Database Language:-

A database language is used to create, modify, and manage a database. It includes defining the
database structure and interacting with the stored data.

The data-definition language (DDL) is responsible for defining the database schema, such as creating
tables, setting rules, and specifying how data is stored. The data-manipulation language (DML) is
used for retrieving, inserting, updating, or deleting records from the database.

In practice, these are not separate languages but are combined into a single database language, such
as SQL (Structured Query Language). SQL allows users to both define the structure of the database
and manipulate the data within it. For example, a database table can be created using a DDL
command, while data can be added or modified using a DML command. This combination makes it
easier to manage and work with databases efficiently.

2->Data-Definition Language:-

A Data-Definition Language (DDL) is used to define the structure of a database. It helps set up how
data is stored, organized, and accessed. Think of it as creating a blueprint before building a house.

DDL defines the structure by specifying tables, columns, and the type of data each column can hold.
It also sets rules for how the data should be stored and accessed efficiently. Additionally, it enforces
restrictions to ensure data accuracy and consistency.
One important rule is domain constraints, which ensure that every data value belongs to a specific
type, such as numbers, text, or dates. For example, a student’s age must be a number and not a
word.
Another rule is referential integrity, which ensures that linked data remains valid. If a course record
lists a department, that department must exist in the department table. If a user tries to delete a
department that still has courses linked to it, the system may prevent the action.
Assertions are general conditions that the database must always satisfy. For example, a rule could
state that every department must offer at least five courses per semester. The system checks this
condition before allowing changes.
Authorization controls who can access or modify data. Some users can only read data, while others
can add, update, or delete it. This prevents unauthorized access and protects the database.

The instructions in DDL create a data dictionary, which stores information about the database itself,
such as table structures, constraints, and permissions. The database system consults this dictionary
before making changes to ensure all rules are followed.

Relational Databases:- A relational database follows a structured way of organizing data using
tables. These tables store both the actual data and the connections between different pieces of
information. For example, in a university database, one table might store details about instructors,
while another stores details about departments. Instead of repeating the same information multiple
times, the tables are linked through relationships, making it easier to manage and retrieve data
efficiently.
A relational database also includes tools for managing the data. One tool, called DML (Data
Manipulation Language), helps users retrieve, insert, update, and delete data from the database.
Another tool, called DDL (Data Definition Language), allows users to define and modify the structure
of the database, such as creating or deleting tables. These features make relational databases
powerful and efficient for handling large amounts of information in an organized way.

Table:- A table in a relational database is like a structured list where data is organized into rows and
columns. Each column has a specific name and represents a type of information, while each row
contains individual records. For example, a university database might have two tables: one for
instructors and another for departments.

The instructor table might include details like the instructor’s name, ID, department, and salary. The
department table might contain the department name, building location, and budget. If an instructor
named Einstein belongs to the Physics department and earns $95,000 a year, this information is
stored in the instructor table. Similarly, if the Biology department is located in the Watson building
and has a budget of $90,000, this data is stored in the department table.

The relational model structures data in a way that keeps different types of records separate but
linked through relationships. Since each table has a fixed set of attributes, it is easy to store and
retrieve data efficiently. In the background, the database stores this data in files, often using special
characters to separate values, but users do not have to worry about these technical details.

However, if the database is not well-designed, unnecessary duplication of data can occur. For
instance, if the department budget is stored in the instructor table, it would be repeated for every
instructor in the same department. If the budget changes, the database would need to update every
instructor’s record, which is inefficient and could lead to inconsistencies. This is why relational
databases aim to reduce redundancy by structuring data properly across different tables.

Database Access from Application Programs:- SQL is a powerful language for working with
databases, but it has some limitations. It cannot perform complex calculations like a general-purpose
programming language, nor can it handle user input, display output, or communicate over a
network. To perform these tasks, programmers use a standard programming language such as C, C++,
or Java, which can include SQL queries to access and modify the database.
Application programs use this approach to interact with databases. For example, in a university
system, programs allow students to register for courses, generate class lists, calculate GPAs, and
process payroll. These programs rely on SQL to retrieve and update data but use a programming
language to handle logic and user interaction.

