Article

An Intelligently Enhanced Ant Colony Optimization

Algorithm for Global Path Planning of Mobile Robots in
Engineering Applications
Peng Li 1,2, * , Lei Wei 1 and Dongsu Wu 3

1 College of Automobile and Traffic Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117575, Singapore
3 College of Civil Aviation, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210026, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Global path planning remains a critical challenge in mobile robots, with ant
colony optimization (ACO) being widely adopted for its swarm intelligence characteristics.
To address the inherent limitations of ACO, this study proposes an intelligently enhanced
ACO (IEACO) incorporating six innovative strategies. First, the early search efficiency is
improved by implementing a non-uniform initial pheromone distribution. Second, the
ε-greedy strategy is employed to adjust the state transition probability, thereby balancing
exploration and exploitation. Third, adaptive dynamic adjustment of the exponents α
and β is realized, dynamically balancing the pheromone and heuristic function. Fourth,
a multi-objective heuristic function considering both target distance and turning angle is
constructed to enhance the quality of node selection. Fifth, a dynamic global pheromone
update strategy is designed to prevent the algorithm from prematurely converging to
local optima. Finally, by introducing multi-objective performance indicators, the path
planning problem is transformed into a multi-objective optimization problem, enabling
more comprehensive path optimization. Systematic simulations and experimentation
were performed to validate the effectiveness of IEACO. The simulation results confirm the
efficacy of each improvement in IEACO and demonstrate its performance advantages over
other algorithms. The experimental results further highlight the practical value of IEACO
in solving global path planning problems for mobile robots.
Academic Editor: Stefano Quer

Received: 19 December 2024 Keywords: mobile robots; ant colony optimization algorithm; global path planning; state
Revised: 7 February 2025 transition probability
Accepted: 19 February 2025
Published: 21 February 2025

Citation: Li, P.; Wei, L.; Wu, D. An

Intelligently Enhanced Ant Colony 1. Introduction
Optimization Algorithm for Global
Path Planning of Mobile Robots in
Mobile robots have become integral in various engineering applications due to rapid
Engineering Applications. Sensors advances in technology. In complex environments, the ability to perform autonomous
2025, 25, 1326. https://doi.org/ global path planning (that is, generating collision-free paths from a start point to a target
10.3390/s25051326 while considering environmental constraints) is critical for ensuring effective navigation [1].
Copyright: © 2025 by the authors. Global path planning not only underpins the intelligence of mobile robots but also plays a
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. central role in ensuring safety and operational efficiency [2].
This article is an open access article In industrial manufacturing, automated guided vehicles (AGVs) utilize global path
distributed under the terms and planning to achieve efficient material handling and warehouse logistics, thereby optimizing
conditions of the Creative Commons
production workflows and reducing operational costs. This technology has also revolutionized
Attribution (CC BY) license
(https://creativecommons.org/
agricultural robotics, enabling autonomous agricultural vehicles to navigate complex field
licenses/by/4.0/). layouts while performing precision tasks such as seeding, spraying, and harvesting [3]. In the

Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 https://doi.org/10.3390/s25051326

Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 2 of 32

construction industry, mobile robots equipped with global path planning capabilities assist in
site surveying, material transportation, and structural inspection tasks. These robots can safely
navigate dynamic construction environments while avoiding both static obstacles and moving
workers. In mining applications, autonomous vehicles similarly employ global path planning
to navigate underground tunnels and open-pit environments, helping enhance operational
safety and efficiency [4]. The healthcare sector has also benefited significantly from mobile
robot path planning applications. Autonomous medical supply delivery robots in hospitals
utilize global path planning to navigate corridor and avoid healthcare personnel and patients
while ensuring timely delivery of critical supplies [5]. In disaster response scenarios, search
and rescue robots employ path planning algorithms to navigate complex and unpredictable
environments during search operations [6].
Traditional global path planning methods for mobile robots can be broadly categorized
into classical and heuristic approaches. Classical methods, including Dijkstra’s algorithm,
the A* algorithm, and artificial potential field (APF), have been widely implemented due
to their mathematical foundations and guaranteed completeness [7]. However, these con-
ventional methods often face significant limitations in complex engineering environments.
While the Dijkstra and A* algorithms can effectively find optimal paths, their computa-
tional complexity grows exponentially with the scale of the environment. Similarly, APF
methods frequently encounter problems with local minima and face difficulties in narrow
passage navigation [8]. To address these diverse application requirements, researchers have
increasingly turned to bionic algorithms, which draw inspiration from natural phenomena
and biological systems. These methods, including genetic algorithms (GAs), particle swarm
optimization (PSO), and ant colony optimization (ACO), have demonstrated exceptional
capabilities in handling complex optimization problems [9]. Bionic algorithms offer ad-
vantages such as parallel computing capabilities, robust global search abilities, and strong
adaptability to dynamic environments. Among these nature-inspired approaches, ACO
has emerged as a particularly promising method for mobile robot path planning due to its
inherent positive feedback, distributed computation, and heuristic search mechanisms [10].
The ACO algorithm’s ability to find optimal paths through indirect communication between
simple agents (ants) makes it particularly suitable for navigation in complex engineering
environments [11].
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 covers related works;
in Section 3, the principles of grid maps and ACO are presented; our improvements to
the ACO algorithm are introduced in Section 4; Section 5 describes the experiments and
analyses; finally, conclusions and future research prospects are discussed in Section 6. The
specific structure of the article is illustrated in Figure 1 below.
Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 3 of 32

Figure 1. Article framework.

2. Related Works
In the field of engineering applications for mobile robots, global autonomous path
planning is a crucial aspect in which algorithm research plays a significant role in improving
path-planning methods [12]. Traditional path-planning algorithms such as the Dijkstra
algorithm and rapid-exploration random tree (RRT) are commonly employed to achieve
this objective [13]. A new model based on the Dijkstra algorithm was proposed by Resmiye
Nasiboglu to generate public transport routes with the shortest path, minimum transfer
criteria, and highest accessibility [14]. An enhancement technique known as PI-DP-RRT was
subsequently proposed by Qiyong and colleagues; this technique incorporates automatic
recognition system data and Douglas–Peucker compression to improve the sampling
strategy of the algorithm through biased sampling. This work has led to shorter navigation
paths for ships and overall improvements in safety [15]. Although the aforementioned
algorithms have been improved, their inherent limitations are still challenging to address.
For instance, Dijkstra’s algorithm guarantees the global shortest path but suffers from low
efficiency, while RRT, though effective in high-dimensional environments, is limited by
path quality and randomness.
Scientists have also developed various bioinspired algorithms for mobile robot path
planning. These algorithms draw inspiration from biological and natural systems such
as ant colonies, and include methods based on genetic algorithms and particle swarm
optimization to solve complex path-planning problems [16]. One notable proposal was
introduced by J. Zheng et al., who developed a distributed random algorithm that utilizes
Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 4 of 32

an enhanced genetic algorithm. Their approach overcomes the prevalent issue of other
algorithms becoming stuck in local optima. This is achieved by implementing a point
crossover operator and incorporating an anytime local search framework [17]. P.K. Das et
al. utilized improved particle swarm optimization (IPSO) and improved the gravitational
search algorithm (IGSA) to determine the optimal trajectory group for multiple robots in a
cluttered environment. Their proposed approach combines the social nature of IPSO with
the motion mechanism of IGSA. Their proposed hybrid IPSO-IGSA method maintains an
effective balance between exploration and exploitation [18]. A number of hybrid algorithms
have been widely studied as well. A hybrid meta-heuristic method was proposed in [19]
to tune the parameters and aid in feature selection. In [20], a reliable and efficient GWO
variant was proposed to improve the performance of CGWO via population diversity
enhancement. A multilevel threshold image segmentation method using hybrid arithmetic
optimization and the Harris Hawk optimization algorithm was proposed in [21]. Despite
the improvements made to the algorithm, the inherent limitations of bioinspired and
hybrid algorithms, such as a large number of parameters that complicates parameter tuning
and high computational complexity, continue to hinder their widespread application in
various scenarios.
The ACO algorithm mimics the behavior of ants searching for food by releasing a
chemical substance called pheromone, which is deposited along their travel path. Ants
choose their next move based on the concentration of pheromone, which gradually dissi-
pates through evaporation [22]. Figure 2 shows the schematic diagram of the ant colony
path search. Researchers initially proposed the reinforced ACO in mobile robot path plan-
ning [23]. This algorithm involves solving a continuous function optimization problem
with constraints, and offers a new solution to path planning problems. The ACO algorithm
primarily focuses on transition probabilities and positive pheromone feedback for position
improvements and optimizations [24]. Moreover, Yun Ni et al. noted the complexities
of using a single algorithm to solve complex optimization problems. As a solution, they
proposed a splitting strategy that incorporates local path or intelligent path optimization
algorithms into global path planning to enhance the search efficiency and optimization
quality [25]. Liu Zhonpu et al. proposed an improved ACO algorithm to address slow
optimization speeds and redundant planning results in ACO-based mobile robot path
planning. Their algorithm features fast optimization and composite prediction mechanisms,
resulting in high precision [26].

