Comprehensive Guide to

Geodetic and GNSS

Systems
Technical Principles and Applications

Geodetic and GNSS Systems Illustration

May 2025

Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction to Geodesy and GNSS

Chapter 2: Geodetic Reference Systems

Chapter 3: GNSS Fundamentals

 Chapter 4: GNSS Signal Processing and Positioning Techniques

Chapter 5: Reference Frames and Time Systems

Chapter 6: GNSS Applications

6.1 Surveying and Mapping

6.2 Navigation (Land, Sea, Air)

6.3 Timing and Synchronization

6.4 Precision Agriculture

6.5 Earth Sciences and Monitoring

6.6 Location-Based Services (LBS)

Chapter 7: Conclusion

References

Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Geodesy

1.1 Introduction to Geodesy

Geodesy is the science of accurately measuring and understanding Earth's

geometric shape, orientation in space, and gravitational field. The word "geodesy"
comes from the Greek word "geodaisia" meaning "division of the Earth." It is one of
the oldest sciences, with roots dating back to ancient civilizations that recognized the
Earth was not flat but rather spherical in shape.

Modern geodesy serves as the foundation for all positioning and navigation
technologies, including Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS). It provides the
mathematical and physical framework necessary to determine positions on or near
the Earth's surface with high precision and accuracy. Without geodesy, technologies
like GPS would not be possible.
The three primary pillars of geodesy are:

• Geometric geodesy: Concerned with the determination of positions and the

study of the geometric shape of the Earth

• Physical geodesy: Focused on the Earth's gravity field and its variations

• Satellite geodesy: Utilizes artificial satellites to determine the Earth's shape,

gravity field, and for positioning

These three pillars work together to provide a comprehensive understanding of our

planet's shape and the reference systems needed for accurate positioning and
navigation.

1.2 Shape of the Earth: Geoid and Ellipsoid

The Earth is not a perfect sphere. Due to its rotation and the distribution of mass
within it, the Earth bulges at the equator and flattens at the poles. This shape is
approximated by what geodesists call an "oblate spheroid" or "ellipsoid of revolution."

The Reference Ellipsoid

A reference ellipsoid is a mathematically defined surface that approximates the

shape of the Earth. It is created by rotating an ellipse around its minor axis, which
runs between the poles. The resulting shape is wider at the equator than at the poles.

Several reference ellipsoids have been defined over time, each with slightly different
parameters. Some of the most commonly used include:

Semi-
Semi-minor Primary
Ellipsoid major axis Flattening (f)
axis (b) Use
(a)

GRS80 Used with

(Geodetic ITRF and
6,378,137.0 6,356,752.3141
Reference 1/298.257222101 many
m m
System national
1980) datums
 WGS84
(World
6,378,137.0 6,356,752.3142 Used with
Geodetic 1/298.257223563
m m GPS
System
1984)

Used with
Clarke 6,378,206.4 NAD27
6,356,583.8 m 1/294.978698214
1866 m (North
America)

The reference ellipsoid provides a simple mathematical surface that can be used for
calculations. However, it does not account for the variations in the Earth's gravity
field.

The Geoid

The geoid is a more complex representation of the Earth's shape. It is defined as the
equipotential surface of the Earth's gravity field that best fits the global mean sea
level. In simpler terms, it represents the shape that the oceans would take under the
influence of gravity and rotation alone, in the absence of tides, currents, and other
disturbing forces.
Figure 1.1: Global geoid undulations showing the deviation between the geoid and
the reference ellipsoid (Source: Eurocontrol CRS Guide)

Unlike the ellipsoid, the geoid is not a simple mathematical shape. It has undulations
(bumps and dips) due to the uneven distribution of mass within the Earth. These
undulations can range from -100 meters to +80 meters relative to the reference
ellipsoid.

The relationship between the geoid and the ellipsoid is crucial for converting between
ellipsoidal heights (measured by GNSS) and orthometric heights (heights above
mean sea level). This difference is known as the geoid undulation or geoid height.

Orthometric vs. Ellipsoidal Heights

When working with heights in geodesy and GNSS applications, it's important to
understand the difference between:

• Ellipsoidal height (h): The height above the reference ellipsoid, measured
along the ellipsoidal normal. This is what GNSS systems directly measure.

• Orthometric height (H): The height above the geoid, approximately equivalent
to height above mean sea level. This is what most people intuitively understand
as "elevation."

The relationship between these heights is given by:

h = H + N

Where N is the geoid undulation (geoid height above or below the ellipsoid).

Understanding this relationship is critical for engineering and surveying applications

where accurate heights are required.

1.3 Geodetic Datums

A geodetic datum is a reference framework that defines the size and shape of the
Earth and the origin and orientation of the coordinate systems used to map the Earth.
Datums are essential because they provide the foundation for all positioning and
mapping activities.
Components of a Geodetic Datum

A complete geodetic datum typically includes:

• A reference ellipsoid with defined parameters (semi-major axis, flattening)

• The position of the origin of the coordinate system relative to the Earth's center
of mass

• The orientation of the coordinate axes

• A set of control points with precisely determined coordinates

Types of Geodetic Datums

Horizontal Datums define the relationship between physical locations on the Earth's
surface and coordinates on a map or in a geographic information system. Examples
include:

• World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84): The reference system used by GPS

• North American Datum 1983 (NAD83): Used in North America

• European Terrestrial Reference System 1989 (ETRS89): Used in Europe

Vertical Datums define the reference surface for heights. Examples include:

• North American Vertical Datum 1988 (NAVD88): Used in North America

• European Vertical Reference Frame (EVRF): Used in Europe

• Australian Height Datum (AHD): Used in Australia

Datum Transformations

Different mapping and surveying projects often use different datums. Converting
coordinates from one datum to another requires a datum transformation. These
transformations can range from simple (three-parameter transformations) to complex
(fourteen-parameter time-dependent transformations).

Common transformation methods include:

• Molodensky transformation: A three-parameter transformation suitable for

small areas
 • Helmert transformation: A seven-parameter transformation (three translations,
three rotations, and one scale factor)

• Time-dependent transformations: Account for tectonic plate motion over time

Understanding datum transformations is crucial when working with geospatial data

from different sources or time periods.

1.4 Coordinate Systems and Reference Frames

Coordinate systems provide the mathematical framework for specifying positions on

or near the Earth's surface. Reference frames are the practical realizations of these
coordinate systems, typically defined by a set of physical points with precisely
determined coordinates.

Types of Coordinate Systems

Cartesian Coordinates (X, Y, Z)

Earth-centered, Earth-fixed (ECEF) Cartesian coordinates specify positions in three

dimensions using X, Y, and Z values. The origin is at the Earth's center of mass, the
Z-axis points toward the North Pole, the X-axis points toward the intersection of the
equator and the prime meridian, and the Y-axis completes a right-handed coordinate
system.

Cartesian coordinates are particularly useful for computational purposes and are the
primary coordinate system used internally by GNSS systems.

Geographic Coordinates (Latitude, Longitude, Height)

Geographic coordinates specify positions using angular measurements from the

center of the Earth (latitude and longitude) and a height component:

• Latitude (φ): The angle between the equatorial plane and a line that passes
through a point and is normal to the surface of the reference ellipsoid

• Longitude (λ): The angle between the prime meridian and the meridian that
passes through a point, measured in the equatorial plane

• Height (h): The distance from the reference ellipsoid to the point, measured
along the normal to the ellipsoid
Projected Coordinates

Projected coordinate systems transform the curved surface of the Earth onto a flat
plane, allowing for measurements in standard units like meters. Examples include:

• Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM): Divides the Earth into 60 zones, each 6
degrees of longitude wide

• State Plane Coordinate System: Used in the United States, optimized for
individual states

• Lambert Conformal Conic: Often used for regions that are wider in the east-
west direction

Reference Frames

Reference frames are the practical realizations of coordinate systems. They are
typically defined by a set of physical points (such as GNSS stations) with precisely
determined coordinates.

International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF)

The ITRF is a global reference frame maintained by the International Earth Rotation
and Reference Systems Service (IERS). It is based on a network of space geodetic
observation sites around the world and is updated periodically to account for tectonic
plate motion and other Earth dynamics.

The ITRF is denoted with a year, such as ITRF2014 or ITRF2020, indicating the
reference epoch of the frame.

World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84)

WGS84 is the reference frame used by the Global Positioning System (GPS). It was
originally aligned with ITRF, but slight differences have emerged over time due to
different maintenance approaches. The latest realizations of WGS84 are closely
aligned with recent ITRF versions.

Regional Reference Frames

Many regions maintain their own reference frames, often fixed to a specific tectonic
plate to minimize the effects of plate motion within the region. Examples include:

• European Terrestrial Reference Frame (ETRF): Fixed to the Eurasian plate

 • North American Reference Frame (NAD83): Fixed to the North American plate

• Geocentric Datum of Australia (GDA2020): Fixed to the Australian plate

Understanding the relationships between different reference frames is crucial for

high-precision GNSS applications, especially when working across regions or with
data from different time periods.

Chapter 2: Introduction to GNSS

2.1 Concept and History

Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) are space-based navigation systems

that provide positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT) services on a global or regional
basis. These systems enable users with compatible receivers to determine their
location, velocity, and precise time by processing signals transmitted from satellites.

The Evolution of Satellite Navigation

The concept of satellite-based navigation emerged in the mid-20th century, driven

primarily by military needs for precise positioning capabilities. The evolution of GNSS
technology can be traced through several key developments:

• Transit (1960s): The first operational satellite navigation system, also known as
NAVSAT or the Navy Navigation Satellite System, was developed by the U.S.
Navy. Transit provided 2D positioning with accuracy of about 200 meters, but
required long observation times (up to several hours).

• GPS Development (1970s-1990s): The U.S. Department of Defense began

developing the Global Positioning System (GPS) in 1973. The first GPS satellite
was launched in 1978, and the system achieved initial operational capability in
1993 with 24 satellites. Full operational capability was declared in 1995.

• GLONASS Development (1970s-1990s): In parallel with GPS, the Soviet Union

began developing its own satellite navigation system, GLONASS. The first
GLONASS satellite was launched in 1982, and the system reached full
 operational capability in 1996, though it later deteriorated due to economic
constraints.

• Civilian Access (1980s-2000s): Initially, GPS provided two levels of service: the
Precise Positioning Service (PPS) for military users and the Standard
Positioning Service (SPS) for civilian users. The SPS was intentionally degraded
by Selective Availability (SA) until May 2000, when President Clinton ordered SA
to be turned off, dramatically improving civilian GPS accuracy.

• Modernization and New Systems (2000s-Present): The early 2000s saw the
beginning of GPS modernization with new signals and capabilities. This period
also marked the development of new GNSS systems, including Europe's
Galileo, China's BeiDou, and regional systems like Japan's QZSS and India's
NavIC.

The Concept of GNSS

The fundamental concept behind all GNSS systems is trilateration (or more precisely,
multilateration), which determines position by measuring distances from the receiver
to multiple satellites with known positions.

Each GNSS satellite continuously broadcasts signals containing:

• Precise time information from an onboard atomic clock

• Orbital data (ephemeris) that allows the receiver to calculate the satellite's
position

• Additional system information such as satellite health status

A GNSS receiver measures the time it takes for signals to travel from multiple
satellites to the receiver. By multiplying these time measurements by the speed of
light, the receiver calculates the distances (ranges) to each satellite. With ranges to
at least four satellites, the receiver can determine its three-dimensional position
(latitude, longitude, and altitude) and correct its clock offset.

The term "Global Navigation Satellite System" (GNSS) was initially used to describe
the concept of using multiple satellite navigation systems together. Today, GNSS
refers to both the overall concept of satellite navigation and the collection of
individual systems (GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, BeiDou, etc.) that can be used
independently or in combination.
2.2 GNSS Segments (Space, Control, User)

All GNSS systems are organized into three main segments: the space segment, the
control segment, and the user segment. Each segment plays a crucial role in the
overall functioning of the system.

Space Segment

The space segment consists of the constellation of satellites orbiting the Earth.
These satellites act as reference points from which receivers on or near the Earth's
surface can determine their position.

Key characteristics of the space segment include:

• Constellation Design: Most GNSS constellations are designed to ensure that a

minimum number of satellites (typically at least four) are visible from any point
on Earth at any time. This is achieved through careful selection of orbital
parameters.

• Orbital Parameters: GNSS satellites typically operate in Medium Earth Orbit

(MEO) at altitudes of approximately 20,000-25,000 km. The orbital period is
usually around 12 hours (for GPS, Galileo, and BeiDou MEO satellites) or 11
hours 15 minutes (for GLONASS).

• Satellite Design: GNSS satellites are equipped with highly stable atomic clocks
(typically cesium, rubidium, or hydrogen maser), signal generation and
transmission equipment, solar panels for power, and propulsion systems for
orbital maintenance.

• Signal Transmission: Each satellite continuously broadcasts navigation signals

on multiple frequencies. These signals contain ranging codes, navigation data,
and timing information.

The number of satellites in each constellation varies by system:

• GPS: 24 operational satellites (plus spares) in six orbital planes

• GLONASS: 24 operational satellites in three orbital planes

• Galileo: 30 satellites (24 operational plus 6 spares) in three orbital planes

• BeiDou: 35 satellites in various orbits (MEO, GEO, and IGSO)

Control Segment

The control segment (also called the ground segment) is responsible for monitoring
and managing the satellite constellation. It consists of a network of ground stations
distributed around the world.

The main functions of the control segment include:

• Monitoring: Tracking the satellites and monitoring their health, status, and
signal integrity

• Orbit Determination: Computing precise satellite orbits (ephemerides) based

on tracking data

• Clock Synchronization: Monitoring satellite clock performance and calculating

clock corrections

• Navigation Message Generation: Creating and uploading the navigation

message that satellites broadcast to users

• Constellation Management: Performing satellite maneuvers for orbit

maintenance and implementing system configuration changes

The control segment typically includes:

• A master control station that serves as the primary operations center

• A backup master control station

• A network of monitoring stations that track the satellites and collect ranging data

• Upload stations that transmit data to the satellites

User Segment

The user segment consists of GNSS receivers and the user community. GNSS
receivers vary widely in terms of complexity, capability, and cost, depending on their
intended applications.

Key components of a GNSS receiver include:

• Antenna: Receives the satellite signals and often includes design features to
mitigate multipath and interference
 • Radio Frequency (RF) Front End: Amplifies, filters, and converts the received
signals to a lower frequency for digital processing

• Digital Signal Processor: Acquires and tracks satellite signals, extracts the
navigation data, and measures pseudoranges and carrier phases

• Navigation Processor: Computes position, velocity, and time solutions based

on the measurements

• User Interface: Displays information to the user and allows for configuration of
the receiver

GNSS receivers can be categorized based on various criteria:

• By Application: Navigation receivers, surveying receivers, timing receivers, etc.

• By Supported Systems: Single-system receivers (e.g., GPS-only) or multi-

GNSS receivers

• By Frequency Capability: Single-frequency or multi-frequency receivers

• By Form Factor: Handheld devices, vehicle-mounted units, smartphone

chipsets, etc.

