Mathematical Typesetting

Mathematical and Scientific

Typesetting Solutions from Microsoft

Edited by Ross Mills & John Hudson

with contributions by Richard Lawrence and Murray Sargent
 4 Foreword
5 About this book
6 Introduction & acknowledgements
9 Historical perspectives on the typography of mathematics
23 Features of the Cambria Math font
26 Character support and glyph set
27 Overview of the math table

Dedicated to Donald E. Knuth 29 Size-specific OpenType script-styles

30 Flattened accents and dotless forms
Microsoft may have patents, patent applications, trademarks, copyrights, or other 31 Variants and assemblies
intellectual property rights covering subject matter in this document. Except as
expressly provided in any written license agreement from Microsoft, the furnishing 33 Math kerning
of this document does not give you any license to these patents, trademarks, 35 Italics correction
copyrights, or other intellectual property.
36 Accent attachment
© 2007 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
37 Cambria Math on screen
Microsoft, Windows, ClearType, and Cambria are either registered trademarks or
trademarks of Microsoft Corporation in the United States and/or other countries. 39 Mathematical input and layout
The names of actual companies and products mentioned herein may be the
trademarks of their respective owners. 48 Mathematical sample settings
Printed in Canada. 55 Conclusion
 Foreword About this book
Geraldine Wade, font development manager
This book introduces the work of the team of software engineers and
managers, mathematicians and scientists, and font developers who
The need for well-designed, well-executed mathematical typesetting is
have introduced the highest qualities of mathematical typesetting to
as vital today as it has been throughout the history of modern sciences.
the latest generation of Microsoft® Office and other products. This work
Indeed, quality fonts and optimal composition for math setting are
is placed in an historical perspective highlighting the long tradition of
currently even more crucial, due to the importance of mathematics
collaboration between mathematicians and typographers to express in
and science in our everyday lives and the use of computers in the

About this book

written form mathematical concepts and formulae.
preparation of documents including mathematical expressions with
The book focuses on the Cambria™ Math font implementation
intricate structures. Additionally, reading on screen is becoming as
for mathematical typesetting, rather than on the math layout engine
important as reading in print; so there’s an added dimension to the work
software, and is intended as an introduction for mathematicians and
necessary to produce a font or set of fonts that will be both legible and
scientists as users of the font, and for designers and font developers
beautiful in both mediums.
interested in understanding the general principles of Microsoft’s
Bringing math and design needs together to make a fully functional
approach to mathematical typesetting and the features of the Cambria
product that typesets math well is a challenge and an opportunity that
Math font. The book does not provide detailed technical documentation,
ultimately enriches both disciplines. Math symbols and expressions
which will be made available in other formats. It is written as a general
contain a rich visual vocabulary waiting to be explored by the
overview, in order to be accessible to those whose interest is in the
typographer. The art and skill necessary to make a set of well designed
quality of the results of mathematical typesetting, rather than the
typefaces that can represent the needs of a mathematician are an
minutiae of how those results are achieved.
invaluable aid to quality mathematical typesetting and increased
The book concludes with a specimen of mathematical formulae
comprehension for the reader and student.
typeset in Microsoft Word 2007, using the new math layout functionality
In this project we believe we have made a step along the path toward
and the Cambria Math font.
improving mathematical typography for our customers worldwide.

 | Foreword
 Introduction

Mathematics is a language. Like other languages it has dialects and symbols spill outward and upward across the page, dance around
specialist vocabularies, and it evolves to express new ideas and to lines and braces, jump up from their baselines and nestle beside
name new objects and concepts. It also has its own writing system their companions. A page of well-set equations has a particular visual
that, like many of the world’s writing systems, has borrowed symbols beauty that frequently seems more open and expansive than the stiff
from the orthographies of other languages and also invented new rows or columns of letters that characterize most writing systems. But
symbols. The evolving nature of the language of mathematics, and its this expansiveness and apparent fluidity is hard-won. The measure
particular need to express complex ideas in concise ways, has resulted of control required to accurately size and position each element is
in an especially productive writing system. Mathematical authors not very great, and the rendering of the mathematical notation in typeset
only write according to established orthographical conventions, but form has long been a major challenge to typographers, printers and
frequently invent new conventions to express original ideas. Crucially, the developers of typesetting equipment. But as the historical section
not only the visual symbols have significance in the writing system, but of this booklet reveals, there is also a natural affinity between the
also their relative size and spatial relationships. Vertical and horizontal aims of mathematicians and those of typographers, in expressing as
arrangement, enclosure within other symbols—which may grow or clearly as possible ideas and concepts. This has resulted in a long and
shrink relative to their contents—, changes in size or weight: all these fruitful collaboration between mathematicians, typographers and type
elements make the writing system of mathematics among the most designers.
dynamic and, for the typesetter, most challenging in the world. Bringing together the skills and knowledge of mathematicians,
The poet-typographer Robert Bringhurst calls writing “the solid form researchers, computer scientists, programmers, text layout and font
of language”. Reducing the ideas of mathematicians and scientists to engineers, project managers, type designers and testers—acknowledged
the very solid form of typeset text has been, and remains, a challenge overleaf—was a major undertaking. The successful implementation of
for authors, editors and typographers. The result, seen on the printed Microsoft’s typesetting solutions is a testament to both individual and
page or, increasingly, on the computer screen may seem quite liberated corporate commitment.
and fluid compared to the written forms of most other languages: the

 | Introduction Introduction | 
 Acknowledgements Historical perspectives
Math layout handler Eliyezer Kohen (initiator); Andrei Burago, Sergey
Genkin, Victor Kozyrev, Igor Zverev, Alexander Vaschillo and Anton Sukhanov One of the goals of Microsoft’s new mathematical typesetting solutions

Segue to Features of the Cambria Math Font

(developers); Vivek Garg, Mary Wang and Greg Heino (testers). is to make high quality math setting available to users familiar with
Cambria Math font Jelle Bosma, Robin Nicholas, Steve Matteson and Ross common word-processing programs, and to make it fast to learn
Mills (designers); Ross Mills, John Hudson, Mike Duggan and Andrei Burago and easy to get high quality results. Another goal is to incorporate
(developers); Geraldine Wade and Greg Hitchcock (managers); Vivek Garg the handling of complex mathematical typography into the existing

Historical perspectives
(tester). architecture of OpenType® font technology, the RichEdit layout library
and other common resources, so it can be utilized by a broad range of
Math font program library and editor Sergey Malkin (developer).
applications, not limited to the arrangement and printing of equations
RichEdit Murray Sargent, Sasha Gil, Mikhail Baranovsky, Hon-Wah Chan and José on paper. In this approach, Microsoft is building on its strengths
Oglesby (developers); Zane Mumford (manager); Isao Yamauchi, Greg Heino, and experience in text processing and font technology, but it is also
Yuriko Rosnow and Parag Palekar (testers). building on centuries of work by mathematicians, scientists, educators,
Microsoft Word Ethan Bernstein, Said Abou-Hallawa, Ali Taleghani and Bryan typographers and printers who have sought to give visual expression to
Krische (developers); Jennifer Michelstein (manager); Jason Rajtar and Yi Zhang mathematical concepts.
(testers). As the following overview shows, the history of mathematical
Microsoft Math Calculator Jinsong Yu (developer); Ben Kunz (manager); Luke typesetting is a history of distinguished collaboration, involving some
Kelly (tester). of the greatest names in mathematics as well as many anonymous
technicians, typesetters and printers.
Office Art Handwriting Microsoft Research developers, testers and project
managers (Asia, Redmond, Belgrade)
Many thanks to Barbara Beeton (AMS), Asmus Freytag, Ron Whitney, Richard
Lawrence, and Donald Knuth for their advice and very helpful discussions, and to
Paula B. Croxon for editorial consultation on this book.

 | Introduction
 Historical perspectives on the typography of mathematics So a typeface fit to the subject matter does not distract from that “Typography may be defined as the
matter, which is arranged into words and paragraphs so as to aid craft of rightly disposing printing
Richard Lawrence material in accordance with specific
comprehension. The result is almost invariably an aesthetically pleasing,
purpose; of so controlling the
and often beautiful, marriage of form and function. type as to aid to the maximum the
The typesetting and printing of mathematics is today much easier than
Mathematicians have a keen sense of beauty and the importance reader’s comprehension of the text.”
it has ever been. In the publishing field, preparation of press-ready
of utility in notation. An argument or idea clearly and concisely Stanley Morison, First
material for the printer is now largely up to the author or editor, and
expressed will garner the description of “beautiful”. But the concept principles of tpography, 1951
can be produced on a personal computer. This comparative ease
of mathematical beauty is applied more widely than just to ideas. The
of preparation is complemented by the remarkable quality of the “By relieving the brain of all
expression of those ideas on paper may also be described as beautiful.
typesetting: both are, of course, related to the ingenuity and abilities of unnecessary work, a good notation
Written mathematics is an exceptional, perhaps unique, language:
computer programmers, but they are also a testament to the skills of sets it free to concentrate on more
the type designers and typographers who prepare typefaces for the very … [mathematicians] have to express values, quantities and relationships by symbols advanced problems, and in effect
which differ basically from those of the alphabet, in that they have no fixed phonetic increases the mental power of the
exacting use they get in mathematics. value. … In the mathematician’s world they still use sign language. … a soundless human race.”
In the history of printing and typesetting, mathematics holds a world in which the most complex and delicate statements can be made, to anyone in Alfred North Whitehead,
peculiar place. It is both the material most feared by typesetting the world who can read them without any trouble about the language barrier.
An introduction to mathematics,
craftsmen and the inspiration for some of their greatest technical Arthur Phillips, The Monotype Recorder, 40, 1956 1947
achievements. It is the subject matter that has perhaps inspired the
Mathematical arguments have to be written in this silent language:
most intense collaborations between authors and printers, yet it is
it would be very taxing indeed to complete many mathematical
often one of the least commercially rewarding for publishers. Through
discussions without pencil and paper or their equivalent. Given the
all this history, though, there has been an affinity of purpose between
subtle and perplexing nature of much mathematics, the details of the
typographer and mathematician that has, at least in recent times, drawn
written form are clearly going to be important to the task of conveying
the two together in overcoming common problems.
the argument without introducing opacity or distraction. The aims of
Good typography is transparent and does not place itself between
the mathematician are then the same as the typographer. A typographer
the reader and comprehension: rather it silently aids understanding.
and a mathematician examining the same piece of mathematics may not