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of ant colony path search.

Despite these advances, several challenges remain. Many existing ACO-based ap-
proaches still suffer from issues such as inefficient initial searches, lack of dynamic parame-
Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 5 of 32

ter adaptation, and suboptimal path refinement, especially when deployed in real-world
scenarios. To address these limitations, this paper introduces the intelligently enhanced
ant colony optimization algorithm (IEACO). The primary contributions of our work are
as follows:
(1) By using a non-uniform distribution of initial pheromone, we adjust the initial
pheromone distribution to more effectively guide the early search process.
(2) The state transition probability is improved by a ε-greedy strategy. By incorporating
this ε-greedy strategy into the state transition probability, the proposed IEACO is better
able to navigate the search space.
(3) By optimizing the α and β exponents, our proposed algorithm dynamically adjusts
the exponents α and β to improve global search efficiency.
(4) We optimize the multi-objective heuristic function by integrating target information
and turning angle considerations to more accurately guide the search.
(5) The global pheromone update mechanism is reformed in order to mitigate prema-
ture convergence.
(6) Finally, transforming the path planning problem into a multi-objective optimization
framework allows the proposed IEACO to yield more precise and practical solutions.

3. Environment Model and Ant Colony Optimization Algorithm

3.1. Grid Map Mathematical Model
The construction of an environmental model is an important part of global path
planning for mobile robots. Different methods are used to construct environment models
in various engineering fields [27]. Commonly used methods include the octree method,
grid method, topology method, and free space method. In this paper, considering the
difficulty and practicality of different methods, the grid method is chosen to construct
the environment [28]. The grid method has the advantages of simple structure and ease
of implementation, which can significantly reduce the complexity of the environmental
model. Moreover, the grid method is easy to maintain and update [29]. By using the grid
method to construct an environment, a reliable foundation can be provided for the global
path planning of mobile robots [30].
The map created with the grid method consists of two main parts. The white grids
represent freely selectable grids, while the black grids represent obstacle grids. For example,
consider a 6 × 6 square grid map. The grid cells are numbered from left to right and from
top to bottom. When an obstacle is smaller than the grid, it is processed based on the
occupied grid cell. The side length of a grid cell is the length of the robot’s movement step,
which is the unit length.
The distance between two grid cells is calculated based on the Euclidean distance
√
between their midpoints, which is either the length of one cell or the length of 2 cells. For
convenience, each cell is assigned a unique sequential number and coordinate value. The
grid cells are numbered starting from the top left corner, and the conversion rules between
the coordinates and the sequential grid cells numbers are shown in Figure 3.
The corresponding adjacency matrix records the identifier in each row, and the grid
sequence number is converted to a coordinate ( xn , yn ) using Equation (1):
(
x n = mod(n, Mx ) − 0.5

(1)
yn = My − ceil n/My + 0.5

where n denotes the grid sequence number. The coordinates for the n-th grid are denoted
as ( xn , yn ), where xn indicates the horizontal location and yn indicates the vertical location
of the n-th grid cell in the environment. Here, Mx represents the total number of rows in
Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 6 of 32

the environmental model, and My represents the total number of columns. The functions
ceil () and mod() refer to the round-down function and remainder function, respectively.

Figure 3. Grid map environmental model.