The user segment is the most diverse and rapidly evolving segment of GNSS, with
applications ranging from mass-market consumer devices to highly specialized
professional equipment.

The interaction between these three segments—space, control, and user—forms the
complete GNSS ecosystem that enables global positioning, navigation, and timing
services.

Chapter 3: GNSS Constellations

3.1 GPS (Global Positioning System)

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is the United States' GNSS system and was
the first fully operational global satellite navigation system. Developed by the U.S.
Department of Defense (DoD) for military applications, it has since become an
essential utility for civilian users worldwide.

System Overview

GPS provides positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT) services to military and
civilian users on a continuous, worldwide basis. The system is maintained and
operated by the United States Space Force.

Key characteristics of GPS include:

• Constellation: Nominally 24 operational satellites (plus spares) arranged in six

orbital planes with four satellites per plane

• Orbital Parameters: Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) at approximately 20,200 km

altitude with an orbital period of 11 hours 58 minutes

• Inclination: 55 degrees to the equator

• Coverage: Global

• Reference System: World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84)

• Time System: GPS Time, which is steered to UTC(USNO) but does not include
leap seconds

Historical Development

The development of GPS can be traced through several key milestones:

• 1973: Development of GPS authorized by the U.S. Department of Defense

• 1978: First GPS satellite launched (Block I)

• 1989-1993: Launch of Block II satellites

• 1993: Initial Operational Capability (IOC) declared with 24 satellites

• 1995: Full Operational Capability (FOC) declared

• 2000: Selective Availability (intentional degradation of civilian signals) turned off

by presidential directive

• 2005-present: Ongoing modernization with new satellites and signals

Signal Structure

GPS satellites transmit signals on multiple frequencies in the L-band. The evolution
of GPS signals has occurred across different generations of satellites:

Legacy Signals:

• L1 C/A (1575.42 MHz): The original civilian signal, using a Coarse/Acquisition

(C/A) code

• L1 P(Y) and L2 P(Y) (1575.42 MHz and 1227.60 MHz): Precision code signals,
encrypted for military use

Modernized Signals:

• L2C (1227.60 MHz): A second civilian signal, providing better accuracy through
ionospheric correction when combined with L1 C/A

• L5 (1176.45 MHz): A third civilian signal designed for safety-of-life applications,

with higher power and greater bandwidth

• L1C (1575.42 MHz): A fourth civilian signal designed for interoperability with
other GNSS systems

• M-Code (L1 and L2): Advanced military signals with improved security and anti-
jamming capabilities

Satellite Generations

GPS satellites have evolved through several generations, or "blocks":

• Block I (1978-1985): 11 experimental satellites

• Block II/IIA (1989-1997): 28 operational satellites with design life of 7.5 years

• Block IIR/IIR-M (1997-2009): 20 replenishment satellites, with the IIR-M

versions adding new signals (L2C, M-Code)

• Block IIF (2010-2016): 12 satellites adding the L5 signal and improved atomic
clocks

• Block III/IIIF (2018-present): The latest generation, adding the L1C signal,
improved accuracy, and enhanced anti-jamming capabilities
Services

GPS provides two levels of service:

• Standard Positioning Service (SPS): Available to all users worldwide, free of

direct user charges. Uses the civilian signals (L1 C/A, L2C, L5, L1C).

• Precise Positioning Service (PPS): Restricted to authorized users, primarily

the U.S. military and its allies. Uses the encrypted P(Y) and M-Code signals.

The performance of GPS has improved significantly over time. With the removal of
Selective Availability in 2000 and the addition of new signals, civilian GPS accuracy
has improved from tens of meters to a few meters or better under optimal conditions.

3.2 GLONASS

GLONASS (GLObal NAvigation Satellite System) is the Russian Federation's GNSS

system. It was developed by the Soviet Union during the Cold War as a counterpart
to the U.S. GPS and is now maintained by Roscosmos, the Russian space agency.

System Overview

Like GPS, GLONASS provides positioning, navigation, and timing services on a

global basis.

Key characteristics of GLONASS include:

• Constellation: Nominally 24 operational satellites arranged in three orbital

planes with eight satellites per plane

• Orbital Parameters: Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) at approximately 19,100 km

altitude with an orbital period of 11 hours 15 minutes

• Inclination: 64.8 degrees to the equator (higher than GPS, providing better
coverage at high latitudes)

• Coverage: Global

• Reference System: Parametry Zemli 1990 (PZ-90), which has been aligned
with ITRF
 • Time System: GLONASS Time, which includes leap seconds to maintain
alignment with UTC(SU)

Historical Development

The development of GLONASS has had a more turbulent history than GPS:

• 1976: Development of GLONASS authorized by the Soviet Union

• 1982: First GLONASS satellite launched

• 1996: Full constellation of 24 satellites achieved

• 1990s-early 2000s: System deteriorated due to economic constraints following

the collapse of the Soviet Union, with as few as 6-8 operational satellites by
2001

• 2001: Restoration of GLONASS made a top government priority

• 2011: Full constellation of 24 satellites restored

• Present: System maintained at full operational capability with ongoing

modernization

Signal Structure

A key difference between GLONASS and other GNSS systems is its use of
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) for its legacy signals, where each
satellite transmits on a slightly different frequency. However, newer GLONASS
satellites also include Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) signals similar to those
used by GPS, Galileo, and BeiDou.

FDMA Signals:

• L1OF (1598.0625 - 1605.375 MHz): Open FDMA signal for civilian use

• L2OF (1242.9375 - 1248.625 MHz): Second open FDMA signal

• L1SF and L2SF: Restricted FDMA signals for authorized users

CDMA Signals (Modernized):

• L1OC (1600.995 MHz): Open CDMA signal

• L2OC (1248.06 MHz): Second open CDMA signal

 • L3OC (1202.025 MHz): Third open CDMA signal

Satellite Generations

GLONASS satellites have evolved through several generations:

• GLONASS (1982-2005): First-generation satellites with a design life of 3-4 years

• GLONASS-M (2003-2016): Second-generation satellites with improved design

life (7 years) and the addition of the L2OF civilian signal

• GLONASS-K1 (2011-present): Third-generation satellites adding CDMA signals

and improved design life (10 years)

• GLONASS-K2 (planned): Advanced satellites with additional signals and

capabilities

Services

GLONASS provides two levels of service:

• Standard Precision Service (SP): Available to all users worldwide, free of

direct user charges. Uses the open signals (L1OF, L2OF, and the new CDMA
signals).

• High Precision Service (HP): Restricted to authorized users, primarily Russian

government and military. Uses the restricted signals.

The accuracy of GLONASS has historically been somewhat lower than GPS, but with
modernization efforts, the performance gap has narrowed significantly. When used in
combination with GPS and other GNSS systems, GLONASS contributes to improved
overall positioning accuracy and reliability.

3.3 Galileo

Galileo is the European Union's GNSS system, developed by the European Space
Agency (ESA) and operated by the European GNSS Agency (GSA). Unlike GPS and
GLONASS, which were initially developed for military purposes, Galileo was
designed from the outset as a civilian system under civilian control.
System Overview

Galileo provides positioning, navigation, and timing services with a focus on civilian
applications and European independence from other GNSS systems.

Key characteristics of Galileo include:

• Constellation: 30 satellites (24 operational plus 6 spares) arranged in three

orbital planes with 10 satellites per plane

• Orbital Parameters: Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) at approximately 23,222 km

altitude with an orbital period of 14 hours 7 minutes

• Inclination: 56 degrees to the equator

• Coverage: Global

• Reference System: Galileo Terrestrial Reference Frame (GTRF), which is

closely aligned with ITRF

• Time System: Galileo System Time (GST), which is steered to UTC but does
not include leap seconds

Historical Development

The development of Galileo has proceeded through several phases:

• 1999: Initial planning for Galileo began

• 2005-2006: Launch of GIOVE-A and GIOVE-B test satellites

• 2011-2012: Launch of the first four operational satellites (In-Orbit Validation

phase)

• 2015-2018: Deployment of additional satellites

• 2016: Initial Services declared with 18 satellites

• 2020: Full Operational Capability approaching with 26 satellites in orbit (22

operational)

• Present: System continues to expand toward full constellation

Signal Structure

Galileo uses Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) for all its signals, similar to GPS.
The signals are designed to be interoperable with other GNSS systems while offering
unique features.

Galileo transmits signals on three frequencies:

• E1 (1575.42 MHz): Same frequency as GPS L1, contains the Open Service
(OS) and Public Regulated Service (PRS) signals

• E5a (1176.45 MHz): Same frequency as GPS L5, contains Open Service signals

• E5b (1207.14 MHz): Contains Open Service and Commercial Service signals

• E6 (1278.75 MHz): Contains Commercial Service and Public Regulated Service

signals

Galileo's E5a and E5b signals can be processed together as a wideband E5 signal
(E5a+E5b), providing very high accuracy.

Services

Galileo offers several services tailored to different user needs:

• Open Service (OS): Free and open to all users, providing single and dual-
frequency positioning and timing

• High Accuracy Service (HAS): Provides enhanced accuracy through

corrections, free of charge

• Public Regulated Service (PRS): Encrypted service for government-authorized

users, offering enhanced robustness and reliability

• Search and Rescue Service (SAR): Contributes to the international COSPAS-

SARSAT system for distress beacon detection and location

• Emergency Warning Service (EWS): Planned service to broadcast emergency

messages to users in affected regions

Galileo is designed to achieve better accuracy than early GPS and GLONASS,
particularly in urban environments where its signal structure provides advantages in
multipath mitigation. When fully operational, Galileo is expected to provide horizontal
positioning accuracy of better than 1 meter for dual-frequency users.
A key feature of Galileo is its integrity monitoring, which provides users with timely
warnings when the system should not be used for critical applications. This makes
Galileo particularly suitable for safety-critical applications such as aviation.

3.4 BeiDou

BeiDou (BDS) is China's GNSS system, named after the Chinese term for the "Big
Dipper" constellation. It has been developed and is operated by the China Satellite
Navigation Office.

System Overview

BeiDou has evolved through three generations, from a regional system to a fully
global GNSS.

Key characteristics of the current BeiDou-3 system include:

• Constellation: 35 satellites in three types of orbits:

◦ 27 satellites in Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)

◦ 3 satellites in Geostationary Orbit (GEO)

◦ 5 satellites in Inclined Geosynchronous Orbit (IGSO)

• Orbital Parameters:
◦ MEO: Approximately 21,528 km altitude with an orbital period of 12 hours
53 minutes

◦ GEO: Approximately 35,786 km altitude, positioned over the equator at

specific longitudes

◦ IGSO: Approximately 35,786 km altitude with inclination of 55 degrees

• Coverage: Global

• Reference System: China Geodetic Coordinate System 2000 (CGCS2000),

which is aligned with ITRF

• Time System: BeiDou Time (BDT), which is steered to UTC but does not
include leap seconds
Historical Development

BeiDou has been developed in three distinct phases:

• BeiDou-1 (2000-2012): An experimental regional system consisting of three

satellites (2 GEO, 1 backup) providing coverage primarily over China

• BeiDou-2 (2011-2020): Also known as COMPASS, this regional system

expanded coverage to the Asia-Pacific region with 14 satellites (5 GEO, 5 IGSO,
4 MEO)

• BeiDou-3 (2015-present): The global system, completed in 2020 with the full
constellation of 35 satellites

Key milestones in BeiDou development include:

• 2000: First BeiDou-1 satellite launched

• 2012: Regional service initiated (BeiDou-2)

• 2018: Global service initiated (BeiDou-3)

• 2020: Full operational capability declared with the completion of the BeiDou-3
constellation

Signal Structure

BeiDou-3 uses Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) for its signals, similar to GPS
and Galileo. The system transmits on multiple frequencies:

• B1I (1561.098 MHz): Open service signal

• B1C (1575.42 MHz): New open service signal, same frequency as GPS L1 and
Galileo E1

• B2I (1207.14 MHz): Open service signal, same frequency as Galileo E5b

• B2a (1176.45 MHz): New open service signal, same frequency as GPS L5 and
Galileo E5a

• B2b (1207.14 MHz): New open service signal, same frequency as Galileo E5b

• B3I (1268.52 MHz): Authorized service signal

Like Galileo, BeiDou's B2a and B2b signals can be processed together as a
wideband B2 signal (B2a+B2b) for enhanced accuracy.
Services

BeiDou offers several services:

• Open Service (OS): Free positioning, navigation, and timing services to civilian
users worldwide

• Authorized Service (AS): Provides higher accuracy and reliability for

authorized users (primarily Chinese government and military)

• Short Message Service (SMS): A unique feature of BeiDou, allowing two-way

text messaging with a capacity of 1,000 Chinese characters

• Precise Point Positioning (PPP): High-precision service for professional users

• Search and Rescue (SAR): Contributes to international search and rescue

efforts

The unique combination of MEO, GEO, and IGSO satellites in the BeiDou
constellation provides enhanced performance in the Asia-Pacific region, with better
visibility in urban canyons and mountainous areas compared to systems using only
MEO satellites.

BeiDou's rapid development from a regional to a global system reflects China's

growing technological capabilities and its strategic goal of reducing dependence on
foreign GNSS systems, particularly GPS.

3.5 Other Systems (QZSS, IRNSS/NavIC)

In addition to the four global navigation satellite systems (GPS, GLONASS, Galileo,
and BeiDou), there are regional navigation satellite systems that provide coverage
over specific geographic areas. The two most significant regional systems are
Japan's Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS) and India's Indian Regional
Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS), also known as Navigation with Indian
Constellation (NavIC).

QZSS (Quasi-Zenith Satellite System)

QZSS is Japan's regional satellite navigation system, designed to complement GPS

and enhance positioning performance in East Asia, particularly Japan.
Key characteristics of QZSS include:

• Constellation: 4 satellites (as of 2021), with plans to expand to 7 satellites by

2023
◦ 3 satellites in Quasi-Zenith Orbit (QZO)

◦ 1 satellite in Geostationary Orbit (GEO)

• Orbital Parameters:
◦ QZO: Highly inclined (43 degrees), elliptical geosynchronous orbits that
cause satellites to dwell near zenith over Japan for 8 hours per day

◦ GEO: Standard geostationary orbit at 127° E longitude

• Coverage: East Asia and Oceania, with focus on Japan

• Reference System: Japan Satellite Navigation Geodetic System (JGS), which

is aligned with ITRF

• Time System: QZSS Time, which is synchronized with GPS Time

Historical Development:

• 2002: Initial planning for QZSS began

• 2010: First satellite (QZS-1) launched

• 2017: Three additional satellites (QZS-2, QZS-3, QZS-4) launched

• 2018: Initial services began with four-satellite constellation

• 2023-2024: Planned expansion to seven satellites

Signal Structure:

QZSS transmits signals that are compatible and interoperable with GPS, plus some
unique signals:

• L1C/A, L1C, L2C, L5: Signals compatible with GPS

• L1S: Submeter-level augmentation service (SLAS)

• L6: Centimeter-level augmentation service (CLAS) and messaging service

Services:

• Positioning Technology Verification Service: Basic positioning compatible

with GPS

• Satellite Positioning Service: Enhanced positioning using QZSS and GPS

• Sub-meter Level Augmentation Service (SLAS): Provides corrections for GPS

and QZSS to achieve sub-meter accuracy

• Centimeter Level Augmentation Service (CLAS): Provides corrections for

RTK-level positioning with centimeter accuracy

• QZSS Safety Confirmation Service (Q-ANPI): Disaster and crisis management

messaging service

The unique feature of QZSS is its quasi-zenith orbits, which ensure that at least one
satellite is always near zenith over Japan. This high-elevation positioning is
particularly valuable in Japan's urban canyons and mountainous terrain, where
traditional GNSS signals from lower elevations may be blocked.