10 | Historical perspectives Historical perspectives | 11

 have an equal understanding of its meaning, but they are likely to have the compositor must pay close attention to the spacing of the sorts
an equal appreciation of the aesthetics of its presentation: both seek to in both dimensions. This would have been particularly difficult when
make it visually easy to follow and aesthetically pleasing. adjacent sorts came from separate typefoundries and may be cast on
subtly different sizes of body.
It is here that the far subtler matter of type design also enters the
The difficulty of mathematical typesetting
picture. A sort with a particular quirky design may be tolerated and
What used to make mathematics difficult for the typesetter and “… gentlemen should be very exact readily understood as part of an otherwise ordinary word in most
expensive for the publisher? One obvious answer is incomprehension in their copy, and compositors natural language typography: it may even add “color”, enlivening the
of the subject matter. The difficulty of knowing how to arrange type is as careful in following it, that no page of text. In mathematics it is necessary for the reader to be able to
alterations may ensue after it is
greater without any idea of what is being conveyed. composed; since changing and al- identify each and every sort reliably in isolation, and also to distinguish
However, compositors (typesetters) with a bare minimum of tering work of this nature is more whether it is in italic, sans serif, bold or plain roman. A well-designed
schooling used to successfully typeset foreign languages in ignorance of troublesome to a compositor than family of typefaces is a boon to mathematical typesetting and to the
their meaning. There are two substantial physical difficulties in setting can be imagined by one that has not comprehension of the reader; “making do” with what is already available
mathematics. The first is the extraordinary diversity of individual tolerable knowedge of printing.” in types designed for typical text work is unlikely to be completely
characters or “sorts” in various styles (bold, italic, sans serif, etc.) and Caleb Stower, The printer’s satisfactory, although that is exactly what happened for most of the
grammar, 1808
the many sizes required. Each sort in each style had to be literally at history of mathematical printing.
hand. Marshalling all the sorts required was a logistical problem and in “Algebraic work, in treatises on al-
the days of metal type, ensuring an adequate supply of each sort was an gebra only, double price. When in Handset mathematical type. Above,
Hand typesetting of mathematics
industrial enterprise with considerable material expenses. lines or paragraphs, to be charged the equation as printed and, below, a
The second difficulty is that unlike conventional text, mathematics is by time at the rate of 60 cents The “invention of printing” in Europe around the year 1450 was really diagram of the pieces of metal type
not linear in its construction: an equation depends on a two-dimensional per hour, or about treble price.” the invention of casting movable (reusable) type in metal: individual and spacing material necessary.
Theodore L. De Vinne, (From L.A.Legros and J.C.Grant:
arrangement of sorts. In the days of metal type, this was a considerable letters and signs were cast in hand-held moulds as raised surfaces on a Typographical printing surfaces.
The printers’ price, 1871
mechanical challenge, which demanded all the ingenuity the typesetter conveniently sized rectangular stick of metal. These individual pieces Longman, Green, and Co., London,
could muster. To create a really good piece of mathematical typography of type were then assembled by hand into lines, and the lines into 1916.)

12 | Historical perspectives Historical perspectives | 13

 paragraphs and pages which were then printed. Once printed, the René Descartes, in La Géométrie of 1637, started the current practice
type could be reused to typeset fresh lines and pages. The earliest of using italic letters to denote quantities of interest: printers
mathematical printing would have been from such type set by hand. had started to use italic type in the late fifteenth century, but not
As mathematicians began to develop their subject, so they in conjunction with roman type. It was some time before many
needed to find new notation to express their discovered knowledge. printers had roman and italic type cast to the same body size that
There is evidence of interplay between printer and mathematician, would fit together conveniently.
with the latter exploring what the former had to offer in the way of As notation and calculations became more complicated, so the
new type styles and symbols. In 1647, the English mathematician printer faced greater demands to assemble complicated expressions
William Oughtred recognized the benefits of good notation in his from individual pieces of type. They began to devise or suggest
Algebra: labor-saving notation:
Which Treatise being written not in the usuall synthetical manner, nor … we propose one that is similar to an Italic l inverted, and whose
with verbous expression, but in the inventive way of Analitice, and with figure takes in the whole depth of its body; which then would have the
symboles or notes instead of words, seemed unto many very hard; though resemblance; viz. 3l5 12l63 16l30.
indeed it was but their owne diffidence, being scared by the newness of John Smith, The printer’s grammar, 1755
the delivery; and not any difficulty in the thing it selfe. For this specious
and symbolicall manner, neither racketh the memory, nor chargeth In 1893, Oliver Heaviside popularized the work of James Clerk
the phantasie with comparing and laying things together; but plainly Maxwell in his Electromagnetic theory, and was the “discoverer” of
presenteth to the eye the whole course and processe of every operation and another type style when seeking a notation for vectors:
argumentation.
Maxwell employed German or Gothic type. This was unfortunate choice,
The ‘symboles or notes instead of words’ were a considerable being by itself sufficient to prejudice readers against vectorial analysis. …
advance, a move from words that clearly referred to concrete things “Mathematical, algebraical, and Some of them are so much alike that a close scrutiny of them with a glass
to symbols that represent abstractions. Oughtred used capital geometrical characters” in J. Johnson, is need to distinguish them unless one is lynx-eyed. … Rejecting Germans
Typographia or the printers’ instructor. and Greeks, I formerly used ordinary Roman letters to mean the same
roman letters to denote his quantities, a practice that can be traced Longman et al., London, 1824. as Maxwell’s corresponding Germans. … Finally I found salvation in Johnson, ibid.
back to at least 1544 and the German mathematician Michael Stiffel. Clarendons, and introduced the use of the kind of type so called I believe,

14 | Historical perspectives Historical perspectives | 15

 for vectors (Phil. Mag., August, 1886), and have found it thoroughly Improving mathematical typography
suitable.
One early attempt to improve mathematical typography involved
Clarendon types were a relatively recent type style, characterized the Inland Typefoundry of St Louis in 1900. At the suggestion of a
by low contrast between thick and thin strokes, heavy slab serifs publisher they cut punches and made sorts to match their existing
and generous width. They provided a convenient solution to a Oldstyle No.11 type. They also rationalized the setting of sorts to
notational problem, a solution now part of mathematical orthodoxy. uniform widths and the alignment of different typefaces on the
Sometimes a mathematician would come to the rescue of the body of the type. These innovations made the mechanical work of
printer. A bar over several characters is a very effective and easy- the hand compositor much easier. It is therefore unclear why more
to-understand notation when symbols are to be linked, For purely printers and publishers did not take advantage of this work, but it
mechanical reasons, though, it is difficult to place bars over or under was largely neglected.
characters in typesetting. Leibniz suggested a printer-friendly A more successful attempt involved Oxford University Press
alternative: and the Monotype system for composing metal type mechanically.
When one or both of the factors are compounded of several letters, they Following an audacious raid by the Oxford University Press into the
are distinguished by a line over them; … Leibnitz, Wolfius, and others, “enemy territory” of Cambridge in March 1928, OUP’s printer, John
distinguish the compound factors, by including them in parenthesis Johnson, was presented with the problem of setting mathematics
thus ++(𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑐) 𝑑.
for a newly founded physics series and its first Cambridge-based
J. Johnson, Typographia or the Printers’ Instructor, 1824
author, P. A. M. Dirac. A pair of mathematical journals acquired
However, the effect of the mathematician raiding the printer’s at about the same time from a small Cambridge publisher and
Typical handset maths from D. A. Low, A
reserves of type, while providing solutions to notational problems, previously set in oldstyle types provided a training ground. Johnson
pocket-book for mechanical engineers.
tended not to produce very harmonious typography. It can be Longmans, Green and Co., London, 1915. rose to the challenge and set about researching a typeface to use.
Inland Typefoundry’s improvements to
difficult enough to express a mathematical idea in symbols without His choice was Monotype’s Modern Series 7, possibly because OUP oldstyle type for mathematical typesetting
the visual distraction of those symbols being a rag-bag of ill- already had a large investment in modern types and matching (excerpt from Old style type on bookwork,
matching sorts. Greeks and special sorts for its dictionary work. Johnson did not just privately printed, St Louis, 1902.)