To connect an application program to a database, SQL statements need to be executed within the
programming language. One way to do this is by using an application program interface (API), which
provides functions to send SQL commands and retrieve results. A commonly used API for C is ODBC
(Open Database Connectivity), while Java uses JDBC (Java Database Connectivity).

Another way is to embed SQL commands directly into the programming language, using a special
format. A preprocessor, called a DML precompiler, then translates these SQL commands into
standard function calls that the programming language can understand. This method allows the
application to interact smoothly with the database while keeping the code organized and efficient.
Database Design:- A database system is created to store and manage large amounts of information.
This information is not just stored randomly; it is used by businesses, organizations, or services to
support their operations. Some businesses rely entirely on data from a database, while others use it
as part of a larger system, such as managing customer records for an online store or tracking patients
in a hospital.

The main part of designing a database is creating its structure, known as the database schema. This
structure defines how data is organized, including what tables exist, what kind of data they store, and
how they relate to each other. However, designing a database is not just about creating tables; it also
involves understanding the needs of the organization using it.

A well-designed database makes it easy to store, retrieve, and update information efficiently. In
addition to designing the database structure, developers also need to think about how the database
will be used in applications, such as websites, mobile apps, or business software. This broader
process, called application design, ensures that the database works smoothly with the software that
depends on it.

Design Process:- The database design process begins with understanding what kind of data the users
need and how the database should be structured to meet those needs. To do this, the database
designer works closely with experts in the specific field and the users who will be interacting with the
system. The goal of this phase is to gather detailed requirements that describe what information the
database must store and how it will be used.

Once the requirements are clear, the designer selects a data model, which provides a framework for
organizing the information. Using this model, the designer creates a conceptual schema, which is a
detailed plan outlining how the data is structured and how different pieces of information relate to
each other. This step ensures that all the necessary data is included and that there are no conflicting
or redundant elements. At this stage, the focus is on organizing data logically rather than deciding
how it will be stored physically.
In the relational model, the designer decides what attributes (pieces of information) need to be
stored and how they should be grouped into tables. There are two main ways to do this: one is using
the entity-relationship (ER) model, which helps visualize data relationships, and the other is
normalization, a process that organizes data efficiently by eliminating redundancy and ensuring
consistency.

A fully developed conceptual schema also defines how the database will be used, including
operations like adding, updating, retrieving, and deleting data. The designer reviews the schema to
make sure it supports all the required operations.

After finalizing the conceptual schema, the next step is logical design, where the high-level plan is
converted into a format that matches the specific database system being used, such as MySQL,
PostgreSQL, or Oracle. Finally, in the physical design phase, the designer decides on technical details
like how data will be stored on disk, what type of indexing will be used for fast searches, and how the
database files will be organized. This phase ensures that the database runs efficiently and performs
well in real-world use.
Database Design for a University Organization:- Designing a university database starts with
understanding the key information that needs to be stored. This involves talking to users like faculty,
students, and administrators, as well as analyzing how the university operates. Based on this, a
conceptual structure is created to organize the data efficiently.

At the core of the university database are departments, each with a unique name, a building
location, and a budget. Every department offers courses, which have an ID, title, department name,
number of credits, and possibly prerequisites.

The university has instructors, each identified by a unique ID. They have a name, belong to a
department, and have a salary. Similarly, students are also identified by a unique ID. Each student has
a name, a major department, and a record of the total number of credits they have earned.

To manage classroom resources, the university keeps a list of classrooms, specifying the building
name, room number, and capacity. It also tracks class sections, which are specific instances of
courses offered in a particular semester and year. Each section has a unique combination of course
ID, section ID, semester, and year, along with details about when and where the class takes place.

The university also maintains teaching assignments, listing which instructors are teaching which class
sections. Additionally, student course registrations track which students have enrolled in which
courses and sections.

Although a real university database would have many more details, this simplified version helps in
understanding the basic structure and relationships within the system.

