Telecommunications

Engineering II
CTE 317
By
Ayofe, O. A. - PhD
 Course Outline
• Modulation
• Categories of modulation – analogue and digital modulation
• Amplitude Modulation (AM)
• Types of AM – AM or DBSFC, DBSC, SSBSC
• Merits and demerits of AM types
• Frequency Modulation (FM)
• FM types – Narrow Band FM (NBFM) & Wide Band FM (WBFM)
• Phase Modulation (PM)
• Correlation between FM and PM
• Practical: Oscilloscope, Signal generators, power supply, multimetre.
• Demodulation
• Diode circuit as detector - AM
• Square law detector - AM
• Coherent detection for DSBSC waves/signals
• Slope detection – FM
• Phase locked loop – FM
• Foster Seeley discriminator - FM
• Ration detector - FM
• Quadrature detector – FM
• Pre-emphasis and de-emphasis concept in FM

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 Course Outline
• Digital modulation and principles
• Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) – block diagrams, areas of applications, merits and demerits
• Time Division Multiplex (TDM)
• Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
• Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
• Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
• Fourier analysis of a pulse frequency component
• PAM – Block diagram, area of applications, merits and demerit
• Digital modulation methods
• Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
• Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
• Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
• Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
• Continuous Phase Modulation (CPM)
• Areas of applications - PSK, FSK, ASK, QAM, CPM
• Minimum Shift Keying (MSK) – principles and areas of applications
• Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) - principles and areas of applications

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 Terminologies
• Sender/Transmitter
• Receiver
• Channel
• Signals and waves
• Signal frequency

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 Introduction
• Telecommunication is a means of conveying message or
information from one place to another.
• Thus, the key component in a telecommunication is the message.
• Other components are the sender, the channel, and the receiver.
• This is depicted in Fig. 1.

Message Channel Message

Sender/Transmitter Receiver
input (messenger) Output

Fig. 1. Simple block diagram of a communication process

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 Introduction
• Input
• Conversion of input message to electrical signals – transduction
• Transduction - Process of converting a form of energy to another form of energy.
• Transducer – a component of a system that converts energy from one form to another.
• E.g. microphone converts sound energy to electrical energy
• Speaker converts electrical energy to sound energy.
• Sender/transmitter
• Transduced signal inputted into the sender
• The sender performs signal conditioning such as amplification
• For digital systems, signals are converted from analogue to digital using Analogue-to-Digital
Converter (ADC).
• Processed signals are modulated to ensure the signals are formatted to conform with the
conditions and/or characteristics of a transmission channel/medium.

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 Introduction
• Channel/messenger
• The medium or media in which messages are conveyed/transmitted
• Can be wired or wireless.
• Receiver
• Receives signal from the channel
• Performs signal amplification to recover it from attenuation and other
impairments it may have suffered on transmission medium.
• The processed signal is demodulated to recover actual message.
• For digital systems, the message in digital form is converted to
analogue using Digital-to-Analogue Converter (DAC).
• Receiver basically reverses the process involved at the sender’s side.

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 Assignment
• Write a term paper explaining with the aid of diagrams the
principles of operation and uses of:
a. Carbon microphone
b. Crystal microphone;
c. Moving coil loudspeaker;
d. Moving iron telephone receiver
e. Capacitor microphone

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 Exercise 1
• Draw the basic block diagram of a communication process
• What is a transducer
• Define the following terms:
• Analogue to Digital Converter (ADC)
• Digital to Analogue Converter (DAC)

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 Mode of communication
• Simplex mode – device sending message to another device.
• Device at one end can only send while the other can only receive.
• Examples: radio broadcasting station to transistor radio device.
• Half-duplex – device exchanging messages with another device but not
simultaneously.
• Device sending cannot receive during transmission while device receiving
cannot send during reception.
• Devices at both ends have both transmitter and receiver abilities – Transceiver.
• Examples: Walkie-talkie.
• Full-duplex – device exchanging messages with other devices but doing
so simultaneously
• Device sending can simultaneously receive and device receiving can
simultaneously send.

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 Modulation and demodulation
• Modulation refers to process of modifying a signal or waveform to carry
information or data to a far distance.
• It allows for effective transmission and delivery of information over a channel.
• In communication systems, information are transmitted in form of electrical
signals, electromagnetic waves, or optical signals.
• These signals are superimposed on a carrier wave whose frequency is higher
and suitable for long distance propagation.
• Carrier wave is the signal with no meaningful information but rather used to
deliver a message signal to the intended destination effectively.
• For modulation to take place, the three properties of a signal must be known
– they are the amplitude, frequency, and phase.
• Analogue modulation are premised on manipulating these properties using a
carrier wave/signal wave.