IRNSS/NavIC (Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System/

Navigation with Indian Constellation)

IRNSS, also known as NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation), is India's

regional satellite navigation system, developed and operated by the Indian Space
Research Organisation (ISRO).

Key characteristics of IRNSS/NavIC include:

• Constellation: 8 satellites (7 operational, 1 spare)

◦ 3 satellites in Geostationary Orbit (GEO)

◦ 5 satellites in Geosynchronous Orbit with inclination (GSO)

• Orbital Parameters:
◦ GEO: Positioned at 32.5° E, 83° E, and 131.5° E

◦ GSO: Inclined at 29 degrees to the equator, with longitude crossings at 55°

E and 111.75° E

• Coverage: Indian subcontinent and surrounding region (up to 1,500 km from

Indian borders)
 • Reference System: Indian Regional Reference Frame (IRRF), which is aligned
with ITRF

• Time System: IRNSS Network Time (IRNWT), which is synchronized with UTC

Historical Development:

• 2006: IRNSS project approved by the Indian government

• 2013: First satellite (IRNSS-1A) launched

• 2016: Seventh satellite launched, completing the planned constellation

• 2018: Replacement satellite launched after atomic clock failures in IRNSS-1A

• 2016: Initial operational services began

Signal Structure:

IRNSS/NavIC transmits signals in the L5 and S bands:

• L5 (1176.45 MHz): Same frequency as GPS L5 and Galileo E5a

• S-band (2492.028 MHz): Unique to IRNSS/NavIC

Each frequency carries two types of services:

• Standard Positioning Service (SPS): Open service for civilian users

• Restricted Service (RS): Encrypted service for authorized users

Services and Applications:

• Terrestrial, Aerial, and Marine Navigation: Position, velocity, and timing

services

• Disaster Management: Location-based services for emergency response

• Vehicle Tracking and Fleet Management: Commercial transportation

applications

• Integration with Mobile Phones: Location-based services for consumers

• Precise Timing: Synchronization for telecommunications and power grids

• Mapping and Geodetic Data Collection: Surveying and GIS applications

IRNSS/NavIC was developed to provide India with autonomous positioning
capabilities, reducing dependence on foreign systems like GPS. The system is
particularly focused on providing reliable positioning in the Indian subcontinent,
where it offers better accuracy than global systems.

Both QZSS and IRNSS/NavIC represent the growing trend of nations developing
their own satellite navigation capabilities, either as regional complements to global
systems or as steps toward greater technological independence.

Chapter 4: GNSS Signals and

Positioning

4.1 Signal Structure (Carriers, Codes, Navigation

Data)

GNSS signals are complex electromagnetic waves that carry the information
necessary for positioning, navigation, and timing. Understanding the structure of
these signals is essential for comprehending how GNSS receivers determine
position.

Basic Signal Components

A typical GNSS signal consists of three main components:

• Carrier Wave: A sinusoidal radio frequency (RF) wave that serves as the basic
transmission medium

• Ranging Codes: Binary sequences that modulate the carrier wave and enable
ranging measurements

• Navigation Data: Information about satellite orbits, clocks, and other system
parameters
Carrier Waves

GNSS systems transmit signals on multiple carrier frequencies in the L-band (1-2
GHz). These frequencies are derived from fundamental frequencies generated by
atomic clocks onboard the satellites.

Key carrier frequencies for different GNSS systems include:

System Designation Frequency (MHz) Wavelength (cm)

GPS L1 1575.42 19.0

GPS L2 1227.60 24.4

GPS L5 1176.45 25.5

GLONASS L1 1602.00 ± k×0.5625 ~18.7

GLONASS L2 1246.00 ± k×0.4375 ~24.1

Galileo E1 1575.42 19.0

Galileo E5a 1176.45 25.5

Galileo E5b 1207.14 24.8

Galileo E6 1278.75 23.4

BeiDou B1 1561.098 19.2

BeiDou B1C 1575.42 19.0

BeiDou B2a 1176.45 25.5

BeiDou B2b 1207.14 24.8

BeiDou B3 1268.52 23.6

Note that GLONASS traditionally uses Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA),
where each satellite transmits on a slightly different frequency (indicated by the factor
k in the table). However, modernized GLONASS satellites also include CDMA signals
on fixed frequencies.
Ranging Codes

Ranging codes (also called pseudorandom noise or PRN codes) are binary
sequences that modulate the carrier wave. These codes serve several important
functions:

• They enable the receiver to measure the signal travel time from satellite to
receiver

• They allow the receiver to distinguish between signals from different satellites
(Code Division Multiple Access or CDMA)

• They provide resistance to interference and multipath effects

Different types of ranging codes include:

• C/A Code (Coarse/Acquisition): The original civilian GPS code on L1, with a
chip rate of 1.023 MHz and a period of 1 millisecond

• P(Y) Code (Precision): Military GPS code on L1 and L2, with a chip rate of
10.23 MHz and a period of 7 days

• L2C Code: Modernized civilian GPS code on L2, consisting of CM (moderate-

length) and CL (long) components

• L5 Code: Newest civilian GPS code, with a chip rate of 10.23 MHz and
improved signal structure

• BOC (Binary Offset Carrier): A modulation technique used in modernized GPS,

Galileo, and BeiDou signals that improves performance

The "chip rate" refers to the rate at which the binary values in the code change,
measured in chips per second. Higher chip rates generally provide better ranging
precision and multipath resistance.

Navigation Data

Navigation data (also called the navigation message) is modulated onto the carrier
along with the ranging codes. This data contains essential information for positioning,
including:

• Ephemeris data: Precise orbital parameters for the transmitting satellite

 • Almanac data: Less precise orbital information for all satellites in the
constellation

• Satellite clock corrections: Parameters to model the satellite clock errors

• Ionospheric model parameters: Information to correct for ionospheric delays

• Satellite health status: Indication of whether the satellite is functioning properly

• UTC parameters: Information to relate GNSS system time to Coordinated

Universal Time

The structure and content of the navigation message vary between different GNSS
systems and signal types. For example:

• The legacy GPS navigation message is transmitted at 50 bits per second and
takes 12.5 minutes to transmit a complete message

• The modernized GPS CNAV message on L2C and L5 has a higher data rate (25
or 50 bits per second) and a more flexible structure

• The Galileo I/NAV message includes integrity information not present in GPS
messages

Signal Modulation

The process of combining the carrier wave, ranging codes, and navigation data is
accomplished through modulation techniques. Common modulation schemes in
GNSS include:

• BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying): Used in legacy GPS signals, where the
carrier phase is shifted by 180° based on the code value (0 or 1)

• BOC (Binary Offset Carrier): Used in modernized signals, where the code is
multiplied by a square wave subcarrier before modulating the carrier

• MBOC (Multiplexed BOC): A combination of different BOC modulations, used in

GPS L1C and Galileo E1

• QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying): Used to transmit two codes on the
same carrier by using in-phase and quadrature components

These modulation techniques affect the signal's spectral characteristics, accuracy,

multipath performance, and interoperability with other GNSS signals.
Signal Power and Bandwidth

GNSS signals are very weak by the time they reach the Earth's surface, typically
around -130 dBm (decibels relative to one milliwatt). This is well below the thermal
noise floor, which is why GNSS receivers must use spread spectrum techniques to
extract the signals.

The bandwidth of GNSS signals varies depending on the modulation and chip rate:

• GPS C/A code: Approximately 2 MHz

• GPS P(Y) code: Approximately 20 MHz

• Galileo E5 (full bandwidth): Approximately 50 MHz

Wider bandwidth signals generally provide better ranging precision and multipath
resistance but require more sophisticated receiver hardware.

4.2 Positioning Principles (Pseudoranging, Carrier

Phase)

GNSS positioning is based on the principle of trilateration (or more precisely,

multilateration), which determines position by measuring distances from the receiver
to multiple satellites with known positions. There are two primary measurement types
used in GNSS positioning: pseudorange measurements and carrier phase
measurements.

Pseudorange Measurements

Pseudorange is the basic measurement used for standard GNSS positioning. It

represents the apparent distance between the satellite and receiver, derived from the
signal travel time.

Measurement Principle:

1. The satellite transmits a signal containing a ranging code and a precise

timestamp from its onboard atomic clock

2. The receiver generates a replica of the same code and aligns it with the received
code through correlation
 3. The time shift needed to align the codes represents the signal travel time

4. This travel time is multiplied by the speed of light to obtain the pseudorange

The term "pseudorange" (rather than simply "range") is used because the
measurement includes errors, particularly the receiver clock error. The basic
pseudorange equation is:

PR = ρ + c(dt_r - dt_s) + I + T + ε

Where:

• PR is the measured pseudorange

• ρ is the true geometric range between satellite and receiver

• c is the speed of light

• dt_r is the receiver clock error

• dt_s is the satellite clock error

• I is the ionospheric delay

• T is the tropospheric delay

• ε represents other errors (multipath, receiver noise, etc.)

With pseudorange measurements to at least four satellites, a receiver can solve for
its three-dimensional position (X, Y, Z) and its clock error.

Carrier Phase Measurements

Carrier phase measurements provide much higher precision than pseudorange

measurements. They are based on measuring the phase of the carrier wave rather
than the code modulated onto it.

Measurement Principle:

1. The receiver measures the fractional phase of the incoming carrier wave

2. As the receiver continues to track the signal, it counts the number of complete
cycles that occur
 3. The total phase measurement is the sum of the initial fractional phase, the
counted cycles, and an unknown integer number of cycles that existed when
tracking began (the "integer ambiguity")

The basic carrier phase equation is:

Φ = ρ/λ + f(dt_r - dt_s) - I/λ + T/λ + N + ε

Where:

• Φ is the measured carrier phase in cycles

• ρ is the true geometric range

• λ is the carrier wavelength

• f is the carrier frequency

• dt_r is the receiver clock error

• dt_s is the satellite clock error

• I is the ionospheric delay (note the negative sign, as phase is advanced by the
ionosphere)

• T is the tropospheric delay

• N is the integer ambiguity

• ε represents other errors

The key challenge with carrier phase measurements is resolving the integer
ambiguity (N). Various techniques have been developed to address this, including:

• Float solution: Treating the ambiguities as real numbers rather than integers

• Fixed solution: Resolving the ambiguities to their correct integer values

• Ambiguity resolution techniques: Methods like the LAMBDA (Least-squares

AMBiguity Decorrelation Adjustment) method

Once the ambiguities are resolved, carrier phase measurements can provide
millimeter-level precision, compared to meter-level precision for pseudorange
measurements.
Position Calculation

The basic equation for GNSS positioning relates the measured ranges to the
unknown receiver position and clock error:

PR_i = √[(X_s - X_r)² + (Y_s - Y_r)² + (Z_s - Z_r)²] + c·dt_r + other errors

Where:

• PR_i is the pseudorange to satellite i

• (X_s, Y_s, Z_s) are the coordinates of satellite i

• (X_r, Y_r, Z_r) are the unknown receiver coordinates

• dt_r is the receiver clock error

With measurements to at least four satellites, this system of equations can be solved
for the four unknowns (X_r, Y_r, Z_r, dt_r). In practice, the solution is typically
obtained through iterative methods like the least-squares adjustment or Kalman
filtering.

For high-precision applications using carrier phase measurements, the positioning

model becomes more complex, incorporating additional parameters such as integer
ambiguities, atmospheric delays, and potentially other error sources.

4.3 Observation Techniques and Errors

GNSS positioning is subject to various error sources that affect the accuracy,
reliability, and availability of the position solution. Understanding these errors and the
techniques to mitigate them is essential for achieving optimal performance in different
applications.

Error Sources

The main sources of error in GNSS positioning include:

• Satellite Clock Errors: Deviations in the satellite's atomic clock from the GNSS
system time
 • Satellite Orbit Errors: Inaccuracies in the broadcast ephemeris data describing
satellite positions

• Ionospheric Delay: Signal delay caused by free electrons in the ionosphere

(approximately 50-150 km to 1,000 km above Earth)

• Tropospheric Delay: Signal delay caused by the lower atmosphere (up to about
50 km above Earth)

• Multipath: Errors caused by signals reflecting off surfaces near the receiver

• Receiver Noise: Random errors in the receiver's measurement process

• Antenna Phase Center Variations: Variations in the electrical phase center of

the antenna

• Relativistic Effects: Time dilation and other effects due to relativity

The magnitude of these errors varies depending on the specific conditions and
equipment:

Error Typical Magnitude

Mitigation Techniques
Source (Single-Frequency)

Satellite Apply broadcast clock corrections,

2-3 m
Clock use precise clock products

Satellite Orbit 2-5 m Use precise orbit products

Dual-frequency measurements,
5-15 m (varies with
Ionosphere ionospheric models, SBAS
solar activity)
corrections

Tropospheric models, estimation in

Troposphere 0.5-2 m
PPP and relative positioning

Antenna design, site selection,

Multipath 0-10 m (highly variable)
multipath mitigation algorithms

Receiver 0.1-1 m for code, 1-3

Higher quality receivers, averaging
Noise mm for carrier phase
Observation Techniques

Various observation techniques have been developed to mitigate GNSS errors and
improve positioning performance:

Multi-Frequency Observations

Using measurements on two or more frequencies allows for the elimination or

reduction of frequency-dependent errors, particularly the ionospheric delay. The
ionospheric delay is proportional to the Total Electron Content (TEC) and inversely
proportional to the square of the frequency:

I = 40.3 × TEC / f²

By combining measurements on two frequencies (f₁ and f₂), the ionosphere-free

combination can be formed:

PR_IF = (f₁² × PR₁ - f₂² × PR₂) / (f₁² - f₂²)

This eliminates the first-order ionospheric effect, which accounts for about 99% of the
total ionospheric delay.

Differential GNSS (DGNSS)

Differential techniques use a reference station at a known location to estimate GNSS

errors, which are then transmitted to users in the vicinity. These corrections can
significantly improve positioning accuracy because many error sources (satellite
clock, orbit, and atmospheric errors) are spatially correlated and thus similar for
receivers that are relatively close to each other.