16 | Historical perspectives Historical perspectives | 17

 commission new mathematical sorts to match the existing holdings of “Printing-house proprietors and as Series 569. The parent Times face was well provided with a range
OUP, he also sought to formalize the rules of mathematical typesetting. authors, from force of circum- of sorts, but the peculiar spacing requirements of mathematics and
stances, have had to be content
With the assistance of a small panel of mathematicians, he codified the the highly innovative technicalities of the 4-line system made special
with many characters imperfectly
rules of mathematical typesetting. These were eventually published by made, obtained from different demands. At the system’s heart, a 10 point face was cast on a 6 point
Johnson’s successor, Charles Batey in The Printing of Mathematics [T. W. sources, designed by different body and each equation was broken down into four lines. With the
Chaundy et al. 1950]. More than half of the Oxford rules are given over to men and at different periods, introduction of the Monotype 4‑line system in 1959 hot-metal typesetting
matters of spacing, emphasizing the great importance in mathematical varying often over fifty years.” had reached its “technological zenith” [David Saunders, The Monotype
typesetting not just of choosing the correct sort, but also its correct Carl Schraubstadter, Recorder, New Series 10, 1997]. This and the previous Oxford system
Old style type on bookwork, 1902 The details of Monotype’s 4-line
disposition in relation to others. provide benchmarks that are still used today.
system for setting mathematics.
The Oxford rules were developed for use with Monotype keyboards
and casters. This was the first mechanization of mathematical
The eclipsing of hot-metal systems
typesetting. Even though many elements of an equation could
be keyboarded in this system, the assembly of the elements Mathematicians and scientists may have been well-served
required skilled handwork. But with good training and the typographically by Monotype, but increasingly they wanted a less
inherent precision and controllability of the Monotype machinery, expensive way of composing mathematics that was more directly
the results were exceptionally good compared to what went before. under their control. Publishers also wanted an inexpensive alternative
A new standard of mathematical typography had been set. method to compose mathematics in order to make more specialist Typewriter composition of
The skilled handwork of the Oxford method made it slow and and ephemeral publications viable. Technology new to printing was mathematics.
expensive both in operation and in training. With an increase in pressed into service. The IBM golfball typewriter and Varityper both
scientific publishing and in mathematical work in particular, the offered strike-on typesetting with interchangeable type heads. The
Monotype Corporation started to investigate ways to reduce handwork interchangeability gave access to the range of special sorts needed; good
and increase what could be accomplished directly from the keyboard. Monotype Modern Series 7 type typists or the mathematicians themselves could operate the machine,
Using the American Patton Method as inspiration, the Monotype 4-line employed by OUP for mathematical reducing labor charges dramatically. Huge compromises had to be made
typesetting.
system was born. The highly popular Times typeface was adapted in typographical quality, with very limited variations in character widths

18 | Historical perspectives Historical perspectives | 19

 and spacing, but immediacy and cost reduction were important driving control. That computing power could be harnessed to some of the
forces. trickier problems of mathematical spacing and layout in specialist
Phototypesetting, which had first been developed in the 1940s, started programs and routines. The Linotron 404 and, more importantly, 202
to appear as an common method of composition in the 1960s as offset machines from Linotype used a high-definition cathode ray tube to
lithographic printing became more popular. Photosetting machines project a digitally generated image onto photosensitive paper or film
generated lines of type from film masters, using a photographic process under microprocessor control. The 202 set the standard for quality
to set the type on rolls of paper or film from which lithographic plates mathematical composition from its introduction in 1978.
could be made. Most early photosetters were limited in the number of
sorts carried on their film masters, making them unsuitable for anything
TEX
but the simplest mathematical work. An exception was the Monophoto
machine from Monotype. Its film masters were carried in individual Despite these advances in professional typesetting, the poor
and interchangeable photomatrices. Coupled with an adaptation of typographical standards of the populist strike-on composition so
the 4-line system, great flexibility and good quality were achieved for disgusted one mathematician that he seized the moment, and the
mathematical setting. new technology of raster-based laser output, to completely change
The advent of photocomposers with digital rather than photographic how mathematicians work. Donald Knuth developed TeX as a word-
masters opened a new era in mathematical typesetting. Digital storage processing and typesetting system capable of mathematical work. Digital structure of type used
meant that a huge range of special sorts could be accessed easily Intriguingly, Knuth’s explanation of the working principles in terms of in the Linotron 202.
and created almost as easily. Digital storage also meant computer boxes and glue, the boxes being the sorts and the glue variable amounts
of space, shows similarity to the physical workings of the Monotype
machine, with which Knuth was familiar. The fixed-size of a box dictates
a certain size for the character to occupy the box (or vice versa). For TeX
to operate, it needs information about the chosen typeface. Knuth was
thorough in his research and also developed a program for drawing
Linotron composition of mathematics. typefaces, Metafont. The typeface he chose to run with TeX was

20 | Historical perspectives Historical perspectives | 21

 x

Computer Modern, similar to the Modern Series 7 of traditionally set

x
The Cambria Math font
mathematics books. TeX was a resounding success with mathematicians r y r y

and scientists for a variety of reasons, not least of which was being free z
As the previous section records, the history of mathematical typesetting
software. TeX quickly developed a base of very active and devoted users Typographic elements in TEX; are has often mingled innovation with expedience, finding new uses for
who cooperated to improve and extend it, and it produces results of defined as boxes. the x-y distance is existing typographic elements and extending existing typefaces to
remarkable quality and consistency which can be reliably reproduced the glyph height, the y-z is its depth. incorporate specialised symbols. In this aspect, Microsoft has broken
Where the two meet is the reference
on a variety of printers. It also allows data entry in a “mathematically with tradition. While the Inland Typefoundry, Oxford University Press
point (r).
logical” order when building equations: an advantage over traditional and Monotype historically sought to improve the typographic quality
typesetting programs, which tended to require data entry to follow of mathematical setting by adapting existing types, Microsoft has

Cambria Math
the mechanical constraints of the technology and which made no commissioned a new typeface, Cambria Math, designed from the outset
mathematical sense. Printers were initially very slow to make use of its with the needs of mathematics in mind. The new type was also designed
potential: it bypassed all their existing systems and its data-entry order to perform well on screen and to leverage the benefits of Microsoft’s
was alien to them. But TeX’s overwhelming success with authors means TEX character boxes are ‘glued’ acclaimed ClearType® rendering, acknowledging the increasing
that mathematical typesetters have had to learn how to use it and apply together to form word boxes (dotted importance of electronic publishing and information exchange.
their accumulated typographic and design experience to it. line). The following section looks at key features of the Cambria Math font,
Starting, as Knuth did, with no more than access to digital raster including extensions of the OpenType Layout format and new font tables
image setters and computing power, he was free to work from scratch to support mathematical typography.
without constraints of any pre-existing programs or systems. This TEX word boxes are glued together
allowed him to build a logical and very robust structure aimed at solving to form line boxes (double-line) and
the problem, and TeX is certain to influence all future developments in line boxes are glued together to form
mathematical typesetting. paragraph boxes. The ‘glue’ between
any of these boxes can be stretched
or compressed to alter character
spacing, word spacing etc. and to aid
in paragraph justification.

22 | Historical perspectives
 Features of the Cambria Math font

���
The Cambria Math font is an extension of Cambria, a four-style font For more information about the
family designed by Jelle Bosma as part of the Microsoft ClearType Font ClearType Font Collection and the
Custom type for mathematical typesetting is nothing new. Since its early Collection. Cambria, like other members of the collection, was designed ClearType rendering system, see the
Microsoft publication Now read this.
days, the setting of mathematics has posed problems for the typesetter to take advantage of Microsoft’s ClearType rendering system, which

���
that have been answered by the manufacture of new typographic is designed to improve the experience of screen reading. The weight For general information about
characters. The inventiveness of mathematicians and scientists in and proportion of the letters, numerals and symbols in Cambria have OpenType, see the Microsoft
devising new symbols to express novel concepts has placed considerable been carefully designed to be clearly legible at the small sizes and Typography website:
www.microsoft.com/typography/
demand on the makers of type, although the cost of manufacturing low resolutions of the screen environment, enhanced by ClearType’s

���
weighed against the relatively small returns on specialist publishing subpixel rendering and positioning.
has limited the actual number of fonts available for mathematical work. Development of the Cambria Math font involved design of additional
The advent of computer typesetting for mathematics has not, so far, glyphs (the visual representations of the abstract characters encoded in
changed this situation, and if anything the variety of typefaces available text), revision of some of the existing glyphs from the original Cambria,
is reduced, since most mathematical texts have been produced in
application- and font-specific formats.
The recent inclusion of a large number of characters for mathematical
publishing in Unicode and corresponding ISO standards, the
����� and the inclusion of advanced information in the font to be used by the
Microsoft math layout handler. This information includes new, math-
specific features within the OpenType Layout architecture already used
for supporting complex scripts (e.g. Arabic) and high quality typography,

���
����
specification of the MathML markup language by the World Wide and addition of a newly specified math table in the font containing
Web Consortium, and the inclusion of mathematical typesetting tools values to be interpreted by the math handler during layout.
in mainstream software such as Microsoft Office, opens the door to The values in the math table govern positioning, preferred scaling
broader access and increased exchangeability of mathematical texts. factors and substitution of glyph variants, e.g. for growing parentheses

�+1
These welcome developments also invite the design of new typefaces to or braces; they are font-specific and are set by the type designer or font
facilitate the typesetting of mathematics in new environments and for technician. Additional, non font-specific rules for positioning and spacing
new media. are incorporated into the math handler, which also has the capability to
make positioning decisions by analysing the glyphs presented to it.