3.2. ACO Mathematical Model

The traditional ACO is a highly intelligent collective algorithm inspired by the foraging
behavior of ants. In an ant colony, each ant is an independent yet cooperative individual, and
their foraging behavior is executed through communication among individuals in the colony
based on pheromone release. The ACO algorithm replicates the most effective behavior by
simulating this process and using pheromone levels [31]. When ants search for food, they
leave pheromone and create paths. Typically, pheromone evaporates over time, and the
remaining pheromone concentration is greater on shorter paths than long paths [32]. Other
ants tend to follow paths with higher pheromone concentrations based on their preferences.
Over time, ants gather on the shortest route, creating a positive feedback effect [33]. ACO
exhibits strong robustness and a good positive feedback mechanism in path planning, making
it an ideal choice for determining the optimal path based on a global grid map.
Table 1 displays the configuration of the mathematical parameter model used to initial-
ize the ACO algorithm. The fundamental parameters needed for ACO can be established
by conducting experiments, and primarily consist of the total number of ants M released at
each iteration k and the maximum number of iterations K.

Table 1. Description of parameters.

Parameter Description
M Number of ants
α Pheromone exponent
β Heuristic function exponent
ρ Pheromone evaporation factor
Q Pheromone strength value
K Maximum number of iterations
Lm Path length for ant m
ηij (k) Heuristic function at time k
τij (k ) Pheromone concentration between the i-th point and j-th point at time k
∆τijm (k) Pheromone increment between point i and point j at time k for ant m
pijm (k) Probability that ant m moves from the i-th point to the j-th point in the k-th iteration
S ∈ allowedm Potentially accessible grid cells of ant m around the next point
Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 7 of 32

The ACO algorithm searches for the optimal path starting from a certain grid node.
The ants use the roulette wheel method to select an optional grid node from the many nodes
they traverse until they reach the target grid node. The state transition probability is mainly
based on the pheromone along each path and a heuristic function. The corresponding
mathematical model is as follows (2):
 β
 τijα (k)ηij (k )
m
 , S ∈ allowedm
pij (k) = ∑S∈allowedm τijα (k)ηijβ (k) (2)

 0, S ∈ / allowedm

where k represents the k-th iteration and ηij is the heuristic function, which is expressed as
shown in Equation (3):
1
ηij = (3)
dij
where dij is the Euclidean distance from node i to node j.
As ants traverse a path, they leave behind a chemical trail with pheromone, which acts
as a guide for fellow ants. The pheromone concentration is adjusted according to the path
length, with the shortest paths having the highest pheromone levels. The ants communicate
through pheromone, indirectly influencing the path choices. Through repeated iterations,
ants eventually converge and locate the shortest path. Equations (4) and (5) provide the
mathematical formula for pheromone updating, as follows:
(
τij (t + 1) = (1 − ρ)τij (k) + ∆τij , 0 < ρ < 1
M (4)
∆τij = ∑m =1 ∆τij
m

(
Q
∆τijm = Lm ,if ant m travels from i to node j
(5)
0, otherwise

in which τij (k + 1) represents the (k + 1)-th pheromone, ρ is within (0, 1), (1 − ρ)τij (k) rep-
resents the pheromone left over from the k-th iteration, and ∆τij represents the pheromone
increment.

4. Improving the Methods of ACO

To address the inherent limitations of the traditional ACO algorithm in terms of
computational efficiency and convergence to local optima, in this section we propose the
intelligently enhanced ant colony optimization algorithm (IEACO). The proposed algorithm
improves the performance of ACO through the integration of six key advancements. First,
an optimized initial pheromone distribution strategy is applied to enhance early-stage
search efficiency. Second, an ε-greedy mechanism is incorporated into the state transition
probability function to achieve a dynamic balance between exploration and exploitation.
Third, adaptive methods for adjusting the heuristic function and pheromone intensity
exponents are introduced, enhancing the algorithm’s adaptability across different scenarios.
Fourth, a composite heuristic function based on target distance and turning angles is
constructed to improve path evaluation accuracy. Fifth, an improved global pheromone
update mechanism is designed to effectively reduce the risk of local optima entrapment.
Finally, a multi-objective evaluation framework is established, transforming path planning
into a multi-objective optimization problem that comprehensively considers factors such as
path length, safety, energy consumption, and time complexity to achieve more thorough
path optimization.
Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 8 of 32

