-Bluetooth: Medium-
range between devices.3-Radio Waves: Used in Wi-Fi.4-Microwaves: Long-distance
wireless communication.
C. Hardware Components:
Device Type Examples / Purpose
End Devices PC, Workstation, Server, Printer
Network Devices Hub, Switch, Router, Bridge, NIC, Modem
NIC (Network Interface Card) Connects a computer to the network
🔹 4. Network Access Devices:
• NIC: Connects device to the network.
• Hub: Broadcasts data to all devices.
• Switch: Directs data to the correct device (efficient LAN).
• Router: Connects different networks together (e.g., LAN to Internet).
• Modem: Converts analog signals to digital and vice versa.

🔹 5. Network Classifications (Based on Area):

Network Type Area Size Description
LAN Local (room, building) Used in homes, offices to share files/services.
MAN City/Metro area Larger than LAN, smaller than WAN.
WAN Country or global Connects multiple LANs via internet.
🔹 6. Network Models:
Peer-to-Peer (P2P):1-All computers are equal.2-No central server.3-Each device
shares resources.4-Example: Windows Workgroup.
Client/Server:1-Central server provides services (Web, Mail, DNS).2-Clients
request services from server.3-More secure and manageable.
🔹 7. Interchange (Switching) Methods:
Circuit Switching:1-Fixed path is created between devices before sending data.
2-Ensures stable and continuous connection.3-Example: Old telephone systems.
Packet Switching:1-Data is broken into small packets.2-Each packet can take a
different route.3-Efficient use of network.
Example: The Internet.
8. Topologies (Network Layouts):
Topology Description Advantages Disadvantages
All devices share a One cable failure stops the
Bus Cheap, easy setup
single main cable network, performance drops
All devices connect to Easy to manage, Hub failure stops everything,
Star
central hub/switch reliable needs more cables
Devices form a closed No collisions, no One device failure affects
Ring
loop central device needed whole network
Every device connects Very reliable, high Very expensive, complex to
Mesh
to many others speed install
Combination of two or Flexible, reliable, Expensive, complex setup and
Hybrid
more topologies efficient management
🔹 9. OSI Reference Model (7 Layers):
A framework that standardizes how data moves across networks.
Layer Function
1. Physical Cables, signals, ports, physical transmission
2. Data Link MAC address, error handling, switching
3. Network IP addressing, routing
4. Transport End-to-end connection, data delivery (TCP/UDP)
5. Session Manages sessions between apps
6. Presentation Data formatting, compression, encryption
7. Application Interface for user apps (email, web, FTP)
🔹 10. Encapsulation Process:
• As data travels from the Application layer to the Physical layer, each layer adds a
header (and sometimes a trailer).
• This helps in delivering, managing, and interpreting the data correctly across the
network.
🔹 11. IP Address vs MAC Address:
Address Type Description Can Change?
IP Address Logical address (e.g., 192.168.1.1) Yes
MAC Address Physical NIC address (e.g., 00:1A:2B...) No
🔹 1. What is a Computer Network?
A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices (e.g., printers,
routers) connected together using communication media (cables or wireless) to share
resources and information.
🔹 2. Benefits of Computer Networks:1-Easy access and sharing of data.2-Shared
access to internet.3-Sharing of expensive devices (printers, scanners).4-File and
peripheral sharing.5-Software sharing using multi-user licenses.6-Use of modern
technologies for communication and collaboration.
🔹 3. Components of a Network:Data Communication:Process of exchanging data
between devices through transmission media.
Transmission Media (Shared Channels):a-Wired:1-Metallic (Twisted Pair or Coaxial):
Transfers data as electrical signals.2-Fiber Optic: Transfers data using light pulses. Very
fast and secure.b-Wireless:1-Infrared: Short-range line-of-sight.2-Bluetooth: Medium-
range between devices.3-Radio Waves: Used in Wi-Fi.4-Microwaves: Long-distance
wireless communication.
C. Hardware Components:
Device Type Examples / Purpose
End Devices PC, Workstation, Server, Printer
Network Devices Hub, Switch, Router, Bridge, NIC, Modem
NIC (Network Interface Card) Connects a computer to the network
🔹 4. Network Access Devices:
• NIC: Connects device to the network.
• Hub: Broadcasts data to all devices.
• Switch: Directs data to the correct device (efficient LAN).
• Router: Connects different networks together (e.g., LAN to Internet).
• Modem: Converts analog signals to digital and vice versa.