24 | Features of Cambria Math Features of Cambria Math | 25

 Character support and glyph set Overview of the math table
The character repertoire for Cambria Math was established by the For more information about the TrueType and OpenType are examples of “sfnt format” fonts, which A selection of math constants:
mathematical characters which have been defined in the Unicode mathematical characters in Unicode, are made up of a number of discrete tables, some required and some Math Leading
standard. These include a large number of operators and other refer to Unicode Technical Report 25: optional. This format is easily extensible by the addition of new tables. Axis Height
www.unicode.org/reports/tr25/ Accent Base Height
symbols as well as alphanumeric characters in the wide range of style The new math table communicates between the math font and the
Flattened Accent Base Height
encountered in mathmatical text (bold, italic, script, fraktur, sans serif, math handler. It contains data related to horizontal spacing, vertical Subscript Shift Down
etc.). In Cambria Math, an extensive subset of these characters were positioning, glyph variants and assemblies, preferences for elements Subscript Top Max
added to the pan-European multilingual character set of the original such as rules which are “drawn” by the handler, special math kerning, Subscript Baseline Drop Min
Cambria fonts, enabling the seamless intergration of mathematical and additional global parameters. These are too many to be exhaustively Superscript Shift Up
settings into texts in a wide range of languages written in the Latin, detailed in this small booklet, but many of them are illustrated in the Superscript Shift Up Cramped
Superscript Bottom Min
Greek and Cyrillic scripts. pages that follow and give some idea of both the general methodology Superscript Baseline Drop Max
In addition to the characters defined in Unicode, there is also a large and the level of control available to math font developers. Sub-Superscript Min Gap
number of unencoded variant glyphs, which are accessed through The information in the math table can be categorized into font-level Superscript Bottom Max With Subscript
OpenType Layout features or math table rules. Most of these are variant values, glyph-level values, and glyph lists. Font-level values are stored Space After Script
sizes of a base character for stretching around large equations or over as “constants”, in which the font developer is able to set more than Upper Limit Gap Min
Upper Limit Baseline Rise Min
and under strings of text. For instance, there are several sizes of brackets, fifty parameters related to e.g. superscript and subscript positioning; Lower Limit Gap Min
parentheses and radicals, as well as accents of different widths that can linespacing within stacked equations; axis height for vertical alignment; Lower Limit Baseline Drop Min
sit over wide characters or over multiple characters. Other unencoded bar, rule and vinculum thickness; gap allowances between elements such Stack Top Shift Up
glyphs include scaling forms tuned for use as superscripts or subscripts, as text and bars; and many others. Stack Top Display Style Shift Up
and dotless versions of i and j characters for use with accents above. Glyph-level values apply to individual glyphs and include italics Stack Bottom Shift Down
Stack Bottom Display Style Shift Down
The original Cambria Regular font contained 992 glyphs, already correction, which helps refine positioning of superscripts; accent Stack Gap Min
making it a “large font” by many standards. The Cambria Math font attachment, which allows the developer to define preferred positioning Stack Display Style Gap Min
contains an additional 2,900 glyphs. of accents (rather than relying on automatic centering); and math Stretch Stack Top Shift Up

26 | Features of Cambria Math Features of Cambria Math | 27

 kerning, which gives fine control over relative horizontal spacing of
glyphs at different vertical alignments.
Glyph lists provide character variant and assembly information. In
simple terms, these indicate a base Unicode character and a list of ��� Size-specific OpenType script-styles
When a letter or numeral is mechanically scaled, for example for use
as a superscript, the strokes that make up the glyph are reduced in
𝑎��
weight, while the internal spaces of the form are pinched. It is preferable

�� �
variants for that character and/or ways to assemble the character from

ℎ��
for glyphs to become more robust as they are reduced in size, and for
multiple glyphs. The variant list is accessed by the math handler when
their proportions and spacing to become more generous, so that they
determining the best glyph to use in a given situation. For instance, as

�
harmonise well with nearby full-size glyphs.
a fraction or stack grows in the vertical direction and is enclosed in a
In Microsoft math fonts, size-specific “script” and “script-script”
delimeters, e.g. parentheses, taller versions of the delimeter can be used.

� 𝑥��
variant glyphs are designed at full size relative to the base Unicode
The math handler measures the height or width of an equation and then

�
characters they represent, and are then scaled for use as super or
selects the best match the variant list or assemblies list. [See pages 29–30
subscript forms according to factors specified in the math table font
for more information about variants and assemblies.]
constants. When displaying a character as script or script-script, the

��
math handler calls a new OpenType Layout feature, <ssty>, which

� 𝐸��
performs a glyph substitution of the appropriate size-specific glyph. The
<ssty> feature employs an enumerated lookup type, so the same feature

�
may include both script and script-script variants, mapped as the first
and second alternates respectively.

�
The adjustments to weight and proportion desirable for the script and

��
script-script styles are not necessarily linear relative to the base glyph. script-script

𝑥
In the case of Cambria Math, the ascenders and capital height of the script

��
script variants were shortened so exponents would be more compact base

�
and work better for inline formulae, but in the script-script style they
are taller to aid legibility at very small sizes.

28 | Features of Cambria Math Features of Cambria Math | 29

 Flattened accents and dotless forms Variants and assemblies

�
Two additional new OpenType Layout features have been introduced for The math font format allows the designer to define sets

𝑤�𝑊
mathematical typesetting: one is Flattened Accents <flac>, the other is of both vertical and horizontal glyph variants. These are
Dotless Forms <dtls>. designed and then listed in the math table as variants of a
The <flac> feature accesses variant accent forms which have been base glyph.

��������
designed to sit above capitals or other tall letters. These accents are Vertical variants are most often used to “grow” delimiters
vertically shorter than regular accents designed for use with x-height (parentheses, braces, brackets, etc.) or radical signs,

𝚤`𝚥` 𝐼�𝐽�
lowercase letters, so allow for more compact linespacing and vertical which should match the height of expression they contain.
gaps in stacked equations. The height at which flattened accents are Horizontal variants can be defined for characters such as
deployed by the math handler is set in the math table and the <flac> �
over- and under-delimiters and arrows or vectors, e.g. ����.
feature lookup simply maps accents which have a “flattened” variants, as
shown at right.
The <dtls> feature maps dotted characters i and j, in all their
�������� They can also be used to extend an accent over glyphs
of various widths or over multiple glyphs, e.g. ���.
The math handler measures the width or height of a
forms, to variants with no dot. These are used when an accent needs to given expression, then checks the math table glyph lists
be placed above the character. Arbitrary accent positioning over base and selects the variant whose height or width most closely
glyphs is controlled via the ‘accent attachment’ values set in the math corresponds to the size of the expression. The Cambria
table­glyph-level values; if no accent attachment values are set, then the Math font contains up to eight different variants for some
accent is centered over the base glyph. characters.
If the math handler determines that all the available
ı� 𝚤𝚥 �� �� �� �� �� �� �� variants are too small, it then proceeds to assembly
information for the character. Assemblies are sub-character

�� �� �� �� �� �� �� �� glyphs, i.e. two or more “pieces” that are assembled by the

30 | Features of Cambria Math Features of Cambria Math | 31

 math handler to represent the character that needs to be resized to fit Variants: Math kerning
the expression. A Unicode character, such as a
parenthesis: In typical text setting, adjustments to improve spacing by moving glyphs
Assemblies typically consist of top and bottom or left and right pieces,
closer or further apart, called kerning, generally involve only horizontal
and medial sections. They are designed to align with one another and to ( relationships. These adjustments can be easily managed by a single
smoothly connect. The connections and medial sections are necessarily
is mapped to a series of glyph kerning value applied whenever two particular glyphs are next to one
straight, so elements built from assemblies, especially braces, lack the variants: another. In mathematical setting, the relationship between adjacent
elegant curvature of the variant forms, but they are very versatile and
glyphs may involve complex horizontal and vertical relationships,
because sections may overlap they can adapt very closely to the size of

�������
especially when glyphs are scaled and positioned for use in superscript
an expression. ( → ������� or subscript roles.
The assembly pieces are listed in the math table lists for a given
Microsoft’s math font format uses “cut-ins” to enable superscript
character and additional information is provided to specify how much
and subscript glyphs to nestle against adjacent glyphs while ensuring

�
overlap one piece can have with its adjoining piece. The math handler

𝐿 𝑇�
that sufficient distance is maintained. The cut-ins are stepped, so that
references this information and adjusts the positioning of the pieces to Assemblies:
If the largest of the variants is not as glyphs are moved vertically relative to each other an appropriate
match the height or width of an expression.
tall or wide enough, an assembly horizontal relationship is maintained.
can be constructed from a series of Cut-in values are defined by the font developer in the math table
individual parts: and may be specified for each quadrant: upper-left, upper-right, lower-
left and lower-right. This allows for optimal spacing in relationships
between any adjacent quadrant on two glyphs, e.g. upper-right to

�
1

𝐿 𝑇�
(→ ⎛ → ⎛ lower-left, as in a base to superscript relationship. The cut-in values can
be either positive or negative, so may move glyphs closer together or
(→ 2 ⎜ → ⎜

� � � � � � � �⇒
further apart.
Where two sets of cut-ins meet, they may interract, affecting the
3
spacing. In the illustrations here and overleaf, the yellow lines indicate
(→ ⎝ → ⎝

32 | Features of Cambria Math Features of Cambria Math | 33

 right-side cut-ins on the base glyph, and the orange lines indicate left- Italics correction

� �
side cut-ins on the corresponding quadrants of script style glyphs.