4.1. Non-Uniform Distribution of Initial Pheromone

The initial pheromone distribution plays a crucial role in the initial search path of
ACO. As illustrated in Figure 4, traditional ACO employs a uniform distribution of initial
pheromones in the grid map. This approach leads to numerous ineffective searches during
the initial iterations, not only reducing convergence speed but also negatively impacting
the algorithm’s overall efficiency and solution quality. To address this issue, this study
proposes a non-uniform initial pheromone distribution strategy, depicted in Figure 5. This
novel distribution strategy considers multiple key factors, including the distance from
grid points to the target point, the distribution of surrounding obstacles, and the distance
from the start point to the target point. The proposed non-uniform distribution of initial
pheromone is mathematically formulated in Equation (6):
′ n
τ (initial ) = D ∗ ∗ τ (initial ) (6)
8

D = e∧ (−diT ) ∗ dST , d ≥ 1 (7)

′
where τ (initial ) represents the initial pheromone concentration, τ (initial ) denotes the
improved pheromone concentration, D represents the distance information calculated
using Equation (7), and n indicates the number of traversable free grid cells surrounding
the current point i. In addition,
q diT is the Euclidean distance from grid point i to the target
point T, calculated as diT = ( xi − x T )2 + (yi − y T )2 , where the coordinates of i are ( xi , yi ),
those of T are ( x T , y T ), and dST represents
q the Euclidean distance from the start point S to
the target point T, calculated as dST = ( xS − x T )2 + (yS − y T )2 , where the coordinates of
S are ( xS , yS ). It is noteworthy that d ≥ 1, where 1 represents the length of a single grid cell.
Figure 6 shows an example calculation of d.

Figure 4. Uniform distribution of pheromone concentration.

Figure 5. Non-uniform distribution of pheromone concentration.

Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 9 of 32

Figure 6. Calculation diagram of d.

This study proposes an innovative non-uniform pheromone initialization strategy that

significantly enhances the ability of individuals to identify advantageous grids during ACO.
Specifically, as illustrated in Figure 7, as the distance diT from grid point i to target point T
increases, the value of e∧ (−diT ) decreases, resulting in reduced pheromone concentration
on grid i and consequently lowering its probability of selection. However, Figure 7 also
reveals that as d increases, the rate of change in e∧ (−diT ) gradually plateaus. To address
this issue and amplify the range of variation, we innovatively introduce the distance dST
as a coefficient in the calculation of D. Furthermore, this study considers the significant
impact on path selection of obstacle distribution around grids. In Figure 8, black grids
represent obstacles, while white grids indicate free spaces. Each grid is surrounded by
eight adjacent grids, with the number of adjacent free grids positively correlating to the
grid’s suitability as a path point. As the number of surrounding obstacles increases, the
pheromone concentration on that grid gradually decreases, reflected by a reduction in
grayscale value.

Figure 7. Change trend of e∧ (−diT ).

Figure 8. Distribution of obstacles around the grid.

By integrating the distance information of the current grid and the distribution of
surrounding grids, we optimize the initial pheromone into a non-uniform distribution.
Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 10 of 32

This method not only considers the traversability of grids but also reflects their potential
advantages as path points. Therefore, this improvement increases the probability of the
algorithm selecting advantageous areas in the initial stages, thereby enhancing its initial
search efficiency.

4.2. Improved State Transition Probability Using the ε-Greedy Strategy

In traditional ACO, the roulette wheel selection mechanism is a crucial pathway for
individual ants to move towards selectable points. However, the presence of numerous se-
lectable nodes may significantly increase the computational complexity of traditional ACO.
To address this issue, we introduce a deterministic state transition probability rule com-
bined with an ε-greedy strategy to achieve a balance between exploration and exploitation.
The improved state transition probability is presented in Equation (8):

 pm (k ) , 0 ≤ ε < ε0
Gijm (k) = n ij   β o (8)
α
 argmax τij (k) ηij (k) , ε0 ≤ ε ≤ 1