🔹 5. Network Classifications (Based on Area):

Network Type Area Size Description
LAN Local (room, building) Used in homes, offices to share files/services.
MAN City/Metro area Larger than LAN, smaller than WAN.
WAN Country or global Connects multiple LANs via internet.
🔹 6. Network Models:
Peer-to-Peer (P2P):1-All computers are equal.2-No central server.3-Each device
shares resources.4-Example: Windows Workgroup.
Client/Server:1-Central server provides services (Web, Mail, DNS).2-Clients
request services from server.3-More secure and manageable.
🔹 7. Interchange (Switching) Methods:
Circuit Switching:1-Fixed path is created between devices before sending data.
2-Ensures stable and continuous connection.3-Example: Old telephone systems.
Packet Switching:1-Data is broken into small packets.2-Each packet can take a
different route.3-Efficient use of network.
Example: The Internet.
8. Topologies (Network Layouts):
Topology Description Advantages Disadvantages
All devices share a One cable failure stops the
Bus Cheap, easy setup
single main cable network, performance drops
All devices connect to Easy to manage, Hub failure stops everything,
Star
central hub/switch reliable needs more cables
Devices form a closed No collisions, no One device failure affects
Ring
loop central device needed whole network
Every device connects Very reliable, high Very expensive, complex to
Mesh
to many others speed install
Combination of two or Flexible, reliable, Expensive, complex setup and
Hybrid
more topologies efficient management
🔹 9. OSI Reference Model (7 Layers):
A framework that standardizes how data moves across networks.
Layer Function
1. Physical Cables, signals, ports, physical transmission
2. Data Link MAC address, error handling, switching
3. Network IP addressing, routing
4. Transport End-to-end connection, data delivery (TCP/UDP)
5. Session Manages sessions between apps
6. Presentation Data formatting, compression, encryption
7. Application Interface for user apps (email, web, FTP)
🔹 10. Encapsulation Process:
• As data travels from the Application layer to the Physical layer, each layer adds a
header (and sometimes a trailer).
• This helps in delivering, managing, and interpreting the data correctly across the
network.
🔹 11. IP Address vs MAC Address:
Address Type Description Can Change?
IP Address Logical address (e.g., 192.168.1.1) Yes
MAC Address Physical NIC address (e.g., 00:1A:2B...) No
🔹 1. What is a Computer Network?
A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices (e.g., printers,
routers) connected together using communication media (cables or wireless) to share
resources and information.
🔹 2. Benefits of Computer Networks:1-Easy access and sharing of data.2-Shared
access to internet.3-Sharing of expensive devices (printers, scanners).4-File and
peripheral sharing.5-Software sharing using multi-user licenses.6-Use of modern
technologies for communication and collaboration.
🔹 3. Components of a Network:Data Communication:Process of exchanging data
between devices through transmission media.
Transmission Media (Shared Channels):a-Wired:1-Metallic (Twisted Pair or Coaxial):
Transfers data as electrical signals.2-Fiber Optic: Transfers data using light pulses. Very
fast and secure.b-Wireless:1-Infrared: Short-range line-of-sight.2-Bluetooth: Medium-
range between devices.3-Radio Waves: Used in Wi-Fi.4-Microwaves: Long-distance
wireless communication.
C. Hardware Components:
Device Type Examples / Purpose
End Devices PC, Workstation, Server, Printer
Network Devices Hub, Switch, Router, Bridge, NIC, Modem
NIC (Network Interface Card) Connects a computer to the network
🔹 4. Network Access Devices:
• NIC: Connects device to the network.
• Hub: Broadcasts data to all devices.
• Switch: Directs data to the correct device (efficient LAN).
• Router: Connects different networks together (e.g., LAN to Internet).
• Modem: Converts analog signals to digital and vice versa.

🔹 5. Network Classifications (Based on Area):