𝛿 𝛿
The angle of italics or other slanted glyphs may result in them appearing
Each quadrant may have multiple cut-ins, defined at different heights,
too close to or even colliding with following upright or superscript
and the cut-ins may be as coarsely or finely defined as the font developer
glyphs. In order to ensure that a reasonable minimum distance is
deems to be appropriate, taking into account the font constants that
maintained, the math table contains glyph-level values for “italics
determine scaling and vertical positioning rules for glyphs. Some glyphs
correction”. The italics correction value is added to the advance width of Left, without italics correction;
may have only a single cut-in, while others may have many, creating
the glyph when it is followed by an upright character, e.g. a delimeter or right, with italics correction.
an envelope around the glyph shape or, if desirable, allowing part of
operator, or by a superscript.
the outline to extend beyond the cut in (as in the illustration on the

��
Italics correction is also used for positioning limits on n-ary operators,
preceding page, where the descending tail of the subscript 𝑓 pierces the

�
𝐿
particularly integrals, as shown at right. Note that in this case, horizontal
edge of the cut-in).

���
adjustment is defined according to the italics corrections value rather
Since the vertical position of superscript and subscript glyphs,
than by the cut-in kerning used for superscript and subscripts relative to
initially defined in the math table font constants, may be dynamically
base glyphs. Because the integral sign can grow and limits may be more
adjusted dependent of the contents of a formula or equation, cut-ins
complex than shown here, involving more than one line and requiring
provide flexible control of horizontal relationships based on glyph
dynamic vertical adjustment, the italics correction value provides a

𝐿�
shapes. In the example of the superscript 𝐴 in the illustrations, if it were
flexible mechanism to ensure a consistent relationship between the
desirable to lower the superscript it would encounter a change in the
limits. The position of the upper limit is determined by shifting the limit
cut-in envelope, which would prevent it from colliding with the terminal
to the right by one half of the italics correction value of the integral glyph,
of the L (as shown at right).
and the lower limit is shifted to the left by the same amount. In this way,
Each cut-in can also have device correction values; i.e. size-specific
a consistent angle is maintained.
adjustments to ensure optimal relationships between glyphs even at low
resolutions on screen, where rounding errors on the coarse pixel grid
might otherwise cause glyphs to be too close or too far apart.

34 | Features of Cambria Math Features of Cambria Math | 35

 Accent attachment Cambria Math on screen

𝐴�𝐴� 𝐝� 𝐝�
Base characters in mathematical typesetting may carry accents, which
ClearType is a Microsoft text rendering technology for screen which
may not correspond to diacritics in natural language orthographies,
takes advantage of discreet red, green and blue subpixels in liquid crystal
and which need to be correctly positioned relative to the base. This is
displays (LCDs). To render text on screen, glyph outlines in the font must
particularly important in the case of italics, when simply centering the
be “rasterised”, i.e. fitted to a grid of pixels to give the best representation
accent glyph on the advance width of the base result in the accent being

𝑓�𝑓� �˜ �˜
of the glyph shape at a given size and resolution. At the small sizes
too far left, far from its ideal location relative to the top of the base glyph.
normally used for text, and in the relatively low resolution of screen
Accent attachment is specified in the math table on a glyph-to-glyph An italic letter hinted for black &
displays as contrasted with print media, the pixel grid is very coarse.
basis. If a pair of base and accent glyphs do not contain an accent white display. The outline is distorted
With traditional black and white or greyscale rendering, it is often
attachment entry in the table, then the math handler defaults to by hint instructions to turn on or off
impossible to render details or even give a reasonable impression of a specific pixels.
centering the accent on the glyph. Since the absolute center of a glyph
particular typeface design. ClearType significantly improves the display
space and the optical center of a glyph seldom match exactly, and

` 𝑔` ����
𝑔
of text on screen by addressing individual subpixels during rasterisation,
because so many glyphs have asymmetric shapes that call for the accent
effectively tripling the resolution in one direction (usually horizontal). At
to be off-center, most glyphs will have accent attachment positions
the same time, ClearType uses sophisticated color filtering to maintain
defined.
consistent stroke color, even for thick and thin strokes of variant weight,
The illustration contrasts centered accents, blue, with accents
providing a cleaner and stronger glyph image than older greyscale font
positioned using accent attachment values, orange. Note that the accent
smoothing technologies.
attachment interacts with the flattened accents and dotless forms
The rapid growth and impact of the Internet in all areas of life in the
features discussed on page 28.
past ten years has greatly increased the amount of text that we read on
computer screens rather than in print. Mathematicians and scientists,
of course, were among the earliest users of the Internet and electronic ClearType rendering using individual
communications, but only fairly recent developments—the inclusion subpixels results in smoother curves
of specialist mathematical characters in Unicode and the specification and more natural diagonal strokes.

36 | Features of Cambria Math Cambria Math on screen | 37

 Input and layout

An examination of the examples in the previous sections gives some

idea of the difficulties involved in mathematical layout and the intricate
solutions required. Having looked at these issues from the perspective
of the font tables and features, we can now look at how math layout is
performed in the larger context of Microsoft applications, and at how the
of the MathML markup language—have made possible the reliable Above: a screenshot of a 12pt

Math input & layout

user creates mathematical content.
interchange of mathematical content in electronic documents. Cambria equation on a 145 pixel per inch
Describing math layout in all its complexities is beyond the scope
Math is the first font developed specifically to provide high quality display. It is difficult to accurately
represent screen rendering in print, of this publication, as is full documentation of the new math input
display of mathematical typesetting in a screen environment. This goal but this illustration, using full pixel language. Most of the material in the following section is introductory,
has guided all aspects of the font production, from the design of glyph color representation of the ClearType and provides a basic overview of Microsoft’s approach to mathematical
outlines to the specification of math table values. subpixel rendering, gives some idea input and layout. The section concludes with a more technical discussion
By leveraging the display improvements and positioning refinements of the clarity and legibility of the
of the layout mechanisms employed in correctly typesetting a famous
of ClearType, even scaled glyphs in math settings, e.g. superscript and Cambria Math font on screen.
equation.
subscript forms, can be cleanly rendered at typical text sizes. Glyph
rendering is assisted by “hints” in the font: instruction sets for each
glyph that ensure the rasterizer maintains consistency of stroke weights
and proportions in the low resolution grid. In addition to these general
glyph hints, Cambria Math contains device-dependent adjustments to
values in the math table, e.g. desired kerning cut-in depths and heights
for specific sizes.

38 | Cambria Math on screen

 Mathematical input and layout The math input language

Microsoft’s math layout depends on Unicode encoding and follows

the lead of TeX and MathML 2.0 in key areas. It is performed as a
adfhiknvxy In the simplest cases, such as an equation like � � � � �, the variables �,
� and � are represented by Unicode math-italic letters and the operators
In a math zone, the user types:

a=b+c
Cambria Italic glyphs are separated from the letters by spacing rules according to established
collaboration between four entities:
math typesetting conventions (as documented by Donald Knuth in
����������
As each character is entered,
• a Unicode rich-text processing program such as Microsoft Word The TeXbook.) The input experience for the user in such a case is much the application substitutes
• the math handler built into the latest version of the Microsoft text simpler than the layout requirements might imply: he simply types the the appropriate math italic
Cambria Math math-italic glyphs character and makes appropriate
layout component normal key sequence a=b+c in the math zone and the math handler
The italic letters used for math adjustments to the spacing.
• the math font takes care of the rest, converting the letters to the appropriate math-
variables in the Cambria Math
• the math font handler font differ from the regular italic characters from the math font and applying the correct form and �=�+�
Cambria Italic font letters in both spacing for the operators.
This collaboration is invoked whenever text inside a designated math form and spacing. The math italics In a math zone, the user types:
Input of characters in a math zone is achieved via a linear or “nearly
zone needs to be displayed. A math zone is created in a document by are encoded as Unicode math plain text” input language. This linear language is a means of entering
the user, and is distinguished from regular text for layout purposes. All alphanumeric characters and are
specialized characters into text by typing an escape sequence, usually a
a/(b+c) [space]
text in the math zone is rendered using appropriate glyphs (which may stored in the same font as the
backslash \ followed by a keyword e.g. \alpha will display �; \sum will As each character is entered,
vary from related, non-math forms, as shown at right) and according to regular, upright characters and
display ∑, and so forth. The ASCII characters on a standard keyboard are the application substitutes the
other alphanumeric forms such as
measurements dependent on glyph ascents, descents, and widths, as appropriate math italic character.
blackletter, doublestruck, etc. entered directly and autocorrected as required. Note that these keyboard The space character triggers
determined by the math handler rules and the contents of the font math
characters are used only for input notation: the resulting text is stored the fraction object layout and
table.
using the appropriate Unicode math characters. Some keyed characters positioning:
Within the math zone, text is entered using a special input language.
are used as switches or triggers; for instance, a forward slash / indicates
This is intuitive and easy to learn, and allows the user to create
that a fraction is to be constructed from what comes before and after the
     �
mathematical content quickly while relying on the layout engine and font
to ensure accurate glyph display, arrangement and spacing.
slash. An underscore character _ indicates a subscript, and a circumflex ^ �+�
indicates a superscript. The space character also has a role, delimiting