where the argmax() function is used to determine the node j that maximizes the objective
 α  β
function f(j), where f ( j) = τij (k) ηij (k) , ε is an random variable distributed in the
interval [0, 1] that controls the transition probability, and ε 0 is the threshold value of ε. When
ε 0 ≤ ε ≤ 1, ant m will move at time k+1 to the node that produces the maximum product
of pheromone concentration and heuristic visibility. This deterministic selection mode
facilitates faster convergence of the algorithm. Conversely, when 0 ≤ ε < ε 0 , ant m will
select nodes according to the roulette wheel selection mechanism of the traditional ACO.
The deterministic state transition probability rule explicitly defines the ant’s next action
through a mathematical model, thereby reducing the computational burden associated
with randomness. Concurrently, introduction of the ε-greedy strategy allows the algorithm
to select the optimal path in most cases while retaining a certain probability of randomly
choosing alternative paths. This strategy effectively balances the algorithm’s global search
capability with its local optimization ability, enhancing overall algorithmic performance.
In fact, the value of ε 0 determines the probability of choosing between the deterministic
selection mode and the random selection mode. Therefore, ε 0 significantly influences
convergence speed and global search capability. If the value of ε 0 is small, the selection
of the next point is more likely to be in deterministic mode. In this case, it can accelerate
convergence speed; however, the global search capability will be reduced. If the value
of ε 0 is large, then the path shift tends towards the random mode, which increases the
randomness of path selection, resulting in increased computational complexity. Thus, it is
necessary to propose rules for setting the value of ε 0 in order to balance the deterministic
and random modes. Consequently, an adaptive adjustment mechanism for ε 0 is introduced
to improve the state transition probability rule. The proposed formula for calculating ε 0 is
shown in Equation (9).
−(k − 0.5K )2
ε0 = + 0.27 (9)
K2
In the early stages, ε 0 takes a smaller value, favoring deterministic transitions with
higher probability, which can accelerate the search speed for locally optimal paths. During
the algorithm’s execution, ε 0 takes larger values, increasing the probability of choosing
random transitions, which avoids local optima. As the algorithm iterates to later stages and
its evolutionary direction becomes essentially determined, the value of ε 0 can be gradually
reduced to accelerate the convergence speed. Improving the state transition probability by
using the ε-greedy method helps to achieve a good balance between global search capability
and convergence speed. Figure 9 illustrates the adaptive adjustment for ε 0 .
Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 11 of 32

Figure 9. Adaptive change trend of ε 0 .

4.3. Optimization of the α and β Exponents

In the state transition probability of ACO, exponents α and β play crucial roles. These
exponents respectively regulate the influence of the pheromone concentration τij (k) and
heuristic function ηij (k) on the path selection process of the ants. Traditional ACO methods
typically employ fixed values for α and β (e.g., α = 1, β = 7) when addressing path planning
problems [34]. However, this static parameter strategy may constrain the algorithm’s
performance and adaptability. To enhance the efficiency and robustness of ACO, this
study proposes a dynamic exponent adjustment method. We transform α and β from fixed
constants into functions that evolve dynamically throughout the optimization process. This
improvement enables the algorithm to adaptively adjust exponents based on the search
state and iteration characteristics, thereby achieving a better balance between exploration
′ ′
and exploitation. The improved α and β are shown in Equations (10) and (11).
  
′ k
α = α 11 − 10 ∗ e∧ − (10)
K
 
′ k
β = β ∗ e∧ − (11)
K
In this study, we implemented an adaptive balance between exploration and exploita-
′
tion through dynamic adjustment of exponents α and β. Initially, a higher β value and
′
lower α value were employed, enhancing the heuristic function’s influence while reducing
pheromone effects. This configuration promotes extensive solution space exploration by
the ant colony, facilitating the discovery of potentially high-quality solutions and miti-
gating premature convergence to local optima. As the iterations progress, the parameter
′ ′
configuration gradually shifts, increasing α and decreasing β ; this transition amplifies the
pheromones’ guiding role, enabling more effective utilization of historical search experi-
ence and focusing exploitation on high-quality solution areas. Additionally, we adopted a
dynamic adjustment mechanism based on an exponential function. This strategy ensures
continuous and smooth parameter changes, enhancing the algorithm’s stability and ro-
bustness by effectively mitigating performance fluctuations that might arise from abrupt
′ ′
parameter alterations. Figures 10 and 11 illustrate the change trends of α and β .
Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 12 of 32

′
Figure 10. Change trend of α .