The basic principle of DGNSS is:

1. The reference station computes the difference between its known position and
the position calculated from GNSS measurements

2. These differences are converted to range corrections for each satellite

3. The corrections are transmitted to users

4. Users apply the corrections to their own measurements

Real-Time Kinematic (RTK)

RTK is a differential technique that uses carrier phase measurements to achieve

centimeter-level accuracy. The key steps in RTK positioning are:

1. A reference station transmits its raw carrier phase and pseudorange

measurements to the rover (user) receiver

2. The rover forms double-difference observations to eliminate or reduce clock

errors

3. The rover resolves the integer ambiguities in the carrier phase measurements

4. Once ambiguities are resolved, the rover can compute its position with
centimeter-level accuracy

RTK is limited by the distance between the reference station and the rover (typically
up to 10-20 km) due to spatial decorrelation of atmospheric errors.

Network RTK

Network RTK extends the range of RTK by using a network of reference stations
rather than a single station. The network allows for modeling of spatially varying
errors, particularly atmospheric errors, across the coverage area. Common Network
RTK approaches include:

• Virtual Reference Station (VRS): Creates a virtual reference station near the
user's approximate position

• Master-Auxiliary Concept (MAC): Provides corrections from a master station

and auxiliary information from other stations

• FKP (Area Correction Parameters): Provides parameters to model the spatial

variation of errors

Precise Point Positioning (PPP)

PPP is a technique that achieves high accuracy without requiring a nearby reference
station. Instead, it uses precise satellite orbit and clock products provided by analysis
centers. Key aspects of PPP include:

• Use of precise satellite orbit and clock products instead of broadcast ephemeris
 • Dual-frequency measurements to eliminate ionospheric effects

• Modeling of tropospheric delay, antenna phase center variations, and other

effects

• Estimation of receiver clock, troposphere parameters, and ambiguities

Traditional PPP requires a convergence period (typically 20-30 minutes) to achieve

centimeter-level accuracy. Recent advances in PPP-RTK or PPP-AR (Ambiguity
Resolution) aim to reduce this convergence time by enabling integer ambiguity
resolution.

Observation Strategies

In addition to the techniques described above, various observation strategies can be

employed to optimize GNSS positioning:

• Static vs. Kinematic: Static positioning (receiver remains stationary) generally

achieves higher accuracy than kinematic positioning (receiver in motion)

• Observation Duration: Longer observation periods typically improve accuracy

by allowing better averaging of errors and improved ambiguity resolution

• Elevation Mask: Setting a minimum elevation angle (e.g., 10-15 degrees) to

exclude low-elevation satellites that are more affected by atmospheric and
multipath errors

• GNSS Integration: Using multiple GNSS systems (GPS, GLONASS, Galileo,

BeiDou) to increase the number of satellites and improve geometry

• Antenna Setup: Careful antenna mounting to minimize multipath and ensure

stability

The choice of observation technique and strategy depends on the specific

requirements of the application, including accuracy needs, time constraints, available
equipment, and budget considerations.
4.4 Positioning Modes (Absolute, Differential, RTK,
PPP)

GNSS positioning can be performed in various modes, each with different

characteristics in terms of accuracy, complexity, infrastructure requirements, and
suitability for different applications. This section provides a detailed comparison of
the main positioning modes.

Absolute (Standalone) Positioning

Absolute positioning, also called standalone or autonomous positioning, is the most

basic GNSS positioning mode. It uses measurements from a single receiver without
any external corrections.

Key characteristics:

• Method: Uses pseudorange measurements and broadcast navigation data

• Accuracy: Typically 5-10 meters horizontally and 10-20 meters vertically for
single-frequency receivers

• Infrastructure: No additional infrastructure required beyond the GNSS satellites

• Applications: Consumer navigation, recreational activities, non-critical

applications

• Advantages: Simplicity, no external dependencies, global coverage

• Limitations: Limited accuracy, vulnerable to all GNSS error sources

Absolute positioning can be enhanced through various techniques:

• Multi-constellation: Using satellites from multiple GNSS systems

• Dual-frequency: Using measurements on two frequencies to eliminate

ionospheric errors

• Carrier-smoothing: Using carrier phase measurements to smooth pseudorange

measurements

With these enhancements, modern receivers can achieve absolute positioning

accuracy of 1-3 meters under favorable conditions.
Differential GNSS (DGNSS)

Differential GNSS uses corrections from one or more reference stations to improve
positioning accuracy. It is based on the principle that many GNSS errors are similar
for receivers in the same general area.

Key characteristics:

• Method: Applies corrections derived from reference stations to user

measurements

• Accuracy: Typically 0.5-3 meters horizontally and 1-5 meters vertically

• Infrastructure: Requires reference stations and a communication link

• Applications: Marine navigation, GIS data collection, precision agriculture

• Advantages: Improved accuracy over absolute positioning, relatively simple

implementation

• Limitations: Accuracy degrades with distance from reference station, requires

communication link

DGNSS corrections can be provided through various services:

• Local DGNSS: Corrections from a single reference station, effective within

about 50-100 km

• Wide Area DGNSS: Corrections from a network of reference stations, covering

larger regions

• Satellite-Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS): Corrections broadcast via

geostationary satellites, such as WAAS (North America), EGNOS (Europe),
MSAS (Japan), and GAGAN (India)

Real-Time Kinematic (RTK)

RTK is a high-precision differential technique that uses carrier phase measurements

to achieve centimeter-level accuracy in real-time.

Key characteristics:

• Method: Uses carrier phase measurements and resolves integer ambiguities

• Accuracy: Typically 1-3 cm horizontally and 3-5 cm vertically

 • Infrastructure: Requires a reference station (or network) and a real-time
communication link

• Applications: Surveying, precision agriculture, machine control, construction

• Advantages: High accuracy in real-time, reliable when ambiguities are fixed

• Limitations: Limited range from reference station (typically 10-20 km), requires
continuous communication, sensitive to signal obstructions

RTK positioning involves several key steps:

1. The reference station transmits its raw measurements to the rover

2. The rover forms double-difference observations to eliminate or reduce clock

errors

3. The rover attempts to resolve the integer ambiguities

4. Once ambiguities are resolved ("fixed" solution), centimeter-level positioning is

achieved

5. If ambiguities cannot be resolved, a "float" solution is used, with accuracy of

decimeters to meters

Network RTK

Network RTK extends the range and reliability of RTK by using a network of
reference stations rather than a single station.

Key characteristics:

• Method: Uses data from multiple reference stations to model spatially varying
errors

• Accuracy: Similar to single-base RTK (1-3 cm horizontally, 3-5 cm vertically)

• Infrastructure: Requires a network of reference stations, central processing

facility, and communication links

• Applications: Same as RTK, but over larger areas

• Advantages: Extended range compared to single-base RTK, more reliable

ambiguity resolution

• Limitations: Requires subscription to a network service, still sensitive to signal

obstructions
Common Network RTK approaches include:

• Virtual Reference Station (VRS): Creates a virtual reference station near the
user's approximate position

• Master-Auxiliary Concept (MAC): Provides corrections from a master station

and auxiliary information from other stations

• FKP (Area Correction Parameters): Provides parameters to model the spatial

variation of errors

Precise Point Positioning (PPP)

PPP is a high-precision technique that does not require a nearby reference station.
Instead, it uses precise satellite orbit and clock products provided by analysis
centers.

Key characteristics:

• Method: Uses precise satellite orbit and clock products, dual-frequency

measurements, and sophisticated error modeling

• Accuracy: Typically 3-10 cm horizontally and 5-15 cm vertically after

convergence

• Infrastructure: Requires access to precise orbit and clock products, but no local
reference stations

• Applications: Offshore positioning, remote areas, global monitoring, scientific

applications

• Advantages: Global coverage, no need for local reference stations, high

accuracy potential

• Limitations: Requires convergence time (typically 20-30 minutes), less accurate

than RTK in short observation periods

Recent advances in PPP include:

• PPP-RTK: Combines PPP with regional augmentation to enable faster

convergence and integer ambiguity resolution

• Multi-GNSS PPP: Uses observations from multiple GNSS systems to improve

accuracy and convergence
 • Real-time PPP: Uses real-time precise orbit and clock products delivered via
satellite or internet

Static and Rapid Static

Static positioning involves collecting data at a fixed location for an extended period,
typically for post-processing.

Key characteristics:

• Method: Collects carrier phase data at a stationary point for an extended period,
typically post-processed

• Accuracy: Millimeter to centimeter level, depending on observation duration and

baseline length

• Infrastructure: Requires reference station data for post-processing

• Applications: Geodetic control, deformation monitoring, scientific research

• Advantages: Highest accuracy potential, reliable results

• Limitations: Requires stationary occupation, not suitable for real-time or

kinematic applications

Rapid Static is a variation with shorter occupation times (typically 5-20 minutes) that
still achieves centimeter-level accuracy.

Comparison of Positioning Modes

The following table summarizes the key characteristics of different GNSS positioning
modes:

Positioning Typical Infrastructure Convergence Range Key

Mode Accuracy Requirements Time Limitations Applications

Absolute Consumer
(Single 5-10 m None Instantaneous None navigation,
Point) recreation

Reference Marine
DGNSS 0.5-3 m station, Instantaneous navigation,
 ~100 km
communication GIS,
from
link agriculture
reference

Reference ~10-20 km Surveying,

Seconds to
RTK 1-3 cm station, real- from precision
minutes
time link reference agriculture

Reference
network, Within Surveying,
Network Seconds to
1-3 cm processing network construction,
RTK minutes
center, real- coverage agriculture
time link

Offshore,
Access to
20-30 remote
PPP 3-10 cm precise None
minutes areas, global
products
applications

Geodetic
Reference Depends
Hours (for control,
Static mm-cm data for post- on baseline
mm) scientific
processing length
research

The choice of positioning mode depends on various factors, including accuracy

requirements, available infrastructure, cost constraints, and operational
considerations. Many professional applications use a combination of modes to
achieve optimal results under different conditions.
Chapter 5: Reference Frames and Time
Systems

5.1 Global and Regional Reference Frames (ITRF,

WGS84, ETRF)

Reference frames provide the practical realization of coordinate systems, allowing

positions to be expressed in a consistent manner. In GNSS applications,
understanding the relationships between different reference frames is crucial for
achieving high accuracy and for combining data from different sources.

International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF)

The International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF) is the most accurate and
scientifically rigorous global reference frame available. It is developed and
maintained by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service
(IERS).

Key characteristics of ITRF:

• Definition: ITRF is a realization of the International Terrestrial Reference

System (ITRS), which is an Earth-centered, Earth-fixed (ECEF) reference
system

• Origin: Located at the Earth's center of mass, including oceans and atmosphere

• Scale: Defined by the speed of light

• Orientation: Initially aligned with the Bureau International de l'Heure (BIH)

orientation at epoch 1984.0, and its time evolution is ensured by using a no-net-
rotation condition with respect to horizontal tectonic motions over the whole
Earth

• Realization: Implemented through a global network of space geodetic

observation sites using techniques such as GNSS, VLBI (Very Long Baseline
Interferometry), SLR (Satellite Laser Ranging), and DORIS (Doppler
Orbitography and Radiopositioning Integrated by Satellite)
ITRF is updated periodically to incorporate new observations and improved analysis
techniques. Each realization is denoted by the year of its release, such as ITRF2014
or ITRF2020. The coordinates of points in ITRF change over time due to tectonic
plate motion and other geophysical phenomena.

For high-precision applications, ITRF coordinates are typically expressed with a

reference epoch (e.g., ITRF2014 at epoch 2010.0) and velocity components to
account for movement over time.

World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84)

The World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84) is the reference frame used by the
Global Positioning System (GPS). It was developed by the United States Department
of Defense.

Key characteristics of WGS84:

• Definition: WGS84 is both a reference ellipsoid and a reference frame

• Ellipsoid Parameters:
◦ Semi-major axis (a): 6,378,137.0 meters

◦ Flattening (f): 1/298.257223563

• Origin: Intended to be at the Earth's center of mass

• Realization: Implemented through the GPS control segment's network of

monitoring stations

• Updates: WGS84 has been refined over time through several realizations
(G730, G873, G1150, G1674, G1762), with the latest realizations closely aligned
with recent ITRF versions

The relationship between WGS84 and ITRF has evolved over time:

• Initially, WGS84 was independent of ITRF and had lower precision

• Since 1994, WGS84 has been aligned with ITRF through successive updates

• The latest realizations of WGS84 (G1762) are aligned with ITRF2014 at the
centimeter level

• For most practical purposes, current WGS84 and ITRF can be considered
equivalent at the level of a few centimeters
Despite this close alignment, there are still some differences between WGS84 and
ITRF:

• WGS84 is updated less frequently than ITRF

• The network of stations used to define WGS84 is smaller and less diverse than
that used for ITRF

• WGS84 does not provide velocity components for its stations in its standard
products

European Terrestrial Reference Frame (ETRF)

The European Terrestrial Reference Frame (ETRF) is a regional reference frame

used in Europe. It is derived from ITRF but is fixed to the stable part of the Eurasian
tectonic plate.

Key characteristics of ETRF:

• Definition: ETRF is a realization of the European Terrestrial Reference System

(ETRS89)

• Relationship to ITRF: ETRF coincided with ITRF at epoch 1989.0 (hence the
name ETRS89), but the two frames have since diverged due to tectonic plate
motion

• Stability: ETRF is designed to be stable with respect to the European continent,

meaning that coordinates of points in stable parts of Europe change very little
over time

• Realizations: Various realizations exist, such as ETRF89, ETRF90, ETRF2000,

etc., each derived from a specific ITRF realization

• Maintenance: ETRF is maintained by EUREF (European Reference Frame), a

sub-commission of the International Association of Geodesy (IAG)

The main advantage of ETRF is that coordinates of points in Europe remain relatively
stable over time, which is beneficial for mapping, cadastral, and engineering
applications. In contrast, ITRF coordinates change by about 2.5 cm per year in
Europe due to the movement of the Eurasian plate.
Other Regional Reference Frames

Many regions have established their own reference frames, often fixed to specific
tectonic plates to minimize coordinate changes over time within the region. Examples
include:

• North American Reference Frame (NAD83): Used in North America, fixed to

the North American plate

• Geocentric Datum of Australia (GDA2020): Used in Australia, fixed to the

Australian plate at epoch 2020.0

• Sistema de Referencia Geocéntrico para las Américas (SIRGAS): Used in

Latin America

• African Geodetic Reference Frame (AFREF): Being developed for Africa

• Asia-Pacific Reference Frame (APREF): Covers the Asia-Pacific region

These regional reference frames are typically aligned with ITRF at a specific epoch
but then diverge over time due to plate tectonics.