40 | Math input and layout Math input and layout | 41

 the operands of the linear format notation. The space character indicates Full details on the math input between computer typesetting of mathematics and a purely visual
that preceding elements are to be built-up, e.g. a_2 followed by the space language can be found in Unicode composition as practised in the days of metal type. It is not enough to
character would render ��. As well as keyboarding, other means of input Technical Note 28: look at a printed or manuscript equation to know how to reproduce
www.unicode.org/reports/tn28/
are also possible, such as pull-down menus or handwriting recognition, it from the available glyphs in a font: it is necessary to understand at
on a Tablet PC for instance. least something of what the equation means and how the parts of the
equation relate to one another.
Although this requirement of the input model was introduced to
The math layout handler
enable aspects of typographical layout for mathematics, it is proving
The collaboration between the math layout handler and its text- helpful in interacting with mathematical calculation engines, allowing
processing client, e.g. Microsoft Word, is carried out via a library of for close integration between calculation and layout.
layout methods and rules, along with extensive communication between Math zone text is described in a mark-up language, an XML, called
the math handler and the other layout components. The math handler OMML (Office MathML). OMML can be converted to and from MathML
uses a “callback” mechanism to ask for information about the text, such 2.04 and contains features of both the MathML presentation and content
as where a run of text begins and ends, the properties and content of tag sets. OMML can be embedded in other XMLs such as WordML, and
that run, the glyphs and glyph dimensions to be used, the math-object vice versa.
properties, line breaking data, etc. This results in callback functions that,
for instance, examine the characters in the document’s backing store of
characters or ask the math-font handler and operating system to obtain
data to assist layout decisions.
For all this to work correctly, the client application needs to provide
a backing store with the correct function names and arguments; the
correct bases, subscripts or superscripts; the correct integrands,
summands; etc. This means that the input model requires some
understanding of the underlying mathematics. This is a key difference

42 | Math input and layout Math input and layout | 43

 Math objects and spacing Object Arguments Purpose
accent 1 Displays accent over base character(s)
The layout of a linear equation such as � � � � � is relatively easy. In Opposite: table of math layout
handler objects, showing the number box 1 Gives properties to base
more complicated equations, special built-up math handler objects are
of arguments each object takes boxed formula 1 Displays borders and/or lines through base
used to place the glyphs in the correct places. The math handler uses delimiters 1 Encloses base in parens, brackets, braces, etc.
during processing and its purpose.
an extended set of spacing rules for operators and math objects to delimiters with separators n Encloses bases separated by separator character, such as a vertical bar
automate a number of spacing refinements that TeX delegates to the user. equation array n Displays set of horizontally aligned equations
The built up math objects are summarized in the table opposite. fraction 2 Displays normal or small built-up fraction
The function-apply object, for example, is used to insert proper function apply 2 Displays trigonometric and other functions with function name and base
spacing around sin and � in the expression sin �. The �-ary object is left subsup 3 Prefixes a subscript and/or superscript to base
used to insert proper spacing around the �-ary symbol and around the lower limit 2 Displays limit below base
“�-aryand”, e.g. integrand or summand. The subscript and superscript matrix n×m Displays matrix with n columns and m rows
objects are used to provide the proper kerning between the base and the n-ary 3 Displays large n-ary operator with a base and optional upper and lower limits
operator character 1 Used internally to give proper spacing to operators
script element, using the cut-in values in the font math table.
overbar 1 Displays bar over base (boxed formula special case)
The objects are based on a detailed analysis of the requirements phantom 1 Suppresses any combination of base ascent, descent, width, display, or transparency
of laying out mathematical notation, and provide the math handler, radical 1, 2 Displays square and nth roots
working with the math font, with precise control over the positioning of slashed fraction 2 Displays slashed or built-up linear fraction
every element of an equation. Individual characters and smaller objects stack 2 Displays first argument over second (like fraction but without bar)
are positioned relative to each other and built up into larger objects that, stretch stack 1 Displays stretchable character above or below base, or limit above or below
in turn, are positioned relative to adjacent objects as appropriate to the stretchable base character
overall shape of the equation. subscript 2 Displays subscript relative to base
subsup 3 Display subscript and superscript relative to base
superscript 2 Display superscript relative to base
underbar 1 Display bar under base (boxed formula special case)
upper limit 2 Display limit above base

44 | Math input and layout Math input and layout | 45

 An example: displaying � � �� 2 with text runs for arguments. The text runs result in various callbacks
to obtain character properties, widths, and glyphs, as well as to display
Murray Sargent
the glyphs or variants thereof once the whole line is laid out. All text
is treated using glyphs and glyph-ink measurements of ascents and
Technical text consists of normal text with interspersed math zones.
descents. The math italic letters � � and � are encoded as Unicode math
These zones contain all the mathematics and may contain as little as a
alphabetics. The operator object for the equal sign results in callbacks to
single mathematical variable, or one or more complete equations. The
determine the operator’s text characteristics and its default spacing class,
layout process begins when a layout client, e.g. Microsoft Word, requests
in this case, relational. The superscript object results in callbacks to
the line layout handler (LLH) to display the next line of text. The LLH
get text-run information for the base and superscript text, as well as to
then calls the “fetch-run” callback for the line’s first run of text. This
obtain the superscript vertical shift and the cut-in values for the upper-
callback distinguishes between text, math zones, and other in-line
right corner of the � and lower-left corner of the 2. These displacements
objects. When the LLH gets back the start of a math-zone object, it
are obtained from the math font handler, which is responsible for access
transfers control to the math layout handler (MLH). The MLH executes
to the math font’s math table along with appropriate scaling. When the
callbacks to the client to obtain math-zone properties, such as display
glyph for the superscript 2 is fetched, the math font handler is requested
versus in-line modes, zone ascent/descent, and a pointer to a client’s
to return a script level-1 glyph variant with a relative size specified by
bag of properties that will be passed to the client in most subsequent
the font (typically about 70% of the text size).
callbacks in the math zone. The MLH then calls the fetch-run callback
This example shows how even a short and relatively simple equation
for the first run of the math zone. The fetch-run callback distinguishes
involves interplay between the client, the math layout handler, the math
between mathematical text, mathematical objects and mathematical
font handler, and the font itself. More complicated examples, such as
operators. The operators are treated as special single-character
those shown in the following specimen pages, involve math objects like
mathematical objects.
brackets or integrals and need glyph assemblies and other information.
For example, consider Einstein’s most famous equation, � � �� 2.
In addition, larger equations may need to be wrapped to two or more
The � is in its own text run, the equal sign is a mathematical operator
lines, a process that involves further callbacks and information.
object, the � is in its own text run, and the � 2 is a superscript object

46 | Math input and layout Math input and layout | 47

 p. 49
Sample settings ஶ
ߨ‫ܬ‬ଵଶ ሺܾߚ௦ ሻ
The following pages present specimens of the Cambria Math font used ‫ ݒ‬ൌ ܸ ൥ͳ െ ෍ ሼԝԝ‫ ܬ‬ሺܾߚ௦ ሻܻ଴ ሺܽߚ௦ ሻ െ ܻ଴ ሺܾߚ௦ ሻ‫ܬ‬଴ ሺܽߚ௦ ሻሽ ݁‫݌ݔ‬ሺെߢߚ௦ଶ ‫ݐ‬ሻ൩
ሾԝԝ‫ܬ‬ଵଶ ሺܾߚ௦ ሻ െ ‫ܬ‬଴ଶ ሺܽߚ௦ ሻሿ ଴
to typeset equations from a variety of mathematical and scientific ௦ୀଵ
disciplines. They are selected to illustrate many different aspects of the
font and math layout behaviour discussed earlier in this book, as well as Note that the equation above is
Mathematical sample settings

the same as shown in the screen

features that, due to space constraints, have not been covered in detail. rendering image on page 38.
The creation of the sample settings is itself of some interest in the The legibility of the latter can be
context of the development and testing of the the math font and layout 49 compared to the high resolution print
handler. In order to test font behaviour and layout accuracy, Microsoft version shown here.
developed a test application with a large number of pre-loaded
equations, as well as the ability to accept user input of additional test
ோ ଶగ ଶ
cases. This test tool was used to generate some of the sample settings ߪ ଶ
න ‫ ܣ݀ݑ‬ൌ න ‫ ݎ݀ݎ‬න ݀ߠ ‫ݖ‬଴ଶ ൬ቀͳ െ ‫ ݎ‬ൗ ଶ ቁ ߱ •‹ ߱‫ݐ‬൰
on these specimen pages. Other samples are extracts from mathematical
଴ ଴ ʹ ܴ
documents created using Microsoft’s math typesetting solutions. ܴ
ߪ ଶ ʹ
ൌ ʹߨ‫ݖ‬଴ଶ ߱ଶ •‹ଶ ߱‫ ݐ‬න ݀‫ ݎݎ‬ቀͳ െ ‫ ݎ‬ൗ ଶ ቁ
ʹ Ͳ
ܴ
ͳ ‫ݎ‬ൌܴ ʹ
ଶ
ൌ ߪߨ‫ݖ‬଴ଶ ߱ଶ •‹ଶ ߱‫ ݐ‬න ݀൫‫ ʹݎ‬൯ ቀͳ െ ‫ ݎ‬ൗܴଶ ቁ
ʹ ‫ݎ‬ൌͲ
௥ୀோ
ͳ ͳ ଶ ଷ
ൌ ߪߨ‫ݖ‬଴ଶ ߱ଶ •‹ଶ ߱‫ ܴ ݐ‬ଶ ቀͳ െ ‫ ݎ‬ൗ ଶ ቁ ሺെͳሻ ฬ
ʹ ͵ ܴ ଴
ͳ ଶ ଶ ଶ ଶ
ൌ ߪܴ ߨ‫ݖ‬଴ ߱ •‹ ߱‫ݐ‬
͸