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 Modulation and demodulation
• A message signal also known as modulating signal and a carrier wave
signal are expressed in equation (1) and (2)
m (t )  Am cos(2 f m t ) (1)
c(t )  Ac cos(2 fct ) (2)

• Where Am, Ac, fm and fc are the message signal amplitude, carrier signal
amplitude, message signal frequency and carrier signal frequency,
respectively.
• Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation where a message
signal is extracted from a modulated signal by stripping off the carrier
wave the message signal is encoded on.

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 Importance of modulation
• Long distance communication – Ensure information are delivered over
a long distance
• Signal multiplexing – Allows for multiple messages to be transported at
the same time without mixing up or interfering with each other.
• Multiplexing ensures efficient use of transmission medium.
• Multiplexing is the process of transporting multiple signals from different
sources using a shared medium.
• Prevents interference and helps reduce noise.
• Ensures bandwidth efficiency.
• Allows for standardization which ensures compatibility
• Provides signal security for secured data transmission and delivery

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 Types of modulation
• Analogue modulation
• The three primary modulation techniques are amplitude, frequency, and
phase modulation.
• Amplitude Modulation (AM) encodes message signal into a carrier signal by
varying the amplitude of the carrier signal in accordance to the amplitude of
the message signal message signal.
• Carrier wave’s amplitude changes while its frequency remains the same.
• The AM is depicted in Fig. 2.
• Angle modulation – Frequency Modulation and Phase Modulation
• Frequency Modulation (FM) encodes message signal onto a carrier signal by
varying the frequency of the carrier signal in accordance to the amplitude of
the message signal or baseband signal.
• Carrier’s wave amplitude remains the same while frequency changes.
• The FM wave is depicted in Fig. 3.

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 Fig. 2. Amplitude modulation Fig. 3. Frequency modulation

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 Types of modulation
• Phase modulation (PM) embeds
message signal onto the carrier
wave signal by varying the phase
of the carrier signal in accordance
to the phase of the message
signal.
• Carrier wave amplitude remains
constant while the phase changes
• The PM is depicted in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4: Phase Modulation [Ref]

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 Exercise 2
• Mention and define the three modes of communication?
• What is multiplexing?
• Write the generic equation of a wave?
• Define attenuation?

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 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
• Considering equation (1) and (2), the equation of an amplitude
modulated signal s(t) can be expressed in equation (3):
s(t )  [ Ac  Am cos(2 f mt )]cos(2 fct ) (3)

• The extent or level in which a carrier frequency is being modulated is

termed as modulation index or modulation depth.
• The MI (μ) is obtained thus as the ratio of message signal amplitude Am
to carrier signal amplitude Ac.
Am
 (4)
Ac
• Equation (4) can be derived from equation (3) thus:
  Am  
s(t )  Ac 1    cos(2 fmt ) cos(2 fct )  Ac 1  cos(2 fmt ) cos(2 fct ) (5)
  Ac  

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 Amplitude Modulation
• Also, the modulation index can be obtained based on the maximum
( ) and minimum ( ) amplitudes of the modulated wave.
• would be achieved at cos 2 =1
= + (6)
• would be achieved at cos 2 = −1
= − (7)
• Adding equation (6) and (7) would give:
+ = + + − =2
= (8)

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 Amplitude Modulation
• Subtracting equation (7) from (6), the obtained expression is as follows:
− = + −( − )=2
= (9)

( − )/2
• Obtaining the ration of equation (9) and (8) would give:
= =
( + )/2
= (10)
• Thus, equation (4) and (10) are used to obtain the modulation index of a
modulated wave.
• A percentage modulation can be calculated by multiplying equation (4) or
(10) with 100.

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 Amplitude Modulation
• For a modulated wave to be
demodulated, the MI must be greater
than or equals to 1.
• For a modulation to be perfect, the MI
should be 1, thus the percentage MI
would be 100%
Fig. 5. An under-modulated wave signal
• If the MI is less than 1, for instance
0.5, the modulation would be under-
modulated as depicted in Fig. 5.

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 Amplitude Modulation
• On the other hand, if the MI is greater
than 1, say 1.5, the modulated signal
would be over-modulated as depicted in
Fig. 6.
• Note: As modulation index increases, a Fig. 6. An over-modulated signal
carrier signal experiences a 180o phase
reversal
• This produces additional sidebands and
as a consequence the signal gets
distorted.