GNSS-Specific Reference Frames

Each GNSS system uses its own reference frame for broadcasting satellite orbits
and clock corrections:

• GPS: World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84)

• GLONASS: Parametry Zemli 1990 (PZ-90), which has been aligned with ITRF
since PZ-90.11

• Galileo: Galileo Terrestrial Reference Frame (GTRF), which is closely aligned

with ITRF

• BeiDou: China Geodetic Coordinate System 2000 (CGCS2000), which is

aligned with ITRF

For most practical applications, the differences between these reference frames are
at the centimeter level or less, which is negligible for many users. However, for high-
precision applications, these differences must be taken into account, especially when
combining data from multiple GNSS systems.
Practical Implications

The existence of multiple reference frames has several practical implications for
GNSS users:

• Coordinate Transformations: When combining data from different sources or

systems, transformations between reference frames may be necessary

• Time-Dependent Coordinates: For high-precision applications, the time

evolution of coordinates due to tectonic motion must be considered

• Software Settings: GNSS processing software typically requires the user to

specify the desired reference frame for output coordinates

• Local Ties: When establishing local control networks, connections to national or

international reference frames must be made through appropriate ties

Understanding the relationships between different reference frames is essential for

achieving consistent and accurate positioning results, especially in applications that
require high precision or that combine data from multiple sources.

5.2 Realizations and Transformations

Reference frames are realized through sets of coordinates assigned to physical

points, and transformations between different reference frames are essential for
combining data from different sources. This section explores the practical aspects of
reference frame realizations and transformations.

Reference Frame Realizations

A reference frame realization consists of a set of physical points (stations) with

precisely determined coordinates and, for modern realizations, velocities. These
points serve as the practical embodiment of the abstract reference system.

Key aspects of reference frame realizations:

• Control Networks: The physical points that define a reference frame are
typically part of a control network, which may include GNSS continuously
operating reference stations (CORS), geodetic monuments, and other survey
markers
 • Observation Techniques: Modern reference frames are realized using a
combination of space geodetic techniques:
◦ GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite Systems)

◦ VLBI (Very Long Baseline Interferometry)

◦ SLR (Satellite Laser Ranging)

◦ DORIS (Doppler Orbitography and Radiopositioning Integrated by Satellite)

• Epoch of Realization: Due to tectonic plate motion and other geophysical

phenomena, coordinates change over time. Therefore, reference frame
realizations are associated with a specific epoch (e.g., ITRF2014 at epoch
2010.0)

• Velocity Model: Modern realizations include velocity components for each

station, allowing coordinates to be propagated to different epochs

The quality of a reference frame realization depends on factors such as:

• The number and distribution of stations

• The precision of the observations

• The sophistication of the analysis techniques

• The stability of the monuments or structures housing the instruments

Coordinate Transformations

Coordinate transformations are mathematical operations that convert coordinates

from one reference frame to another. Several types of transformations are commonly
used in geodesy and GNSS applications.

Helmert Transformation (Seven-Parameter Transformation)

The Helmert transformation, also known as the seven-parameter or similarity

transformation, is the most commonly used method for transforming between
different reference frames. It consists of:

• Three translation parameters (ΔX, ΔY, ΔZ)

• Three rotation parameters (RX, RY, RZ)

• One scale parameter (S)

The transformation equations are:

X₂ = ΔX + (1 + S) × [X₁ + RZ × Y₁ - RY × Z₁]
Y₂ = ΔY + (1 + S) × [-RZ × X₁ + Y₁ + RX × Z₁]
Z₂ = ΔZ + (1 + S) × [RY × X₁ - RX × Y₁ + Z₁]

Where (X₁, Y₁, Z₁) are the coordinates in the source reference frame, and (X₂, Y₂, Z₂)
are the coordinates in the target reference frame.

For small rotation angles (which is typically the case in geodetic applications), the
rotation parameters are often expressed in radians or arc seconds, and the scale
parameter as parts per million (ppm).

Time-Dependent Transformations

When transforming between reference frames that are fixed to different tectonic
plates, or when dealing with observations spanning significant time periods, time-
dependent transformations are necessary. These transformations account for the
relative motion of reference frames over time.

The 14-parameter transformation extends the Helmert transformation by adding rates

of change for each of the seven parameters:

• Three translation parameters (ΔX, ΔY, ΔZ) and their rates (ΔẊ, ΔẎ, ΔŻ)

• Three rotation parameters (RX, RY, RZ) and their rates (ṘX, ṘY, ṘZ)

• One scale parameter (S) and its rate (Ṡ)

The transformation parameters are typically defined for a specific reference epoch
(t₀), and the actual parameters for a given epoch (t) are computed as:

ΔX(t) = ΔX(t₀) + ΔẊ × (t - t₀)

And similarly for the other parameters.

Molodensky Transformation

The Molodensky transformation is used to convert between geographic coordinates

(latitude, longitude, height) based on different reference ellipsoids. It is a three-
parameter transformation that accounts for the differences in ellipsoid center position
but not for rotations or scale differences.

The simplified Molodensky formulas are:

Δφ = [-ΔX sin φ cos λ - ΔY sin φ sin λ + ΔZ cos φ + Δa (N e² sin φ cos φ) / a +

Δλ = [-ΔX sin λ + ΔY cos λ] / [(N + h) cos φ]
Δh = ΔX cos φ cos λ + ΔY cos φ sin λ + ΔZ sin φ - Δa (a / N) + Δf (b / a) N sin²

Where:

• φ, λ, h are the latitude, longitude, and ellipsoidal height in the source reference
frame

• ΔX, ΔY, ΔZ are the translation parameters

• Δa, Δf are the differences in semi-major axis and flattening between the
ellipsoids

• N is the radius of curvature in the prime vertical

• ρ is the radius of curvature in the meridian

• e² is the square of the first eccentricity

Grid-Based Transformations

In some cases, the relationship between reference frames cannot be adequately

modeled by a simple mathematical transformation, particularly when dealing with
distortions in older reference frames or local deformations. In such cases, grid-based
transformations may be used.

Grid-based transformations use a grid of points with known coordinates in both

reference frames. Transformation parameters for any point within the grid are
determined by interpolation. This approach can handle complex spatial variations in
the relationship between reference frames.

Practical Transformation Examples

Here are some examples of transformation parameters between common reference

frames:
ITRF2014 to ETRF2014 (epoch 2010.0)

ΔX = 0.0540 m ΔẊ = 0.0001 m/yr

ΔY = 0.0510 m ΔẎ = 0.0001 m/yr
ΔZ = -0.0480 m ΔŻ = -0.0018 m/yr
RX = 0.000891" ṘX = 0.000081"/yr
RY = 0.000539" ṘY = 0.000049"/yr
RZ = -0.008712" ṘZ = 0.000792"/yr
S = 0.00000 ppm Ṡ = 0.00000 ppm/yr

WGS84 (G1762) to ITRF2014 (approximate)

ΔX = 0.000 m
ΔY = 0.000 m
ΔZ = 0.000 m
RX = 0.000000"
RY = 0.000000"
RZ = 0.000000"
S = 0.00000 ppm

Note: The latest realization of WGS84 (G1762) is closely aligned with ITRF2014, with
differences at the centimeter level or less. For most practical purposes, they can be
considered equivalent.

Software and Tools for Transformations

Numerous software tools and online services are available for performing coordinate
transformations:

• PROJ: An open-source library for cartographic projections and coordinate

transformations

• EPSG Geodetic Parameter Dataset: A database of coordinate reference

systems and transformation parameters

• Online Transformation Services: Many national mapping agencies provide

online tools for transformations between national and international reference
frames
 • GNSS Processing Software: Most GNSS processing software includes
capabilities for transforming between different reference frames

• GIS Software: Geographic Information System software typically includes tools

for coordinate transformations

Best Practices for Reference Frame Transformations

When working with reference frame transformations, consider the following best
practices:

• Use the most recent transformation parameters: Transformation parameters

may be updated as new data becomes available

• Consider the epoch: For high-precision applications, account for the time
dependency of coordinates and transformation parameters

• Understand the accuracy limitations: Transformations introduce additional

uncertainty into coordinates

• Document the transformation process: Record which transformation

parameters and methods were used

• Validate transformations: When possible, check transformed coordinates

against known points in the target reference frame

• Be consistent: Use the same transformation parameters and methods

throughout a project

By understanding reference frame realizations and transformations, GNSS users can

ensure that their positioning results are consistent, accurate, and properly aligned
with the reference frames used for their specific applications.

5.3 GNSS Time Systems

Precise time is a fundamental component of GNSS operation. Each GNSS system

maintains its own time scale, and understanding the relationships between these
time scales is essential for high-precision applications, particularly when combining
data from multiple GNSS systems.
Fundamental Concepts of Time

Before discussing specific GNSS time systems, it's important to understand some
fundamental concepts related to time:

• Atomic Time: Based on the electromagnetic transitions of atoms, providing a

highly stable and uniform time scale

• Universal Time (UT): Based on the Earth's rotation, which is not uniform due to
variations in the Earth's rotation rate

• Coordinated Universal Time (UTC): A compromise between atomic time and

universal time, maintained within 0.9 seconds of UT1 (a refined version of
universal time) through the insertion of leap seconds

• International Atomic Time (TAI): A continuous time scale based on a weighted

average of atomic clocks worldwide, without leap seconds

• Leap Seconds: Occasional one-second adjustments added to UTC to account

for the slowing of the Earth's rotation, ensuring that UTC stays within 0.9
seconds of UT1

As of 2023, TAI is ahead of UTC by 37 seconds due to the accumulated leap

seconds since the establishment of UTC.

GNSS System Time Scales

Each GNSS system maintains its own system time, which is used as the reference
for all timing operations within the system. These system times have different
relationships with UTC and TAI:

GPS Time

Key characteristics of GPS Time:

• Definition: GPS Time is a continuous time scale that was aligned with UTC on
January 6, 1980, but does not include leap seconds

• Relationship to UTC: GPS Time is currently ahead of UTC by a fixed offset plus
the number of leap seconds that have occurred since January 1980 (as of 2023,
GPS Time is ahead of UTC by 18 seconds)

• Relationship to TAI: GPS Time is behind TAI by a constant offset of 19 seconds

 • Realization: GPS Time is realized through an ensemble of atomic clocks at the
GPS monitor stations and onboard the satellites

• Steering: GPS Time is steered to match UTC(USNO) (the UTC realization

maintained by the United States Naval Observatory), excluding leap seconds

GPS navigation messages include parameters that allow receivers to convert

between GPS Time and UTC.

GLONASS Time

Key characteristics of GLONASS Time:

• Definition: GLONASS Time is synchronized with UTC(SU) (the UTC realization

maintained by Russia), including leap seconds

• Relationship to UTC: GLONASS Time is intended to be within 1 microsecond

of UTC(SU), which itself is kept within 10 nanoseconds of UTC

• Relationship to TAI: GLONASS Time differs from TAI by the same number of
leap seconds as UTC

• Realization: GLONASS Time is realized through atomic clocks at the

GLONASS control segment and onboard the satellites

• Offset from Moscow Time: GLONASS Time is 3 hours ahead of Moscow Time

Unlike GPS Time, GLONASS Time includes leap seconds, which means that
discontinuities occur when leap seconds are inserted.

Galileo System Time (GST)

Key characteristics of Galileo System Time:

• Definition: GST is a continuous time scale that is steered to match TAI with a
fixed offset

• Relationship to UTC: GST is ahead of UTC by the number of leap seconds,

plus a small offset due to steering errors

• Relationship to TAI: GST is intended to be kept within 50 nanoseconds of TAI

minus 19 seconds
 • Realization: GST is realized through atomic clocks at the Galileo control centers
and onboard the satellites

• Epoch: GST started at 00:00:00 UTC on August 22, 1999

Galileo navigation messages include parameters that allow receivers to convert

between GST and UTC.

BeiDou Time (BDT)

Key characteristics of BeiDou Time:

• Definition: BDT is a continuous time scale that does not include leap seconds

• Relationship to UTC: BDT is ahead of UTC by the number of leap seconds

since its epoch, plus a small offset

• Relationship to TAI: BDT is synchronized to UTC + 14 seconds on January 1,

2006, making it 33 seconds behind TAI at that time

• Realization: BDT is realized through atomic clocks at the BeiDou control

stations and onboard the satellites

• Epoch: BDT started at 00:00:00 UTC on January 1, 2006

Like GPS and Galileo, BeiDou navigation messages include parameters for
converting between BDT and UTC.

Time System Relationships

The relationships between different time systems can be summarized as follows (as
of 2023):

• TAI - UTC = 37 seconds (due to leap seconds)

• GPS Time - UTC = 18 seconds (leap seconds since January 1980)

• TAI - GPS Time = 19 seconds (fixed offset)

• GLONASS Time ≈ UTC (within microseconds)

• GST - UTC ≈ 37 seconds (approximately equal to TAI - UTC)

• BDT - UTC = 14 seconds + leap seconds since January 2006 = 14 + 4 = 18

seconds
These relationships are important for multi-GNSS applications, where observations
from different systems need to be properly time-aligned.

Time Representation in GNSS

GNSS systems use various conventions for representing time:

GPS Time Representation

• Week Number: Counts weeks since the GPS epoch (January 6, 1980). The
original GPS week number was a 10-bit value that rolled over every 1024 weeks
(about 19.7 years). Modernized GPS uses a 13-bit week number

• Time of Week (TOW): Counts seconds within the current week, from 0 to
604,799

• Z-Count: A 29-bit binary number consisting of the 10-bit week number and the
19 most significant bits of the TOW

GLONASS Time Representation

• Day Number: Counts days within a four-year interval, with day 1 being January
1 in a leap year

• Time of Day: Counts seconds within the current day, from 0 to 86,399

Galileo Time Representation

• Week Number: Counts weeks since the Galileo epoch (August 22, 1999)

• Time of Week (TOW): Counts seconds within the current week, similar to GPS

BeiDou Time Representation

• Week Number: Counts weeks since the BeiDou epoch (January 1, 2006)

• Second of Week (SOW): Counts seconds within the current week, similar to
GPS
Practical Implications for GNSS Users

The existence of different time systems has several practical implications for GNSS
users:

• Multi-GNSS Processing: When combining observations from different GNSS

systems, time system differences must be accounted for

• Leap Second Events: During leap second insertions, special handling may be
required, particularly for systems that include leap seconds (like GLONASS)

• Precise Timing Applications: For applications requiring precise UTC, the

appropriate conversions from GNSS system time must be applied

• Week Number Rollover: Users of older GPS receivers need to be aware of the
GPS week number rollover issue, where the 10-bit week number cycles back to
0 after 1024 weeks

Most modern GNSS receivers and processing software handle these time system
differences automatically, but understanding the underlying concepts is important for
high-precision applications and for troubleshooting timing-related issues.

Future Developments

There are ongoing discussions about the future of leap seconds and their impact on
GNSS and other time-sensitive systems. In 2022, the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures (BIPM) recommended discontinuing leap seconds by 2035,
which would eventually lead to a growing difference between UTC and UT1. If
implemented, this change would simplify time handling in GNSS and other technical
systems but would require new approaches for applications that need to track Earth
rotation time.
 Chapter 6: GNSS Applications

6.1 Surveying and Mapping

Surveying and mapping represent some of the most important professional

applications of GNSS technology. The ability to determine precise positions has
revolutionized these fields, enabling faster, more accurate, and more cost-effective
data collection compared to traditional methods.

GNSS Surveying Techniques

Several GNSS surveying techniques are commonly used, each with different
characteristics in terms of accuracy, efficiency, and suitability for various applications:

Static Surveying

Static surveying involves collecting data at a fixed point for an extended period,
typically from 30 minutes to several hours.