′
Figure 11. Change trend of β .

4.4. Multi-Objective Heuristic Function

In traditional ACO, the heuristic function ηij (t) is typically calculated as the reciprocal
of the Euclidean distance between the current node i and the next node j, denoted as d1 ;
ij
however, in a grid-based environment model, the distance between adjacent grids can be
√
either 1 or 2. This causes the ants to be overly reliant on the heuristic function during the
path search process, reducing the algorithm’s effectiveness and global search capability. To
improve the algorithm’s global search efficiency, this study proposes an enhanced heuristic
function; specifically, we incorporate the target point’s location information and the turning
penalty factor into the heuristic function. The improved heuristic function formula is
provided by Equation (12):

1
ηij = (12)
δ1 dij + δ2 diT + angleSiT

where δ1 and δ2 are the respective weighting coefficients for dij and diT , which are subject
to the constraint δ1 + δ2 = 1. The term angleSiT denotes the angle formed by the start point
S, current point i, and target point T, as illustrated in Figure 12.
The improved heuristic function comprehensively considers both the target distance
information and the turning angle. The smaller the distance and turning angle, the better the
heuristic function. The dynamic adjustment strategy for δ2 (the weighting coefficient of diT )
is shown in Equation (13). Given that the sum of δ1 and δ2 is always 1, uniquely determining
one of them also determines the other. As iterations progress, the value of δ2 gradually
increases, leading to an increase in the denominator of the heuristic function, thereby
progressively reducing the heuristic function value. This mechanism effectively reduces
unnecessary searches in the later stages of the algorithm, enhancing its computational
efficiency. Based on this improved heuristic function, the algorithm can better balance local
and global information when selecting the next node, helping to enhance the goal-oriented
nature of the search. This improvement not only increases the search efficiency of the
algorithm but also significantly enhances the smoothness of the planned path. In addition,
Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 13 of 32

angleSiT can further improve the path quality. Specifically, the angleSiT helps to penalize
excessive turning, promoting smoother and more continuous paths. The inclusion of the
angleSiT improves path smoothness by reducing sharp turns, which enhances the overall
efficiency and stability of the planned trajectory. Moreover, it helps avoid unnecessary
detours, leading to more direct paths.

k−K d − diT
 
δ2 = e∧ − ST (13)
K dST

Figure 12. Calculation method of angleSiT .

4.5. Adjusting the Global Pheromone Update Mechanism

In global path planning problems, the pheromone update mechanism of the traditional
ACO algorithm optimizes ant search behavior by dynamically adjusting path selection
probabilities. This mechanism is primarily controlled by two key parameters: the evapora-
tion coefficient ρ, and the pheromone intensity coefficient Q. The evaporation coefficient ρ
suppresses the algorithm’s tendency to become trapped in local optima, while the intensity
coefficient Q enhances the attractiveness of effective paths. However, the static nature of
these two parameters in traditional ACO may limit the algorithm’s overall performance.
As the iteration process progresses, excessive pheromone concentrations may accumulate
on advantageous paths, causing more ants to favor these high-concentration paths. This
phenomenon can significantly reduce the algorithm’s global search capability and increase
the risk of becoming trapped in local optimal solutions. To overcome these limitations and
enhance the algorithm’s robustness, this study proposes a method for dynamically adjust-
ing the evaporation coefficient ρ and pheromone intensity Q. This method is implemented
through Equations (14) and (15), aiming to maintain a balance between exploitation of
known good solutions and exploration of the search space, which improves the algorithm’s
ability to find global optimal solutions.
(  
′ ρ 1 + Kk , 0 ≤ k < 0.8K
ρ = (14)
ρ, 0.8K ≤ k ≤ K
(  
′ Q ∗ e∧ K ∗− 4k
ln( M )
, 0 ≤ k < 0.8K
Q = (15)
Q, 0.8K ≤ k ≤ K
In the initial and intermediate stages of the algorithm, as the iteration count k in-
′
creases, the improved evaporation coefficient ρ exhibits an increasing trend while the
′
improved intensity value Q demonstrates a decreasing trend. This dynamic adjustment
mechanism gradually reduces the pheromone levels during the path planning process,
thereby encouraging the ant colony to explore new solution spaces and enhancing the
algorithm’s global search capability. In the later stages of the algorithm, where the global
optimal path has been successfully identified, the pheromone intensity and evaporation
rate remain constant; this prompts the ant colony to favor the paths with higher pheromone
Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 14 of 32

concentrations, accelerating the algorithm’s convergence. Figures 13 and 14 respectively

′ ′
illustrate the variation trends of the ρ and Q parameters.