Sample Settings | 49
 p. 50 p. 51
Ͳǡ ‹ˆͲ ൑ ߛ ൏ ݊ 𝛾 ͳǢ
௡ ௠ିଵ ିଵ ௡ ‫ ۓ‬1ǡ ‹ˆߛ 𝛾 ݊ 𝛾 ͳǢ
݀ܶ ߲𝜕𝜕 ݀𝑑𝑑 ߲𝜕𝜕 ݀𝑑𝑑 ۖ
ൌ൬ ൰ ൅൬ ൰ ߨሺ݊ሻ ൌ ෍ ቨ൭ ෍ ቔቀ݉ൗ݇ ቁൗቒ݉ൗ݇ ቓቕ൱ ቩ ఊ
෍ ቌ‫ݔ‬௝ ൘ ෑ ൫‫ݔ‬௝ െ ‫ݔ‬௞ ൯ቍ ൌ  ௡ 
݀‫ݐ‬ ߲‫ ݎ‬ఏ ݀‫ݐ‬ ߲ߠ ௥ ݀‫ݐ‬ ‫۔‬
௠ୀଶ ௞ୀଵ ௝ୀଵ ଵஸ௞ஸ௡ǡ௞ஷ௝ ۖ ෍ ‫ݔ‬௝ ǡ ‹ˆߛ 𝛾 ݊Ǥ
߲𝜕𝜕 ߲‫𝑑𝑑݀ ݎ‬ ߲‫𝑑𝑑݀ ݎ‬ ‫ ە‬௝ୀଵ
ൌ ൬ ൰ ቈ൬ ൰ ൅൬ ൰ ቉
߲‫ ݎ‬ఏ ߲‫ ݔ‬௬ ݀‫ݐ‬ ߲‫ ݕ‬௫ ݀‫ݐ‬
𝑟𝑟 𝑦𝑦 
ൌ ቀെʹ𝑇𝑇ଵ ଶ ቁ ቈ ‫ݒ‬଴ ቉
ܽ ඥ𝑥𝑥 ଶ ൅ 𝑦𝑦 ଶ
51
ඥܿ ଶ ൅ ‫ݒ‬଴ଶ 𝑡𝑡 ଶ ‫ݒ‬଴ଶ 𝑡𝑡 ʹ𝑇𝑇ଵ ‫ݒ‬଴ଶ 𝑡𝑡
ൌ െʹ𝑇𝑇ଵ ‫ڄ‬ ൌെ ՜ բ
ܽଶ ඥܿ ଶ ൅ ‫ݒ‬଴ଶ 𝑡𝑡 ଶ ܽଶ ଵହ
ա ՜  ൅ ‫ ݌‬՜ ߙ 𝛼 ଵଶ
ା ଵହ
 ൅ ‫݌‬ା ՜ ଵ଺
൅ߛ
՝ ՝
ଵହ Ԧ
 ൅ ݁ ା ՜ ଵହ ൅ ߥ ଵଶ
C ൅ ‫݌‬ା ՜ ଵଷ ൅ ߛ ଵ଺ ା
𝛾 ՜ ଵ଻ ൅ ߛ
ሺ௜ሻ ሺ௝ሻ ሺ௞ሻ
ർ߶ఒ ቚ‫ܣ‬఑ ቚ߰ఓ ඀ ൌ ሺ݅ߣȁ݆ߢ݇ߤሻ ർ߶ ሺ௜ሻ
ቛ‫ܣ‬ ሺ௝ሻ
ቛ߰ ሺ௞ሻ
඀ ՛ ՝ ՝ 
ଵସ
 ൅ ‫ ݌‬՜ ଵହ ൅ ߛ
ା ଵଷ
𝛾 ՜ C ൅ ݁ା ൅ ߥ
ଵଷ ଵ଻
𝜈 ՜ ଵ଻ ൅ ݁ ା ൅ ߥ
՝ ՝
ଵଷ
థ೔బ థ೔భ థ೔೙షభ థ೔೙ ՠ ՚ C ൅ ‫ ݌‬՜ ଵସ ൅ ߛ
ା ଵ଻ ା
𝛾 ൅ ‫ ݌‬՜ ߙ 𝛼𝛼 ଵସ

‫ ܣ‬ൌ ‫ܣ‬௜బ ሱሮ ‫ܤ‬௜బ = ‫ܣ‬௜భ ሱሮ ‫ ڮ‬ሱۛۛሮ ‫ܤ‬௜೙షభ = ‫ܣ‬௜೙ ሱሮ ‫ܤ‬௜೙ = ‫ܤ‬ ՚ գ

50 | Sample Settings Sample Settings | 51

 ҧ ൒ Ͳƒ†ߠ௞௬ ൅ ߠ௞௬
ȣ ൌ ቐߠǣ ߠ௬ ൒ Ͳǡ ‫׊‬௬ ‫ †ƒܻ א‬෍ ߠ௬ ൌ ͳǢ ߠ௞௬ ൒ Ͳǡ ߠ௞௬ ҧ ൌ ͳǡ ‫׊‬௬ ‫ܻ א‬ǡ ‫݇׊‬ቑ In general, we have the following formula.
‰‡‡”ƒŽǡ™‡Šƒ˜‡–Š‡ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰ˆ‘”—ŽƒǤ
‰‡‡”ƒŽǡ™‡Šƒ˜‡–Š‡ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰ˆ‘”—ŽƒǤ
p. 53 The
The Binomial
Binomial
The BinomialTheorem
Theorem
Theorem
௬

ி
If 𝑘ˆ݇‹•ƒ’‘•‹–‹˜‡‹–‡‰‡”ǡ–Š‡
is a positive integer, then
ˆ݇‹•ƒ’‘•‹–‹˜‡‹–‡‰‡”ǡ–Š‡
௙ೖ ሺ௫ሻ ௙ೖ ሺ௫ሻ
ିଵ ͳ ͳ
ܲ൫‫ݕ‬ሃ‫ݔ‬Ǣ ߠ൯ ൌ ܼ൫‫ݔ‬Ǣ ߠ൯ ‫ߠ ڄ‬௬ ෑ ൬ߣ௬ ‫ߠ ڄ‬௞௬ ൅ ߣҧ௬ ‫ ڄ‬൰ ҧ ൅ ߣҧ௬ ‫ ڄ‬൰
൬ߣ௬ ‫ߠ ڄ‬௞௬ ݇ ሺ݇ െ ͳሻ ௞ିଶ ଶ
ʹ ʹ ሺܽ ൅ ܾሻ௞ ൌ ܽ௞ + ݇𝑘𝑘 ௞
௞ିଵ
௞ 𝑏𝑏𝑏
௞ ௞ ௞ିଵ௞ିଵܽ
݇ሺ݇𝑏𝑏ሺെ݇ ͳെ ͳ௞ିଶ௞ିଶଶ ଶ
௞ୀଵ ሺܽ ሺ൅ܽ ܾ൅ ܾൌ ܽൌ ܽ+ ݇𝑘𝑘 ‫𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 ʹ ڄ‬
+1݇𝑘𝑘 ܽ ܽ 𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
݇ ሺ݇ െ ͳሻሺ݇ െ 𝑘𝑘 ௞ିଷ ଷ1 ‫ڄ‬1ʹ‫ʹ ڄ‬
் + ݇ሺ݇ܽሺെ݇ ͳെሺ𝑏𝑏݇ͳሺെ݇ 𝑘െ
+ ‫𝑘 ڮ‬௞ିଷ௞ିଷଷ ଷ
ߣ௬ 1 ‫͵ ڄ ʹ ڄ‬+ + ܽ ܽ 𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
ߠ෠௞௬ ൌ ିଵ
ܰ௞௬ ‫ߠ ڄ‬௞௬ ‫ ڄ‬ቐͳ ൅ ߚఏ ෍ ݂௞ ሺ‫ݔ‬௜ ሻൣߜ ሺ‫ݕ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬௜ ሻ െ ‫݌‬൫‫ݕ‬ሃ‫ݔ‬௜ Ǣ ߠ൯൧ቑ ݇ ሺ݇ െ ͳሻ ‫ ڮ‬ሺ݇ െ 1݊ ‫𝑘ڄ‬ 1ʹͳ
‫ʹڄڄ‬
ሻ͵‫ ڄ‬௞ି௡
͵ ௡
ͳ + ݇ܽͳെ𝑘 ͳ 𝑏𝑏ሺ𝑘݇ ሺെ݇ ݊െ𝑘݊ ͳ𝑘 ͳ௞ି௡௞ି௡௡ ௡
ҧ
ߣ௬ ‫ߠ ڄ‬௞௬ ൅ ߣ௬ ‫ ڄ‬௜ୀଵ
ʹ 1 ‫͵ ڄ ʹ ڄ‬+‫ڮڄ‬ ‫ڮ‬+
+ ‫݇𝑛𝑛 ڄ‬+ሺ݇ ሺെ
‫ڮ‬ ܽ ܽ 𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
+ ‫ ڮ‬+ ݇𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ௞ିଵ +𝑏𝑏 ௞ 1 ‫ڄ‬1ʹ‫ڮ͵ڄڄ͵ʹڄڄ‬ ‫𝑛𝑛 ڄ𝑛𝑛 ڄ‬
‫ڮ ڄ‬
+‫ڮ‬ ௞ିଵ௞ିଵ
+ 𝑏𝑏+௞ 𝑏𝑏 ௞
++ ‫𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘݇ ڮ‬
+ ݇𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE 13 13
13 ሺ‫ ݔ‬ሺ𝑥𝑥 ହǤ ହ
53 EXAMPLE š’ƒ†
š’ƒ† ‫𝑥𝑥 ݔ‬ Ǥ
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
•‹‰–Š‡‹‘‹ƒŽŠ‡‘”‡™‹–Šܽ 𝑎𝑎𝑎ǡ
•‹‰–Š‡‹‘‹ƒŽŠ‡‘”‡™‹–Šܽ ܾ 𝑎𝑎𝑎ǡ
𝑎𝑎𝑎ǡ 𝑎𝑎𝑎
ܾ 𝑎𝑎𝑎ǡ ͷǡ™‡Šƒ˜‡
𝑎𝑎𝑎 ͷǡ™‡Šƒ˜‡