• Method: Receivers remain stationary at points of interest, collecting carrier

phase observations over time

• Accuracy: Millimeter to centimeter level, depending on observation duration and

baseline length

• Applications: Establishing geodetic control networks, monitoring deformation,

scientific research

• Advantages: Highest accuracy potential, reliable results

• Limitations: Time-consuming, not suitable for rapid data collection

Rapid Static Surveying

Rapid static is a variation of static surveying with shorter occupation times, typically
5-20 minutes.

• Method: Similar to static surveying but with shorter observation periods

• Accuracy: Centimeter level

 • Applications: Control densification, boundary surveys, topographic mapping

• Advantages: Good balance between accuracy and efficiency

• Limitations: Less accurate than full static, requires post-processing

Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) Surveying

RTK provides centimeter-level accuracy in real-time, making it ideal for many

surveying applications.

• Method: Uses a reference station (base) and a rover receiver, with real-time
communication between them

• Accuracy: 1-3 cm horizontally, 3-5 cm vertically

• Applications: Topographic surveys, stakeout, boundary surveys, as-built

surveys

• Advantages: Real-time results, high productivity

• Limitations: Limited range from base station (typically 10-20 km), requires
continuous communication link

Network RTK

Network RTK extends the range and reliability of RTK by using a network of
reference stations.

• Method: Uses data from multiple reference stations to model spatially varying
errors

• Accuracy: Similar to single-base RTK

• Applications: Same as RTK, but over larger areas

• Advantages: Extended range, more reliable ambiguity resolution

• Limitations: Requires subscription to a network service, cellular coverage

Post-Processed Kinematic (PPK)

PPK is similar to RTK but with data processing performed after field work rather than
in real-time.

• Method: Collects raw data from base and rover for post-processing
 • Accuracy: Similar to RTK

• Applications: Areas with poor communication links, UAV mapping, mobile

mapping

• Advantages: No real-time communication required, can reprocess data if

needed

• Limitations: No real-time quality control, requires post-processing

Precise Point Positioning (PPP)

PPP achieves high accuracy without requiring a local reference station.

• Method: Uses precise satellite orbit and clock products instead of local
reference stations

• Accuracy: Centimeter to decimeter level after convergence

• Applications: Remote areas, offshore surveying, global networks

• Advantages: Global coverage, no need for local reference stations

• Limitations: Requires convergence time, typically less accurate than differential

methods

Mapping Applications

GNSS technology has transformed mapping at all scales, from global to local:

Cadastral Mapping

Cadastral mapping involves the determination of property boundaries and land

parcels.

• GNSS Role: Provides accurate positioning of boundary markers and

monuments

• Techniques Used: Static, rapid static, RTK

• Benefits: Faster data collection, integration with GIS, reduced boundary

disputes

• Considerations: Legal requirements for accuracy, connection to official

reference frames
Topographic Mapping

Topographic mapping captures the physical features of the land surface.

• GNSS Role: Provides accurate positions of terrain features and ground control
points

• Techniques Used: RTK, PPK, mobile mapping systems

• Benefits: Efficient data collection, direct integration with digital mapping systems

• Considerations: Canopy and urban canyon effects, integration with other

sensors

GIS Data Collection

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) require accurate spatial data for analysis and
decision-making.

• GNSS Role: Provides coordinate information for GIS features

• Techniques Used: Mapping-grade GNSS receivers, mobile GIS solutions

• Benefits: Field-to-office workflow, attribute collection with spatial data

• Considerations: Accuracy requirements vary by application, data dictionary

design

Mobile Mapping

Mobile mapping systems collect geospatial data from moving platforms.

• GNSS Role: Provides trajectory information for other sensors (LiDAR, cameras)

• Techniques Used: PPK, integration with inertial measurement units (IMUs)

• Benefits: Rapid data collection over large areas, multiple sensor integration

• Considerations: GNSS signal obstructions in urban areas, sensor

synchronization
Aerial Photogrammetry and LiDAR

Aerial mapping uses aircraft or drones to collect imagery or LiDAR data.

• GNSS Role: Determines camera positions for photogrammetry or sensor

positions for LiDAR

• Techniques Used: PPK, integration with IMUs

• Benefits: Reduced need for ground control points, direct georeferencing

• Considerations: Camera calibration, IMU integration, flight planning

Best Practices for Surveying and Mapping

To achieve optimal results in GNSS surveying and mapping applications, consider

the following best practices:

• Mission Planning: Check satellite availability, PDOP, and potential obstructions

before field work

• Equipment Selection: Choose appropriate receivers and antennas for the

required accuracy

• Reference Frame Consistency: Ensure all work is tied to the appropriate

reference frame

• Quality Control: Implement checks such as repeated measurements and

closures

• Multipath Mitigation: Select suitable antenna locations and use multipath-

resistant equipment

• Documentation: Maintain thorough records of equipment, methods, and

processing parameters

• Integration with Other Techniques: Combine GNSS with traditional surveying

methods when appropriate

• Standards Compliance: Adhere to relevant professional and legal standards

GNSS has become an indispensable tool in modern surveying and mapping, but its
effective use requires understanding its capabilities and limitations in different
environments and applications.
6.2 Navigation (Land, Sea, Air)

Navigation was one of the primary motivations for developing GNSS technology, and
it remains one of the most widespread applications. GNSS provides positioning,
velocity, and timing information that is crucial for navigation across all transportation
domains: land, sea, and air.

Land Navigation

Land navigation encompasses a wide range of applications, from consumer vehicle

navigation to precision agriculture and autonomous vehicles.

Road Transportation

• Consumer Navigation: In-car navigation systems and smartphone apps use

GNSS to provide turn-by-turn directions, estimated arrival times, and traffic
information

• Fleet Management: Commercial vehicle fleets use GNSS for tracking, routing,
and optimizing operations

• Emergency Services: Police, fire, and ambulance services rely on GNSS for
rapid response and efficient routing

• Road Pricing and Tolling: GNSS-based systems can implement distance-

based charging without physical toll booths

• Connected and Autonomous Vehicles: Advanced driver assistance systems

(ADAS) and autonomous vehicles require precise positioning, often combining
GNSS with other sensors

Rail Transportation

• Train Positioning: GNSS provides location information for train control and
passenger information systems

• Positive Train Control (PTC): Safety systems use GNSS to enforce speed
restrictions and prevent collisions

• Asset Management: Railway operators track rolling stock and maintenance

equipment
 • Infrastructure Monitoring: GNSS helps monitor track geometry and detect
deformations

Off-Road Navigation

• Recreational Activities: Hiking, mountain biking, and off-road driving use

GNSS for navigation in remote areas

• Precision Agriculture: Farming equipment uses GNSS for automated

guidance, variable rate application, and field mapping

• Forestry and Mining: GNSS guides equipment and tracks resources in

challenging environments

• Construction: Machine control systems use GNSS for precise grading,

excavation, and positioning

Land navigation applications face challenges such as signal blockage in urban

canyons, tunnels, and under dense foliage. These challenges are often addressed
through sensor fusion, combining GNSS with inertial navigation systems (INS),
odometry, and other sensors.

Maritime Navigation

Maritime navigation was one of the earliest applications of GNSS, and it remains
critical for safety and efficiency at sea.

Ocean Navigation

• Position Fixing: GNSS has largely replaced traditional celestial navigation for
determining a vessel's position

• Route Planning and Monitoring: Electronic chart display and information

systems (ECDIS) integrate GNSS positioning with digital charts

• Weather Routing: Optimal routes are calculated based on GNSS position and
weather forecasts

• Vessel Traffic Services (VTS): Port authorities monitor vessel movements

using GNSS-based tracking
Coastal and Inland Waterway Navigation

• Harbor Approach and Docking: Precise positioning aids in navigating confined

waters

• Bridge Clearance: GNSS-derived height information helps determine safe

passage under bridges

• Inland Waterway Transport: River and canal navigation benefits from accurate
positioning

• Recreational Boating: Small craft rely on GNSS for navigation, especially in

limited visibility

Maritime Safety

• Automatic Identification System (AIS): Vessels broadcast their GNSS-derived

position to avoid collisions

• Search and Rescue: GNSS is essential for locating vessels in distress and
coordinating rescue operations

• Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacons (EPIRBs): These devices

include GNSS receivers to transmit accurate distress positions

• Dynamic Positioning: Offshore vessels maintain position using GNSS and

other sensors

Maritime applications benefit from wide-open sky views but require high reliability
and integrity. Differential GNSS services and satellite-based augmentation systems
(SBAS) are commonly used to enhance accuracy and integrity for maritime
navigation.

Air Navigation

Aviation has stringent requirements for navigation accuracy, integrity, continuity, and
availability. GNSS has become an integral part of modern air navigation systems.

En-Route Navigation

• Area Navigation (RNAV): GNSS enables flexible routing without reliance on

ground-based navigation aids
 • Required Navigation Performance (RNP): Performance-based navigation
concepts specify required accuracy and integrity

• Oceanic Operations: GNSS provides positioning over remote areas without

ground infrastructure

• Air Traffic Management: More efficient routes and separations are possible
with precise GNSS positioning

Approach and Landing

• GNSS Approaches: Various types of approaches use GNSS, from non-

precision to precision approaches

• Localizer Performance with Vertical guidance (LPV): SBAS-enhanced GNSS

provides approach guidance similar to traditional instrument landing systems

• Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS): Local augmentation systems

support precision approaches

• Helicopter Operations: GNSS enables point-in-space approaches to hospitals,

offshore platforms, and remote locations

Other Aviation Applications

• Surveillance: Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) uses

GNSS to report aircraft positions

• Airport Surface Movement: Aircraft and vehicle movements on airports are

monitored using GNSS

• Flight Testing: GNSS provides precise trajectory information for aircraft

certification

• Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS): Drones rely heavily on GNSS for

navigation and geofencing

Aviation applications require high integrity monitoring to detect and alert users to
system anomalies. This is provided through augmentation systems like SBAS
(WAAS, EGNOS, MSAS, GAGAN) and GBAS, as well as receiver autonomous
integrity monitoring (RAIM) and advanced RAIM (ARAIM) techniques.
Navigation System Integration

Modern navigation systems rarely rely on GNSS alone. Integration with other
sensors and systems enhances performance and provides redundancy:

• Inertial Navigation Systems (INS): Provide continuous positioning during

GNSS outages and help filter GNSS errors

• Odometry: Wheel sensors provide distance traveled information for land

vehicles

• Radar and Lidar: Provide relative positioning and obstacle detection

• Computer Vision: Camera-based systems can recognize landmarks and

features

• Map Matching: Constrains position estimates to known roads or routes

• Traditional Navigation Aids: VOR, DME, ILS, and other systems complement
GNSS in aviation

The integration approach depends on the specific requirements of the application,

including accuracy needs, environment, cost constraints, and safety considerations.

Future Trends in Navigation

Navigation applications continue to evolve with advances in GNSS technology and

integration techniques:

• Multi-GNSS Receivers: Using multiple constellations improves availability and

accuracy

• High-Precision Consumer Applications: Lane-level navigation and

augmented reality require decimeter-level accuracy

• Resilient PNT: Systems designed to operate in GNSS-denied or -degraded

environments

• Collaborative Positioning: Vehicles and devices sharing positioning

information to enhance collective accuracy

• Artificial Intelligence: Machine learning techniques improving positioning in

challenging environments
 • Autonomous Navigation: Self-driving vehicles, vessels, and aircraft requiring
highly reliable positioning

As these trends develop, the role of GNSS in navigation will continue to expand,
enabling new applications and improving the performance of existing ones.

6.3 Timing and Synchronization

While positioning and navigation are the most visible applications of GNSS, timing
and synchronization are equally important and have profound impacts on critical
infrastructure and technology systems worldwide. GNSS provides a globally
available, highly accurate time reference that is essential for many modern systems.

Fundamental Concepts

GNSS timing is based on atomic clocks aboard the satellites, which provide a stable
and accurate time reference. GNSS receivers can determine time with high precision
by solving for position and time simultaneously or, for fixed receivers, by focusing
solely on time determination.

Key advantages of GNSS as a timing source include:

• Global Availability: Accessible virtually anywhere on Earth

• High Accuracy: Typically within tens of nanoseconds of UTC

• Low Cost: Compared to maintaining local atomic clocks

• Traceability: Direct link to national and international time standards

• Common Reference: Provides the same time reference worldwide

Telecommunications Applications

Telecommunications networks rely heavily on precise timing for synchronization and

efficient operation:

Cellular Networks

• Base Station Synchronization: Cell towers require precise timing for

handovers and to avoid interference
 • Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA): Requires accurate timing to allocate
time slots to users

• Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): Relies on precise timing for code
synchronization

• Long Term Evolution (LTE) and 5G: Require tight synchronization for
advanced features like Coordinated Multipoint (CoMP) and enhanced Inter-Cell
Interference Coordination (eICIC)

Fixed Networks

• Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET)/Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

(SDH): Require precise timing for network synchronization

• Precision Time Protocol (PTP/IEEE 1588): Often uses GNSS as the primary
reference clock

• Network Time Protocol (NTP): GNSS-disciplined oscillators serve as stratum 1

time servers

• Data Centers: Require synchronized time for transaction ordering, log

correlation, and security

Power Grid Applications

Electrical power grids increasingly rely on precise timing for monitoring, control, and
protection:

• Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs): These devices measure the phase angle
of electrical waveforms with microsecond-level time stamping to monitor grid
stability

• Fault Location: Precise timing helps locate faults by analyzing the arrival time
of fault signatures at different points

• Substation Automation: IEC 61850 and similar standards rely on accurate

timing for event sequencing

• Wide Area Monitoring Systems (WAMS): Require synchronized

measurements across large geographic areas

• Smart Grids: Advanced grid management functions depend on precise timing

for coordination
Financial Applications

Financial markets and institutions require precise timing for transaction

timestamping, regulatory compliance, and security:

• High-Frequency Trading: Nanosecond-level timing can provide competitive

advantages

• Transaction Timestamping: Accurate records of when trades occur

• Regulatory Compliance: Regulations like MiFID II in Europe require traceable

time synchronization

• Fraud Detection: Precise timing helps identify suspicious patterns in transaction

timing

• Distributed Ledgers: Blockchain and similar technologies benefit from accurate

time references

Scientific and Research Applications

Scientific research often requires precise timing for measurement synchronization

and data correlation:

• Astronomy: Radio telescopes and observatory networks require precise timing

for interferometry

• Seismology: Earthquake detection and analysis depend on accurate timing of

seismic wave arrivals

• Atmospheric Research: Lightning detection networks and other atmospheric

sensors require synchronized measurements

• Particle Physics: Experiments like those at CERN require precise timing for
particle detection

• Geodesy: VLBI, SLR, and other geodetic techniques rely on precise timing

GNSS Timing Receivers and Systems

Specialized equipment is used for GNSS timing applications:

GNSS Disciplined Oscillators (GNSSDOs)

• Operation: A local oscillator (typically a quartz or rubidium oscillator) is

disciplined (steered) by GNSS signals

• Advantages: Provides continuous timing even during short GNSS outages,

filters out short-term GNSS variations

• Applications: Telecommunications, broadcasting, calibration laboratories

Timing Receivers

• Features: Optimized for timing rather than positioning, often with fixed position
operation

• Outputs: Typically provide pulse-per-second (PPS) signals, IRIG time codes,

and NTP/PTP services

• Redundancy: Often implemented with multiple receivers and oscillators for

critical applications

Time and Frequency Distribution

• Methods: Dedicated timing networks, fiber optic distribution, wireless time

distribution

• Standards: PTP (IEEE 1588), NTP, SyncE, IRIG, 1PPS

• Monitoring: Continuous monitoring of timing performance and alerts for

anomalies

Challenges and Mitigations

GNSS timing faces several challenges that must be addressed for critical
applications:

• Signal Vulnerability: GNSS signals are weak and susceptible to interference,

jamming, and spoofing

• Antenna Siting: Proper antenna location is crucial for reliable reception

• Single Point of Failure: Over-reliance on GNSS as the sole timing source

creates vulnerability
 • Leap Seconds: Insertions of leap seconds require special handling

Mitigations for these challenges include:

• Backup Oscillators: High-quality local oscillators that can maintain accurate

time during GNSS outages

• Alternative Timing Sources: eLoran, fiber-based time distribution, local atomic

clocks

• Multi-GNSS Receivers: Using multiple constellations reduces vulnerability to

single-system issues

• Anti-Jamming/Anti-Spoofing: Advanced antenna designs and signal

processing techniques

• Timing Holdover: Algorithms to maintain accurate timing during GNSS

unavailability

Future Trends

The field of GNSS timing continues to evolve with several emerging trends:

• Resilient Timing: Increased focus on robustness and backup systems

• Time as a Service: Commercial timing services delivered via various means

• Improved Performance: Sub-nanosecond timing accuracy through advanced

techniques

• Integrated Systems: Combining GNSS with other timing sources for improved
reliability

• Quantum Timekeeping: Integration with emerging quantum clock technologies

As critical infrastructure becomes increasingly dependent on precise timing, the

importance of GNSS as a timing source will continue to grow, driving further
innovations in this field.