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 Bandwidth of an AM Wave
• Bandwidth is the difference between the highest frequency and
lowest frequency of a signal.
• !" = − (11)
• Recall the modulated wave signal in equation (5)
•# = 1 + cos 2 cos 2
• =># = cos(2 )+ cos(2 ) cos(2 )
$% $%
• =># = cos 2 + [cos(2 ( + ) ]+ cos(2 ( − ) ] (12)
• The equation (12) shows that an AM wave comprises of three
frequencies which are the fc – carrier frequency, fm + fc – upper
sideband frequency, and fm - fc – lower sideband frequency.
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 Bandwidth of an AM Wave
= +
= −
!" = + − − =2 (13)
• Thus, the bandwidth BW of an AM wave is twice the frequency of
the modulating signal.

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 Power Requirement in AM
• Recall the modulated signal s(t) in equation (12) which comprises of
carrier, upper sideband and lower sideband frequencies.
• Then the power of an AM wave is equal to the sum of powers in the
carrier, upper sideband and lower sideband frequency components.
() = ( + (*+, + (-+, (14)
• The standard expression for the power of a sinusoidal signal is given as:
3 1
./1 0 4 1
(= = (15)
2 2
• Where vrms and vm are the rms of a cosine signal and peak value of a
cosine signal, respectively.
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 Power Requirement in AM
• Expressing the power with respect to carrier, USB, and LSB frequency component:
5$ 1
4 1 1
( = = $
(16)
2 2

5$ 6 1
41 1 1 %1
(*+, = = $
(17)
2 72

5$ 1
4 1 1 %1
(-+, = = $
(18)
2 72
• Thus the total power of an AM wave Pt is given as:
1 1 %1 1 %1
() = $
+ $
+ $
2 72 72
1 %1 %1
() = $
1+ +
2 82 82
%1
() = ( 1 + (19)
2
Therefore, the power of an AM wave can be determined by simply knowing the values of carrier power
and MI.

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 AM Wave
• Example I
• A modulating signal 9 = 10cos(2 x 10< ) is amplitude modulated
with a carrier signal = = 50cos(2 x 10? ). Find the modulation index,
the carrier power, and the power required to transmit the AM wave.
Consider the resistance to be 1Ω.
• Solution
AB
• The modulation index = = = 0.2
$ ?B
1 (?B)1
• Carrier power ( = 2
$
= DA
= 1250"
• The power required to transmit the AM wave is:
%1 B. 1
• () = ( 1 + = 1250 1 + = 1275"
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 AM Wave
• Example II
• An amplitude modulated wave is given by # = 20[1 +
0.8cos(2 x 10< )]cos(4 x 10< ). Determine the carrier power, the total
sideband power, and the bandwidth of AM wave. Take the resistance of the
system of modulation to be 1Ω.
• Solution
• Recall the equation of the amplitude modulated signal in equation (5):
# = 1 + cos 2 cos 2
• Amplitude of the carrier wave Ac=20V, modulation index μ=0.8.
1 ( B)1
• Thus the carrier wave power ( = $
= = 200"
2 (A)
%1 BB D (B.7)1
• The total sideband power is (+, = ( = = 64"
• The bandwidth of the AM wave is BW = 2fm = 2 x 1000 = 2000Hz = 2KHz
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 Amplitude Wave Modulator Design
• There are two types of design to achieve AM which are square law
modulator and switching modulator.
• Square law modulator
• Typical square law modulator is depicted in Fig.

Fig. 7. Block diagram of a Square law modulator

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 Amplitude Wave Modulator Design
• From Fig. 7, the message signal m(t) and the carrier wave signal = =
cos(2 ) are fed into the summer to give output V1(t).
IA = 9 + cos(2 ) (20)
• Equation (20) is inputted into a nonlinear device like diode which have close
characteristic to square wave law. The output V2(t) is obtained.
I = JA IA ( ) + J IA ( ) (21)
• Where k1 and k2 are constants.
• Putting equation (20) in (21):
I = JA [9 + cos(2 )] + J 9 + cos 2 ( )
I = JA 9 + J 9 +J =K# 2 +
L1
JA 1+ 9( ) cos(2 ) (22)
LM

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 Amplitude Wave Modulator Design
• The last term of equation (22) is the desired AM wave and the first three
terms are unwanted.
• Therefore using band pass filter, the AM wave term can be allowed to
pass and filter of the remaining terms.
• Thus the final output of the square law modulator is given as:
L1
# = JA 1+ 9( ) cos(2 ) (23)
LM
• Conforming (23) to the standard AM wave equation then:
# = 1 + J 9( ) cos(2 ) (24)
• Where ka is referred to as the amplitude sensitivity and k1 is the scaling
factor.

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 Amplitude Wave Modulator Design
• Switching Modulator
• A typical block diagram of a switching modulator is depicted in
Fig. 8.