Network Type Area Size Description
LAN Local (room, building) Used in homes, offices to share files/services.
MAN City/Metro area Larger than LAN, smaller than WAN.
WAN Country or global Connects multiple LANs via internet.
🔹 6. Network Models:
Peer-to-Peer (P2P):1-All computers are equal.2-No central server.3-Each device
shares resources.4-Example: Windows Workgroup.
Client/Server:1-Central server provides services (Web, Mail, DNS).2-Clients
request services from server.3-More secure and manageable.
🔹 7. Interchange (Switching) Methods:
Circuit Switching:1-Fixed path is created between devices before sending data.
2-Ensures stable and continuous connection.3-Example: Old telephone systems.
Packet Switching:1-Data is broken into small packets.2-Each packet can take a
different route.3-Efficient use of network.
Example: The Internet.
8. Topologies (Network Layouts):
Topology Description Advantages Disadvantages
All devices share a One cable failure stops the
Bus Cheap, easy setup
single main cable network, performance drops
All devices connect to Easy to manage, Hub failure stops everything,
Star
central hub/switch reliable needs more cables
Devices form a closed No collisions, no One device failure affects
Ring
loop central device needed whole network
Every device connects Very reliable, high Very expensive, complex to
Mesh
to many others speed install
Combination of two or Flexible, reliable, Expensive, complex setup and
Hybrid
more topologies efficient management
🔹 9. OSI Reference Model (7 Layers):
A framework that standardizes how data moves across networks.
Layer Function
1. Physical Cables, signals, ports, physical transmission
2. Data Link MAC address, error handling, switching
3. Network IP addressing, routing
4. Transport End-to-end connection, data delivery (TCP/UDP)
5. Session Manages sessions between apps
6. Presentation Data formatting, compression, encryption
7. Application Interface for user apps (email, web, FTP)
🔹 10. Encapsulation Process:
• As data travels from the Application layer to the Physical layer, each layer adds a
header (and sometimes a trailer).
• This helps in delivering, managing, and interpreting the data correctly across the
network.
🔹 11. IP Address vs MAC Address:
Address Type Description Can Change?
IP Address Logical address (e.g., 192.168.1.1) Yes
MAC Address Physical NIC address (e.g., 00:1A:2B...) No
🔹 1. What is a Computer Network?
A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices (e.g., printers,
routers) connected together using communication media (cables or wireless) to share
resources and information.
🔹 2. Benefits of Computer Networks:1-Easy access and sharing of data.2-Shared
access to internet.3-Sharing of expensive devices (printers, scanners).4-File and
peripheral sharing.5-Software sharing using multi-user licenses.6-Use of modern
technologies for communication and collaboration.
🔹 3. Components of a Network:Data Communication:Process of exchanging data
between devices through transmission media.
Transmission Media (Shared Channels):a-Wired:1-Metallic (Twisted Pair or Coaxial):
Transfers data as electrical signals.2-Fiber Optic: Transfers data using light pulses. Very
fast and secure.b-Wireless:1-Infrared: Short-range line-of-sight.2-Bluetooth: Medium-
range between devices.3-Radio Waves: Used in Wi-Fi.4-Microwaves: Long-distance
wireless communication.
C. Hardware Components:
Device Type Examples / Purpose
End Devices PC, Workstation, Server, Printer
Network Devices Hub, Switch, Router, Bridge, NIC, Modem
NIC (Network Interface Card) Connects a computer to the network
🔹 4. Network Access Devices:
• NIC: Connects device to the network.
• Hub: Broadcasts data to all devices.
• Switch: Directs data to the correct device (efficient LAN).
• Router: Connects different networks together (e.g., LAN to Internet).
• Modem: Converts analog signals to digital and vice versa.

🔹 5. Network Classifications (Based on Area):

Network Type Area Size Description
LAN Local (room, building) Used in homes, offices to share files/services.
MAN City/Metro area Larger than LAN, smaller than WAN.
WAN Country or global Connects multiple LANs via internet.
🔹 6. Network Models:
Peer-to-Peer (P2P):1-All computers are equal.2-No central server.3-Each device
shares resources.4-Example: Windows Workgroup.
Client/Server:1-Central server provides services (Web, Mail, DNS).2-Clients
request services from server.3-More secure and manageable.
🔹 7. Interchange (Switching) Methods:
Circuit Switching:1-Fixed path is created between devices before sending data.
2-Ensures stable and continuous connection.3-Example: Old telephone systems.
Packet Switching:1-Data is broken into small packets.2-Each packet can take a
different route.3-Efficient use of network.
Example: The Internet.
8. Topologies (Network Layouts):
Topology Description Advantages Disadvantages
All devices share a One cable failure stops the
Bus Cheap, easy setup
single main cable network, performance drops
All devices connect to Easy to manage, Hub failure stops everything,
Star
central hub/switch reliable needs more cables
Devices form a closed No collisions, no One device failure affects
Ring
loop central device needed whole network
Every device connects Very reliable, high Very expensive, complex to
Mesh
to many others speed install
Combination of two or Flexible, reliable, Expensive, complex setup and
Hybrid
more topologies efficient management
🔹 9. OSI Reference Model (7 Layers):
A framework that standardizes how data moves across networks.
Layer Function
1. Physical Cables, signals, ports, physical transmission
2. Data Link MAC address, error handling, switching
3. Network IP addressing, routing
4. Transport End-to-end connection, data delivery (TCP/UDP)
5. Session Manages sessions between apps
6. Presentation Data formatting, compression, encryption
7. Application Interface for user apps (email, web, FTP)
🔹 10. Encapsulation Process:
• As data travels from the Application layer to the Physical layer, each layer adds a
header (and sometimes a trailer).
• This helps in delivering, managing, and interpreting the data correctly across the
network.
🔹 11. IP Address vs MAC Address:
Address Type Description Can Change?
IP Address Logical address (e.g., 192.168.1.1) Yes
MAC Address Physical NIC address (e.g., 00:1A:2B...) No