6.4 Precision Agriculture

Precision agriculture represents one of the most significant and economically

important applications of GNSS technology. By enabling precise positioning of
agricultural equipment, GNSS has revolutionized farming practices, leading to
increased efficiency, reduced input costs, and minimized environmental impact.

Fundamental Concepts

Precision agriculture (also called precision farming or site-specific crop management)

is an approach to farm management that uses information technology to ensure
crops and soil receive exactly what they need for optimal health and productivity.
GNSS is a cornerstone technology in this approach, providing the precise positioning
information needed to implement variable rate applications and automated guidance.

Key benefits of precision agriculture include:

• Increased Yields: Optimizing inputs and operations for each area of a field

• Reduced Costs: Minimizing overlap and applying inputs only where needed

• Environmental Benefits: Reducing chemical runoff and fuel consumption

• Labor Efficiency: Automating operations and extending working hours

• Data-Driven Decisions: Building historical field data for better management

GNSS Applications in Agriculture

Guidance and Automated Steering

One of the most widely adopted GNSS applications in agriculture is guidance and
automated steering of farm equipment:

• Parallel Tracking: Maintaining parallel passes across a field with consistent

spacing

• Automated Steering: Systems that automatically steer the equipment along

predetermined paths

• Controlled Traffic Farming: Confining all machinery to permanent traffic lanes

to minimize soil compaction

• Accuracy Levels:
◦ Pass-to-pass accuracy: Relative accuracy between adjacent passes
(typically 2-10 cm)
 ◦ Year-to-year repeatability: Ability to return to the same locations in
subsequent seasons (typically 2-10 cm with RTK)

• Benefits: Reduced overlap, decreased operator fatigue, ability to operate in low

visibility conditions, consistent row spacing

Variable Rate Technology (VRT)

VRT uses GNSS positioning to vary the application rate of inputs based on the
specific needs of different areas within a field:

• Variable Rate Application: Adjusting the rate of seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, or

irrigation based on prescription maps

• Prescription Maps: Created from soil sampling, yield data, remote sensing, or
other field information

• Section Control: Automatically turning on and off sections of planters, sprayers,

or fertilizer applicators to avoid overlap and double application

• Benefits: Optimized input use, reduced waste, improved crop performance,

reduced environmental impact

Yield Mapping

Yield mapping combines GNSS positioning with yield sensors to create maps
showing crop yield variations across a field:

• Components: GNSS receiver, yield sensors, data logging system

• Process: Continuous recording of yield data with corresponding position

information during harvest

• Analysis: Post-processing to create yield maps and identify patterns and

anomalies

• Benefits: Identifying field variability, evaluating management practices,

informing future decisions
Soil Sampling and Mapping

GNSS enables precise positioning for soil sampling and creation of detailed soil
property maps:

• Grid Sampling: Collecting soil samples at regular intervals across a field

• Zone Sampling: Collecting samples based on management zones identified

through other data

• On-the-Go Sensors: Real-time soil property sensors combined with GNSS for
continuous mapping

• Benefits: Detailed understanding of soil variability, targeted soil amendments,

improved nutrient management

Field Mapping and Boundary Determination

GNSS is used to map field boundaries, obstacles, and other features:

• Boundary Mapping: Defining the exact perimeter of fields

• Feature Mapping: Recording locations of irrigation equipment, drainage

structures, and obstacles

• Area Calculation: Determining precise field areas for planning and reporting

• Benefits: Accurate field records, improved planning, compliance with

regulations

Livestock Tracking and Management

GNSS technology is also applied to livestock management:

• Animal Tracking: Monitoring movement patterns and grazing behavior

• Virtual Fencing: Defining boundaries without physical fences using GNSS-

enabled collars

• Behavior Analysis: Identifying health issues through changes in movement

patterns

• Benefits: Improved grazing management, early health intervention, reduced

labor costs
GNSS Requirements for Agriculture

Agricultural applications have specific GNSS requirements that influence equipment

selection and system design:

Accuracy Requirements

• Mapping and Scouting: 1-5 meters (autonomous GNSS or SBAS)

• Yield Mapping: Sub-meter (DGNSS or SBAS)

• Variable Rate Application: Sub-meter to decimeter (DGNSS or SBAS)

• Guidance - Low Accuracy: 15-30 cm (SBAS or DGNSS)

• Guidance - Medium Accuracy: 5-15 cm (DGNSS with carrier phase

smoothing)

• Guidance - High Accuracy: 2-5 cm (RTK or Network RTK)

• Controlled Traffic Farming: 2-3 cm (RTK with year-to-year repeatability)

Reliability and Availability

• Seasonal Constraints: Agricultural operations often have narrow time windows

• Extended Hours: Operations may continue into night hours when visual
guidance is limited

• Remote Locations: Many farms are in areas with limited cellular coverage for
RTK corrections

• Solutions: Local base stations, satellite-delivered corrections, multi-GNSS

receivers

Integration with Farm Management

• Data Standards: ISOBUS/ISO 11783 for equipment communication

• Farm Management Information Systems (FMIS): Integration of GNSS data

with other farm records

• Data Transfer: Methods for moving data between field equipment and office
systems

• Compatibility: Ensuring equipment from different manufacturers works together

Emerging Trends and Future Developments

Precision agriculture continues to evolve with several emerging trends:

• Autonomous Farming: Fully autonomous tractors and implements guided by

high-precision GNSS

• Swarm Robotics: Multiple smaller machines working cooperatively instead of

few large ones

• Integration with Remote Sensing: Combining GNSS positioning with data from
satellites, drones, and ground sensors

• Artificial Intelligence: Advanced analytics to interpret field data and make

recommendations

• Internet of Things (IoT): Networks of connected sensors and equipment

sharing data in real-time

• Centimeter-Level Positioning Services: Wider availability of high-accuracy

GNSS corrections

• Multi-GNSS Solutions: Using multiple constellations for improved reliability and

accuracy

As these technologies mature, precision agriculture will continue to advance, making

farming more efficient, sustainable, and productive to meet the growing global
demand for food.

6.5 Earth Sciences and Monitoring

GNSS technology has revolutionized Earth sciences by providing unprecedented

capabilities for measuring and monitoring Earth's dynamic processes. From tectonic
plate movements to atmospheric conditions, GNSS offers unique tools for scientific
research and environmental monitoring.

Geodynamics and Crustal Deformation

GNSS provides a powerful tool for measuring the movement of Earth's crust at
various spatial and temporal scales.
Tectonic Plate Motion

• Global Networks: Continuous GNSS networks like the International GNSS

Service (IGS) track the motion of tectonic plates

• Velocity Fields: Long-term GNSS observations reveal the direction and rate of
plate movements

• Plate Boundary Zones: GNSS measurements help define the complex

deformation in areas where plates interact

• Applications: Refining plate motion models, understanding plate boundary

processes, updating reference frames

Earthquake Studies

• Co-seismic Deformation: Measuring the sudden displacement of the ground

during earthquakes

• Post-seismic Deformation: Monitoring the gradual relaxation of the crust after

earthquakes

• Inter-seismic Strain Accumulation: Measuring the slow buildup of strain

between earthquakes

• Fault Slip Rates: Determining how quickly faults are moving over time

• Applications: Earthquake hazard assessment, fault modeling, early warning

systems

Volcanic Activity

• Volcano Deformation: Measuring the inflation or deflation of volcanic edifices

• Magma Chamber Dynamics: Inferring magma movement from surface

deformation patterns

• Eruption Precursors: Identifying deformation signals that may precede

eruptions

• Applications: Volcano monitoring, eruption forecasting, hazard management

Glacial Isostatic Adjustment

• Post-glacial Rebound: Measuring the ongoing uplift of land masses following

the melting of ice sheets from the last ice age

• Contemporary Ice Mass Changes: Detecting crustal response to current ice

mass variations

• Applications: Understanding Earth's rheology, improving climate models,

separating different contributions to sea level change

Atmospheric Science

GNSS signals are affected by the atmosphere, which allows them to be used as tools
for atmospheric sensing.

Tropospheric Studies

• Water Vapor Measurement: GNSS signals are delayed by water vapor,

allowing estimation of atmospheric water content

• GNSS Meteorology: Networks of GNSS receivers provide real-time data on

atmospheric water vapor for weather forecasting

• Tomography: Dense GNSS networks enable three-dimensional mapping of

water vapor distribution

• Applications: Numerical weather prediction, climate studies, severe weather

monitoring

Ionospheric Studies

• Total Electron Content (TEC): GNSS signals are affected by ionospheric

electron density, allowing TEC measurement

• Ionospheric Scintillation: Rapid fluctuations in GNSS signals reveal

ionospheric irregularities

• Space Weather: Monitoring ionospheric conditions to detect and study solar and
geomagnetic events

• Applications: Space weather forecasting, communication and navigation

system protection, ionospheric research
Hydrosphere Monitoring

GNSS contributes to monitoring various components of Earth's water cycle.

Sea Level Monitoring

• GNSS-equipped Tide Gauges: Combining traditional tide gauges with GNSS to

separate sea level change from vertical land motion

• Satellite Altimetry Calibration: GNSS-determined positions provide reference

points for calibrating satellite altimeters

• Applications: Sea level rise monitoring, coastal hazard assessment,

oceanographic research

Snow and Ice Studies

• Ice Sheet Velocity: GNSS stations on ice sheets measure flow rates and
dynamics

• Snow Water Equivalent: GNSS signal reflections can be used to estimate snow
depth and water content

• Glacier Monitoring: GNSS surveys track glacier retreat and thinning

• Applications: Climate change research, water resource management, flood

forecasting

Soil Moisture and Vegetation

• GNSS Reflectometry: Analyzing signals reflected from the ground to determine

soil moisture content

• Vegetation Water Content: Signal attenuation through vegetation provides

information on plant water content

• Applications: Agricultural monitoring, drought assessment, ecosystem research

Environmental Monitoring and Natural Hazards

GNSS technology supports various environmental monitoring applications and

natural hazard management.
Landslide Monitoring

• Continuous Monitoring: GNSS stations installed on unstable slopes provide

real-time movement data

• Campaign Surveys: Periodic GNSS measurements track slow-moving

landslides

• Early Warning Systems: Automated systems that alert authorities when

significant movements are detected

• Applications: Risk assessment, infrastructure protection, emergency

management

Subsidence Monitoring

• Urban Subsidence: Monitoring ground sinking due to groundwater extraction or

construction

• Mining-induced Subsidence: Measuring surface deformation above

underground mines

• Oil and Gas Field Monitoring: Tracking surface deformation related to

reservoir depletion

• Applications: Infrastructure protection, regulatory compliance, hazard mitigation

Tsunami Warning Systems

• Real-time Earthquake Detection: GNSS networks can detect large

earthquakes and estimate their magnitude

• Rapid Deformation Measurement: Identifying earthquakes with tsunami

potential based on ground displacement patterns

• Applications: Enhancing tsunami early warning systems, reducing false alarms

GNSS Techniques for Earth Science

Earth science applications employ various specialized GNSS techniques:

Continuous GNSS Networks

• Global Networks: IGS and other global networks providing continuous data for
reference frame maintenance and global studies

• Regional Networks: Dense networks focused on specific regions of interest

(e.g., plate boundaries)

• Real-time Data Streams: Providing immediate access to observations for time-

critical applications

• Data Archives: Long-term storage of historical data for retrospective analysis

Campaign Measurements

• Periodic Surveys: Repeated measurements at the same locations over time

• Benchmark Networks: Established points that are revisited regularly

• Rapid Response: Deploying equipment quickly after significant events

GNSS Reflectometry

• Principle: Analyzing GNSS signals reflected from Earth's surface

• Ground-based Systems: Fixed or mobile receivers specifically designed to

capture reflected signals

• Satellite Systems: Specialized satellites like CYGNSS (Cyclone Global

Navigation Satellite System) that observe reflected GNSS signals

• Applications: Soil moisture, sea state, snow depth, ice monitoring

Precise Point Positioning (PPP)

• Advantages for Earth Science: No need for local reference stations, global
consistency

• Time Series Analysis: Detecting subtle changes in position over time

• Integration with Other Techniques: Combining PPP with InSAR, leveling, or

other geodetic methods
Future Trends

Earth science applications of GNSS continue to evolve with several emerging trends:

• Low-Cost Sensors: Deploying larger numbers of less expensive receivers for

denser spatial coverage

• Multi-GNSS Analysis: Using all available constellations for improved precision

and reliability

• Integration with Big Data: Combining GNSS with other massive datasets using
machine learning techniques

• Real-time Processing: Expanding capabilities for immediate analysis and

response

• Satellite GNSS Reflectometry: Growing constellation of satellites observing

reflected GNSS signals

• Miniaturization: GNSS receivers on smaller platforms like CubeSats and

drones

As these trends develop, GNSS will continue to enhance our understanding of

Earth's dynamic processes and improve our ability to monitor and respond to
environmental changes and natural hazards.