The Entity-Relationship Model:- The Entity-Relationship (E-R) model is a way to represent data in a
database by organizing it into objects called entities and their relationships. An entity is anything that
can be clearly identified, such as a person, a bank account, or a university department.

Each entity has attributes that describe it. For example, a department in a university can have
attributes like name, building, and budget. Similarly, an instructor can have attributes like ID, name,
and salary. The ID is important because it helps uniquely identify each instructor, especially if two
instructors have the same name and salary. Many organizations use unique numbers, such as a social
security number, to distinguish individuals.
A relationship connects two or more entities. For example, an instructor is related to a department
through a member relationship, meaning the instructor works in that department. If we look at all
instructors together, they form an entity set. Similarly, all departments together form another entity
set. The collection of all similar relationships is called a relationship set.
To visually represent these connections, we use an E-R diagram. In this diagram:

 Entities are drawn as rectangles with their attributes listed inside.

 Relationships are shown as diamonds linking the related entities, with the relationship name
written inside the diamond.

For example, in a university database, an E-R diagram might show instructors linked to their
departments through a member relationship.

The E-R model also includes constraints, which define rules about relationships. One important
constraint is mapping cardinality, which describes how many entities can be linked together. For
instance, if every instructor can belong to only one department, this rule can be enforced using the
E-R model.

This model is widely used in database design because it helps organize and visualize complex
relationships between data.

Normalization:- Normalization is a process used to design a relational database in a way that

reduces unnecessary repetition of data and makes it easier to retrieve information. The goal of
normalization is to organize the data in a way that minimizes redundancy (repeated data) while still
making it possible to efficiently get the data when needed. To do this, the database schema needs to
meet certain "normal forms," which are rules that help define how the data should be structured.
Understanding these forms often requires knowledge of functional dependencies, which describe
how certain data in the database is related.

To understand why normalization is important, consider what can go wrong with a poorly designed
database. One problem is repeating information. For example, if a university database has a single
table that combines data about both instructors and departments, there might be rows where
information about a department (like its name, building, and budget) is repeated multiple times for
each instructor in that department. This repetition wastes space and can make updates difficult. If
the budget of a department changes, for example, it has to be updated in multiple places, which
increases the risk of mistakes (like leaving some rows unchanged). In a well-designed database, this
would only require one update, keeping things consistent and efficient.
Another problem with a poorly designed database is the inability to represent certain information. If
the university database only has a table combining instructors and departments, you might not be
able to add a new department unless there is at least one instructor in that department. This is
because the table requires information about both the department and the instructor. In this case, to
record the department's details, you'd need to first hire an instructor. If no instructors are available,
the department information cannot be stored. One way to deal with this is to use null values, which
represent missing or unknown information. However, dealing with null values can be complex, and
it’s usually better to avoid them when possible.

The theory of normalization helps define how to organize data in a way that avoids these problems.
It provides a structured approach to improving the design of a database, ensuring that data is stored
efficiently, with minimal repetition and maximum flexibility. This is important for maintaining a clean,
functional, and scalable database.

Database Architecture:- Database Architecture refers to the structure and components of a database
system and how they interact with each other. This structure is influenced by the type of computer
system the database runs on. Database systems can be designed in different ways, such as
centralized, client-server, or distributed systems.

In a centralized system, everything happens on a single machine, while in a client-server system,

there is one central server that performs work for multiple client machines. A distributed database
spans multiple machines that might be located in different geographic locations.

The architecture of the database also depends on how actions like querying the data are processed.
For example, modern systems use parallel processing, where multiple actions can be performed at
the same time to speed up tasks. Distributed databases, which involve multiple machines, need
additional considerations like how to store data across different locations, ensuring that all
transactions are completed correctly even if something goes wrong, and maintaining the availability
of the system in case of failures.

Today, most people access databases over a network, rather than being directly at the site where the
database is stored. This means there are client machines (the devices users work on) and server
machines (where the database runs), and the client machines connect to the server machines
through the network.