Fig. 8. Block diagram of a switching modulator

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 Amplitude Wave Modulator Design
• While square law modulator is similar to switching modulator, the difference is that
the former is operated in a non-linear mode while the latter the latter is operated as
an ideal switch.
• As depicted in Fig. 8, the message signal m(t) is added to the carrier signal c(t) using
the summer, which results to V1(t).
IA = 9 + cos(2 )
• The V1(t) is inputted to a diode.
• If Am is very small compared to Ac, then the diode’s ON and OFF action is controlled
by c(t). Hence, the diode is forward biased when c(t)>0 and reverse biased when
c(t)<0.
I , = >0
• I =N A
0, = <0
(25)
• The V2(t) can be approximated as:
• I = IA R( ) (26)

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 Amplitude Wave Modulator Design
A
• x(t) is a periodic pulse train with time period S = .
T$
• The Fourier series representation of the pulse train signal is:

Fig. 9. Pulse train signals x(t)

W
1 2 (−1) A
R = + U cos 2 2V − 1
2 2V − 1
XA
A
R = + cos 2 − cos 6 +⋯ (27)
Y <Y
• Substituting V1(t) and x(t) into equation (26)
1 2 2
I = [9 + cos 2 ] + cos(2 )− cos(6 )
2 3
4 9( ) 2
I = 1+ 9 cos 2 + + cos(2 )−
2 2
())
cos(6 )− $
cos(2 )cos(6 )+⋯ (28)
<Y <Y

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 Amplitude Wave Modulator Design
• The first term of equation (28) is the desired AM wave expression:
8
# = $
1+ 9( ) cos(2 ) (29)
Y $
• Conforming equation (28) with # = 1 + J 9( ) cos(2 ),
8
then ka = Y with a scaling factor of 0.5.
$

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 Amplitude Wave Demodulator Design
• The process of extracting the original message signal from a
modulated wave is called detection or demodulation and the
system that performs this procedure is called demodulator.
• The two system design to achieve demodulation are square law
modulator and envelope detector.
• Square law demodulator
• Using the block diagram depicted below, a message signal can be
extracted.

Fig. 10. Square law demodulator

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 Amplitude Wave Demodulator Design
• An AM wave # = IA ( ) = + 1+J 9 cos 2
square law device and produces output I = JA IA + J IA .
is fed into the

• Substituting V1(t) into V2(t)

I = JA 1 + J 9( ) cos(2 ) +J 1 + J 9( ) cos(2 )
J
I = JA cos 2 + JA J 9 cos 2 + +
2
L1 1$ L1 1$ L 1 1 ()) L1 1$ L 1 1 ())
cos 4 + + cos 4 +J J 9 +
J J 9 cos(4 ) (30)
• The J J 9 term is the scaled version of the message signal and
can be extracted by passing the signal1 expressed in (30) through a low
L
pass filter and the DC component 1 $ can be eliminate using a
coupling capacitor.

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 Amplitude Wave Demodulator Design
• Envelope Detector
• It is used to detect or demodulate a high level AM wave. The block diagram in Fig. 11 depicts the
envelope detection mechanism.

Fig. 11. Block diagram of an envelope detector

• It consists of a diode and a low pass filter with the diode being the detecting element, hence an
envelope detector is also known as diode detector.
• In the positive half-cycle of the wave, the diode conducts and a connected capacitor charges to the
peak value of the AM wave.
• The point where the value of the AM wave is less than the peak value, the diode becomes reverse
biased where the capacitor discharges through a connected resistor R until the next positive half cycle
of the AM wave.
• Carefully selecting the capacitor’s value such that it charges very quickly and discharges very slowly
will aid in getting the capacitor’s voltage wave form to be the same as the envelope AM wave which is
similar to the modulating signal.

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 Amplitude Wave Demodulator Design
• Low-pass filter
• A filter circuit is a circuit that blocks signals of certain behaviour or characteristics
and allows signals of other behaviour/characteristics to pass through.
• One of the major behaviour of a signal that can be used as a filter criteria is
frequency.
• Also, the behaviour of certain components allows for implementation based on
certain criteria for filtering. E.g. A capacitor allows only A.C to flow while inductor
allows only D.C to flow.
• Thus a carefully designed LC network can be used to achieve filter of desired target.
• The purpose of filters include noise reduction, signal smoothening.
• A low-pass filter (LPF) attenuates signal higher than cut-off frequency thus blocking
them off and allows signals of frequency lower than the cut-off to pass.
• An LPF typically contains a parallel combination of resistor and capacitor.

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 Practical Tasks
• Construct the Square law modulator circuit and the switching
circuit.
• Construct the circuit for Square law demodulator and envelope
detector.

b. Switching modulator circuit

a. Square law modulator circuit

Fig. 12. Square law and switching modulator circuit

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