ஶ
ܲ ሺ‫ ݔ‬ሻ ܲ ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ௜ఈ௭ 5 ͷ‫ڄ‬5Ͷ‫ڄ ڄ‬ͶͶ ଷ ଶ ଶଶ 5 ‫ڄ‬ͷ5Ͷ‫ڄڄڄ‬ͶͶ͵‫͵͵ڄڄ‬ଶ ଶଶ ଷ ଷ
න •‹ሺߙ𝛼𝛼 ሻ݀𝑑𝑑 ൌ ʹߨߦ ቐ ෍ ܴ݁‫ ݏ‬ቈ 𝑒𝑒 ቉ቑ ሺሺ‫ݔݔ‬ሺ𝑥𝑥ʹହሻହൌହൌൌ
‫𝑥𝑥 ݔ‬
െ ‫ݔݔ‬ହ ହ‫ݔ‬+5‫ݔ‬
ͷ‫ݔ‬ସସሺሺ−ʹ
ହ൅+5‫ݔ‬ ସ−2
ሺ−ʹ+ሻ ൅+ ‫ ݔ‬ଷ‫ݔ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬ଷ−ʹ ሺ−ʹ
ሺ−2 ሻ+ ൅
+ ‫ݔ ݔ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬−ʹ
ሺሺ−2
−ʹሻ+5‫ݔ‬
+5‫ݔ‬
൅ ሺ−ʹ
ͷ‫ݔ‬ ସ+
ሺ−2
−ʹ ሻସସሺ+
−ʹ
൅ ହ ହሻହ
ሺሺ−ʹ
−2
1 ͳ‫ڄ‬1ʹ‫ڄ ڄ‬2ʹ 1 ‫ͳڄ‬1ʹ‫ڄڄڄ‬2ʹ͵‫͵͵ڄڄ‬
ିஶ ܳ ሺ‫ ݔ‬ሻ ܳ ሺ‫ ݖ‬ሻ ହହ
ͳͲ‫ݔ‬ସସ+൅ ଷଷ − ଶଶ +
కሾ௭ሿவ଴ ൌൌ‫ݔ‬ൌ‫ݔ‬ହ ‫ݔ‬−1Ͳ‫ݔ‬
−−1Ͳ‫ݔ‬ ͶͲ‫ݔ‬
ସ ͶͲ‫ݔ‬
+ ͶͲ‫ݔ‬ − ͺͲ‫ݔ‬
ଷ ͺͲ‫ݔ‬
− ͺͲ‫ݔ‬ ൅ଶ ͺͲ‫ݔ‬
ͺͲ‫ݔ‬
+ ͺͲ‫ݔ‬ െ 𝑥ʹ
𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥𝑥

Radicals
Radicals
52 | Sample Settings Sample Settings | 53

Š‡‘•–
Š‡‘•–‘‘Ž›‘
‘‘Ž›‘—””‹‰”ƒ†‹
—””‹‰”ƒ†‹ƒŽ•ƒ”‡•“—ƒ”‡”‘‘–•ǤŠ‡•›„‘Žξᇹ ‡ƒ•
ƒŽ•ƒ”‡•“—ƒ”‡”‘‘–•ǤŠ‡•›„‘Žξᇹ ‡ƒ•
p. 54 Dz–Š‡’‘•‹–‹˜‡•“—ƒ”‡”‘‘–‘ˆǤdzŠ—•
Dz–Š‡’‘•‹–‹˜‡•“—ƒ”‡”‘‘–‘ˆǤdzŠ—•
 ௫
௫ ‡š’ ቀെ ‫ ׬‬మ σஶ ௜
௔ ௜ୀିଵ ‫݌‬௜ ‫ݔ‬ଵ ݀𝑑𝑑ଵ ቁ
‫ݕ‬ଶ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ݕ‬ଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ න ݀𝑑𝑑ଶ ǡ
‫ݔ‬ଶଶఈ ൫σஶ ఒ ଶ
ఒୀ଴ ܽఒ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ൯
Conclusion
™Š‡”‡–Š‡•‘Ž—–‹‘•‫ݕ‬ଵ ƒ†‫ݕ‬ଶ Šƒ˜‡„‡‡‘”ƒŽ‹œ‡†•‘–Šƒ––Š‡”‘•‹ƒǡܹሺܽሻ ൌ ͳǤƒ Ž‹‰–Š‡‡š’‘‡–‹ƒŽˆƒ –‘”ˆ‹”•–ǡ™‡Šƒ˜‡
The development of support for mathematical typesetting in Microsoft
products has been a major undertaking, involving more than forty
ஶ ஶ
௫మ
‫݌‬௞ ௞ାଵ people—software developers, managers and testers from many different
න ෍ ‫݌‬௜ ‫ݔ‬ଵ௜ ݀𝑑𝑑ଵ ൌ ‫ି݌‬ଵ Ž ‫ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ෍ ‫ݔ‬ ൅ ݂ሺܽሻǤ
௔ ݇ 𝑘𝑘 ଶ groups at Microsoft, external type designers and font technicians,
௜ୀିଵ ௞ୀ଴
experts in mathematics and typography—, whose collaboration is
‡ ‡ celebrated in this book. The goal of this undertaking is the same
that has guided earlier collaborations between mathematicians and
௫మ 
typographers: to express mathematical ideas and concepts in clear,
‡š’ ቌെ න ෍ ‫݌‬௜ ‫ݔ‬ଵ௜ ݀𝑑𝑑ଵ ቍ

Conclusion
௔ ௜
succinct and beautiful visual form.
ஶ Mathematicians and scientists are ‘symbol-hungry’, and neither
ି௣షభ ‫݌‬௞ ௞ାଵ
 ൌ ‡š’ൣെ݂ሺܽሻ൧‫ݔ‬ଶ ‡š’ ቌെ ෍ ‫ݔ‬ ቍ the current Unicode math character encoding nor Microsoft’s
݇ 𝑘𝑘 ଶ
௞ୀ଴ implementation is exhaustive or closed to further extension. The
ଶ
ஶ
‫݌‬௞ ௞ାଵ ͳ ‫݌‬௞ ௞ାଶ
ஶ work recorded in this book is a significant advance in many respects:
ି௣
ൌ ‡š’ൣെ݂ሺܽሻ൧‫ݔ‬ଶ షభ ൦ͳ െ ෍ ‫ݔ‬ ൅ ቌ෍ ‫ݔ‬ ቍ ൅ ‫ڮ‬൪ in providing access to mathematical typesetting in the context of
݇ 𝑘𝑘 ଶ ʹǨ ݇ 𝑘𝑘 ଶ
௞ୀ଴ ௞ୀ଴
common word processing tools and a widely supported font format,
in automating refinements to spacing and positioning that previously
Š‹•ˆ‹ƒŽ•‡”‹‡•‡š’ƒ•‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡‡š’‘‡–‹ƒŽ‹• ‡”–ƒ‹Ž› ‘˜‡”‰‡–‹ˆ–Š‡‘”‹‰‹ƒŽ‡š’ƒ•‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡ ‘‡ˆˆ‹ ‹‡–ܲሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ™ƒ• ‘˜‡”‰‡–Ǥ
Š‡†‡‘‹ƒ–‘”‹“ǤͺǤ͸ͻƒ›„‡Šƒ†Ž‡†„›™”‹–‹‰ had to be made manually, and in addressing directly the appearance of
mathematical text on screen. But this work is only the latest instance of
ିଵ
ஶ ஶ
ିଶ an historic collaboration that will continue.
൦‫ݔ‬ଶଶఈ ቌ෍ ܽఒ ‫ݔ‬ଶఒ ቍ൪ ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଶିଶఈ ቌ෍ ܽఒ ‫ݔ‬ଶఒ ቍ Despite the complexity of math layout requirements and the
ఒୀ଴ ఒୀ଴ specialised features of math fonts and the tools for making them, type
ஶ
designers and typographers should not be hesitant in engaging in this
ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଶିଶఈ ෍ ܾఒ ‫ݔ‬ଶఒ Ǥ
ఒୀ଴

‡‰Ž‡ –‹‰ ‘•–ƒ–ˆƒ –‘”•–Šƒ–™‹ŽŽ„‡’‹ ‡†—’ƒ›™ƒ›„›–Š‡”‡“—‹”‡‡––Šƒ–ܹሺܽሻ ൌ ͳǡ™‡‘„–ƒ‹

54 | Sample Settings
௫ ஶ
ି௣షభ ିଶఈ
‫ݕ‬ଶ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ݕ‬ଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ න ‫ݔ‬ଶ ቌ෍ ܽఒ ‫ݔ‬ଶఒ ቍ ݀𝑑𝑑ଶ Ǥ
ఒୀ଴
 ongoing collaboration. One of the things that became apparent in the
course of this project was just how enthusiastic mathematicians and
scientists are to see their work well-typeset and how appreciative they
are of the efforts involved.
The material cost of producing new fonts for metal and even photo-
typesetting effectively limited the range of typographic options available
to mathematicians. It was always easier and cheaper to add new
symbols to an existing typeface than to start afresh. With the advent of
computer typography, the options expanded a little—notably with the
collaboration of Hermann Zapf with Donald Knuth on the AMS Euler
types—, but mathematical typesetting has yet to fully benefit from
the digital revolution with extensive options in basic type styles. The
Cambria Math font breaks new ground, not only via its technical features
but also in demonstrating what is possible in terms of fresh approaches
to the design of mathematical typesetting. We hope this project will
inspire others.

56 | Conclusion