6.6 Location-Based Services (LBS)

Location-Based Services (LBS) represent one of the most widespread and rapidly
evolving applications of GNSS technology. These services use location data to
provide relevant information or functionality to users, transforming how people
interact with their environment and with digital services.

Fundamentals of Location-Based Services

Location-Based Services combine positioning technologies (primarily GNSS) with

communication networks and information systems to deliver location-relevant content
and services to users.
Key components of LBS include:

• Positioning Component: Determines the user's location (GNSS, Wi-Fi

positioning, cellular positioning, etc.)

• Communication Network: Transmits location data and service information

(cellular networks, Wi-Fi, etc.)

• Service Provider: Processes location data and delivers relevant services

• Content Provider: Supplies the location-relevant information (maps, points of

interest, etc.)

• User Interface: Allows users to interact with the service (typically smartphone
apps)

Consumer Applications

Consumer LBS applications have become ubiquitous with the proliferation of

smartphones and other mobile devices.

Navigation and Wayfinding

• Turn-by-Turn Navigation: Real-time directions for drivers, pedestrians, cyclists,

and public transit users

• Traffic Information: Real-time traffic conditions and routing alternatives

• Indoor Navigation: Wayfinding within buildings using a combination of GNSS

and other technologies

• Augmented Reality Navigation: Overlaying directions on camera views of the

real world

Social Networking and Communication

• Location Sharing: Sharing current location with friends or family

• Geo-tagging: Adding location information to social media posts, photos, and

videos

• Proximity-Based Social Networks: Finding and connecting with people nearby

• Check-ins: Recording visits to specific locations

Local Search and Discovery

• Points of Interest: Finding nearby restaurants, shops, attractions, etc.

• Local Reviews: User-generated content about local businesses and attractions

• Augmented Reality Information: Overlaying information about surroundings on

camera views

• Contextual Recommendations: Suggestions based on location, time, and user

preferences

Gaming and Entertainment

• Location-Based Games: Games that incorporate the player's real-world

location (e.g., Pokémon GO)

• Geocaching: Outdoor treasure hunting using GNSS

• Location-Based Storytelling: Narratives that unfold based on the user's

location

• Fitness Tracking: Recording routes and performance for running, cycling,

hiking, etc.

Commercial and Enterprise Applications

Businesses and organizations leverage LBS for various operational and strategic
purposes.

Asset Tracking and Fleet Management

• Vehicle Tracking: Monitoring the location and status of commercial vehicles

• Asset Management: Tracking valuable equipment and inventory

• Route Optimization: Planning efficient routes for deliveries and service calls

• Geofencing: Creating virtual boundaries to trigger alerts when assets enter or

leave defined areas

Marketing and Advertising

• Geo-targeted Advertising: Delivering ads based on user location

 • Proximity Marketing: Sending offers when customers are near a business

• Foot Traffic Analysis: Measuring customer visits and movement patterns

• Location-Based Analytics: Understanding customer behavior in relation to

location

Workforce Management

• Field Service Optimization: Dispatching the nearest qualified technician

• Time and Attendance: Verifying employee locations during work hours

• Safety Monitoring: Tracking workers in hazardous environments

• Task Assignment: Allocating work based on location and availability

Public Sector and Safety Applications

Government agencies and emergency services use LBS for public safety and service
delivery.

Emergency Services

• Enhanced 911 (E911): Automatically providing caller location to emergency

dispatchers

• Emergency Response: Dispatching the nearest appropriate resources

• Disaster Management: Coordinating response efforts during natural disasters

• Personal Safety Apps: Allowing users to share their location with emergency
contacts

Public Transportation

• Real-time Transit Information: Providing accurate arrival times based on

vehicle locations

• Multimodal Journey Planning: Integrating various transportation options based

on location

• Demand-Responsive Transport: Dynamically routing vehicles based on

passenger needs
 • Transit Analytics: Optimizing routes and schedules based on usage patterns

Urban Planning and Management

• Infrastructure Monitoring: Tracking the condition and usage of public facilities

• Crowd Management: Monitoring and managing crowds at public events

• Smart City Applications: Location-aware services for urban environments

• Citizen Reporting: Location-tagged reports of issues requiring attention

Technical Considerations

Implementing effective LBS requires addressing several technical challenges:

Positioning Technologies

• GNSS: Primary outdoor positioning technology, but with limitations in urban

canyons and indoors

• Wi-Fi Positioning: Using Wi-Fi access points for location determination,

especially indoors

• Cellular Positioning: Using cellular network signals for approximate location

• Bluetooth Beacons: Short-range positioning for specific indoor locations

• Inertial Sensors: Using smartphone accelerometers and gyroscopes for dead

reckoning

• Hybrid Positioning: Combining multiple technologies for optimal performance

Location Accuracy Requirements

• Navigation: 3-5 meters for turn-by-turn directions

• Local Search: 10-50 meters for finding nearby businesses

• Social Applications: 50-100 meters for general location sharing

• Emergency Services: As accurate as possible, ideally within a few meters

• Indoor Applications: 2-5 meters for effective indoor navigation

Power Consumption

• Continuous vs. On-demand Positioning: Balancing accuracy with battery life

• Adaptive Location Sampling: Adjusting positioning frequency based on

movement and application needs

• Background Location Updates: Managing location tracking when apps are not
in active use

• Low-power Location Technologies: Using less power-intensive methods when

appropriate

Privacy and Security

• Location Data Protection: Securing sensitive location information

• User Consent: Obtaining appropriate permissions for location tracking

• Data Minimization: Collecting only necessary location data

• Anonymization: Removing personally identifiable information from location data

• Regulatory Compliance: Adhering to location privacy regulations (GDPR,

CCPA, etc.)

Future Trends

Location-Based Services continue to evolve with several emerging trends:

• Improved Indoor Positioning: Better technologies for accurate indoor location

• 3D Positioning: Including vertical position (floor level) in multi-story buildings

• Centimeter-Level Positioning: Higher accuracy for specialized consumer

applications

• Predictive Location Services: Anticipating user needs based on location

patterns

• Augmented Reality Integration: Seamless blending of digital information with

the physical world

• Ambient Intelligence: Location-aware environments that respond to user

presence
 • Autonomous Vehicle Support: Location services for self-driving cars and
drones

• Edge Computing: Processing location data closer to the user for reduced
latency

• Blockchain for Location Verification: Secure, tamper-proof location records

As these trends develop, Location-Based Services will become increasingly

integrated into daily life, providing more personalized, context-aware experiences
while addressing growing concerns about privacy and security.

Chapter 7: Conclusion

This comprehensive guide has explored the fundamental principles, technologies,

and applications of geodetic and GNSS systems. From the theoretical foundations of
geodesy to the practical applications of satellite positioning, we have covered the
essential knowledge needed for understanding and working with these powerful
technologies.

The Evolution of Geodetic and GNSS Systems

Geodesy, one of the oldest sciences, has evolved dramatically with the advent of
satellite-based positioning. What began as local measurements of the Earth's shape
has transformed into global reference systems of unprecedented accuracy. Similarly,
GNSS technology has progressed from experimental systems with limited
capabilities to a global infrastructure that supports countless applications across
virtually every sector of human activity.

The development of multiple GNSS constellations—GPS, GLONASS, Galileo,

BeiDou, and regional systems—has created a robust global infrastructure that
provides continuous, reliable positioning services worldwide. The trend toward multi-
GNSS receivers that can utilize signals from all available constellations represents a
significant advancement in terms of accuracy, availability, and reliability.
Technical Advancements

Several key technical advancements have shaped the current state of geodetic and
GNSS systems:

• Signal Modernization: New signal structures with improved characteristics

have enhanced positioning performance

• Multi-frequency Capabilities: The availability of signals on multiple frequencies

has improved accuracy and reliability

• Augmentation Systems: SBAS, GBAS, and other augmentation systems have

extended the capabilities of basic GNSS

• Precise Point Positioning: The development of PPP techniques has enabled

high accuracy without local reference stations

• Reference Frame Refinements: Increasingly accurate and stable reference

frames provide the foundation for precise positioning

• Integration with Other Sensors: The combination of GNSS with inertial,

optical, and other sensors has overcome limitations of standalone GNSS

These advancements have collectively transformed GNSS from a specialized

technology with limited applications to a ubiquitous utility that underpins countless
aspects of modern life.

The Impact of Geodetic and GNSS Systems

The impact of geodetic and GNSS systems extends far beyond the technical realm.
These technologies have:

• Transformed Transportation: Revolutionizing navigation on land, sea, and air

• Enhanced Scientific Understanding: Providing new tools for studying Earth's

dynamic processes

• Improved Agricultural Productivity: Enabling precision farming techniques

that optimize resources

• Supported Critical Infrastructure: Providing essential timing services for

telecommunications, power grids, and financial systems

• Created New Industries: Spawning entire sectors focused on location-based

services and applications
 • Advanced Public Safety: Enhancing emergency response capabilities and
disaster management

Few technologies have had such wide-ranging impacts across so many different
domains.

Challenges and Limitations

Despite their remarkable capabilities, geodetic and GNSS systems face several
challenges and limitations:

• Signal Vulnerability: GNSS signals are weak and susceptible to interference,

jamming, and spoofing

• Environmental Limitations: Performance is degraded in challenging

environments like urban canyons, dense foliage, and indoors

• Atmospheric Effects: Ionospheric and tropospheric conditions affect signal

propagation and positioning accuracy

• Multipath: Signal reflections can cause significant errors in urban and other
complex environments

• Reference Frame Stability: Earth dynamics complicate the maintenance of

stable reference frames

• Technical Complexity: Advanced applications require specialized knowledge

and equipment

Addressing these challenges requires ongoing research, development, and

education.

Future Directions

Looking ahead, several trends are likely to shape the future of geodetic and GNSS
systems:

• Further Signal Modernization: Continued improvements in signal design and

characteristics

• Enhanced Interoperability: Greater coordination among different GNSS

providers
 • Resilient PNT: Development of systems that can operate reliably even in
challenging conditions

• Miniaturization: Smaller, more power-efficient receivers enabling new

applications

• Integration with 5G and Beyond: Synergies between GNSS and next-

generation communication networks

• Artificial Intelligence: Machine learning techniques to enhance positioning

performance

• Quantum Technologies: Potential applications of quantum sensors and clocks

• Autonomous Systems: Expanded role in supporting self-driving vehicles,

drones, and robots

These developments will likely extend the capabilities and applications of geodetic
and GNSS systems in ways that are difficult to fully anticipate.

Final Thoughts

Geodetic and GNSS systems represent one of humanity's most impressive

technological achievements. From the fundamental science of measuring the Earth
to the complex satellite constellations that enable global positioning, these systems
embody the remarkable progress of human knowledge and engineering capability.

As these technologies continue to evolve, they will undoubtedly enable new

applications and capabilities that further transform how we understand our planet,
navigate our world, and organize our activities. The future of geodetic and GNSS
systems promises to be as dynamic and impactful as their past.

This guide has aimed to provide a comprehensive overview of these fascinating

systems, from their theoretical foundations to their practical applications. Whether
you are a professional working directly with these technologies, a student learning
about them for the first time, or simply someone interested in understanding the
systems that increasingly shape our world, we hope this information has been
valuable and enlightening.
 References

The following references were used in the preparation of this comprehensive guide
on geodetic and GNSS systems:

Books and Monographs

1. Hofmann-Wellenhof, B., Lichtenegger, H., & Wasle, E. (2008). GNSS – Global

Navigation Satellite Systems: GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and more. Springer
Vienna.

2. Teunissen, P. J. G., & Montenbruck, O. (Eds.). (2017). Springer Handbook of

Global Navigation Satellite Systems. Springer International Publishing.

3. Torge, W., & Müller, J. (2012). Geodesy (4th ed.). De Gruyter.

4. Seeber, G. (2003). Satellite Geodesy (2nd ed.). Walter de Gruyter.

5. Misra, P., & Enge, P. (2010). Global Positioning System: Signals, Measurements,
and Performance (Revised 2nd ed.). Ganga-Jamuna Press.

6. Kaplan, E. D., & Hegarty, C. J. (Eds.). (2017). Understanding GPS/GNSS:

Principles and Applications (3rd ed.). Artech House.

Technical Documents and Standards

1. International Federation of Surveyors (FIG). (2024). Reference Frames in

Practice Manual (2nd ed.). FIG Publication No. 64.

2. International GNSS Service (IGS). (2021). Using IGS Products (Version 2.1).
IGS Central Bureau.

3. EUROCONTROL. (2024). Coordinate Reference Systems: Basic User Guide.

European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation.

4. Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS). (2021). Guidelines for the use
of GNSS in Surveying and Mapping (2nd ed.).

5. Alkan, R. M. (2007). GNSS: Global Navigation Satellite Systems. Princeton

University.
 6. International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS). (2010).
IERS Conventions (IERS Technical Note No. 36). Verlag des Bundesamts für
Kartographie und Geodäsie.

Journal Articles and Conference Papers

1. Altamimi, Z., Rebischung, P., Métivier, L., & Collilieux, X. (2016). ITRF2014: A
new release of the International Terrestrial Reference Frame modeling nonlinear
station motions. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 121(8),
6109-6131.

2. Montenbruck, O., Steigenberger, P., Prange, L., Deng, Z., Zhao, Q., Perosanz,
F., Romero, I., Noll, C., Stürze, A., Weber, G., Schmid, R., MacLeod, K., &
Schaer, S. (2017). The Multi-GNSS Experiment (MGEX) of the International
GNSS Service (IGS) – Achievements, prospects and challenges. Advances in
Space Research, 59(7), 1671-1697.

3. Zumberge, J. F., Heflin, M. B., Jefferson, D. C., Watkins, M. M., & Webb, F. H.
(1997). Precise point positioning for the efficient and robust analysis of GPS data
from large networks. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 102(B3),
5005-5017.

4. Blewitt, G., Hammond, W. C., & Kreemer, C. (2018). Harnessing the GPS data
explosion for interdisciplinary science. Eos, 99.

5. Teunissen, P. J. G., & Khodabandeh, A. (2015). Review and principles of PPP-

RTK methods. Journal of Geodesy, 89(3), 217-240.

Online Resources

1. International GNSS Service (IGS). (2023). IGS Products. Retrieved from https://
igs.org/products/

2. European GNSS Agency (GSA). (2023). GNSS Market Report. Retrieved from
https://www.euspa.europa.eu/european-space/euspace-market/gnss-market/
gnss-market-report

3. National Geodetic Survey (NGS). (2023). Geodetic Datums. Retrieved from

https://www.ngs.noaa.gov/datums/

4. International Association of Geodesy (IAG). (2023). Reference Frames.

Retrieved from https://iag.dgfi.tum.de/en/iag-services/
 5. United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA). (2023). International
Committee on Global Navigation Satellite Systems (ICG). Retrieved from https://
www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/icg/icg.html

These references represent a selection of the authoritative sources used in compiling

this guide. Readers seeking additional information are encouraged to consult these
resources for more detailed treatment of specific topics.