′
Figure 13. Range of variation of ρ .

′
Figure 14. Range of variation of Q .

In path planning applications utilizing ACO, the max–min ant system (MMAS)
prevents the algorithm from converging to local optima by constraining the range of
pheromone concentrations. Specifically, the MMAS imposes upper and lower bounds on
the pheromone concentration τij (k) for each edge, ensuring that the updated pheromone
levels remain within the interval [τmin , τmax ]. This strategy mitigates excessive pheromone
accumulation on certain paths, thereby enhancing the diversity of the search space and
reducing the occurrence of local optima. This constraint is expressed in Equation (16):

τmin ≤ τij (k ) ≤ τmax (16)

where τmin and τmax denote the minimum and maximum pheromone concentrations,
respectively. Drawing from previous experimental findings, the calculation of τmax and
τmin can be enhanced by incorporating iterative patterns and historical performance [35].
Equation (17) presents an improved formulation for computing τmax and τmin :
( dST
τmax =
(2−ρ′ )∗ Lbest (17)
τmin = τmax
N

in which Lbest represents the minimal path length attained by an ant over k iterations. As
demonstrated in Equation (17), incorporating the pheromone evaporation coefficient and
optimal path length under the current iteration enhances the convergence efficiency of the
ACO algorithm. This modification provides more effective guidance for node selection by
individual ant colonies. Furthermore, integrationg dST enhances the adaptability of τmax ; in
Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 15 of 32

scenarios where dST is substantial, indicating an expansive path search domain, the value
of τmax can be augmented to broaden the exploration space.
By adjusting the state transition probability and the global pheromone update mech-
anism, it is possible to get rid of the local minimum and increase effective exploration.
′
Specifically, adaptive adjustment of the evaporation coefficient ρ and pheromone intensity
′
Q encourages continual exploration during the early stages of the algorithm, preventing
early stagnation. Additionally, resampling the adaptive variable ε at each iteration allows
for a dynamic balance between deterministic (greedy) and probabilistic (explorative) selec-
tion, helping to avoid convergence to suboptimal solutions. Moreover, the transition criteria
based on the current iteration k, with the threshold set at 0.8K (where K is the total number
of iterations), have been experimentally validated; this adaptive threshold promotes a
gradual shift from exploration to exploitation, enhancing the algorithm’s ability to escape
local minima. The combination of these strategies significantly improves the algorithm’s
robustness and ensures effective exploration, leading to higher-quality global solutions.

4.6. Multi-Objective Function Evaluation Index

In order to obtain a more accurate and effective solution, this study reformulates
the path planning problem as a multi-objective optimization problem. We selected four
key indicators as evaluation criteria: path length, safety, energy consumption, and time
complexity. These indicators collectively constitute the constraints for multi-objective
optimization of mobile robots, reflecting critical aspects such as path efficiency, reliability,
energy efficiency, and computational performance [36]. Utilizing the TurtleBot3-Burger as
the experimental platform, we conducted an in-depth analysis of these evaluation indicators
to quantify the algorithm’s performance in practical application scenarios.
(1) Path Length Evaluation Index
Path length is a critical performance metric for mobile robots, as its value directly
affects both the movement efficiency of the robot and the time required to complete tasks.
The path length is shown in Equations (18) and (19):

n −1
L= ∑ d ( p i , p i +1 ) (18)
i =1
q
d ( p i , p i +1 ) = ( x i +1 − x i )2 + ( y i +1 − y i )2 (19)

where L represents the length of the path, n is the number of points on the path, pi ( xi , yi )
and pi+1 ( xi+1 , yi+1 ) are adjacent points on the path, and d( pi , pi+1 ) denotes the distance
between these adjacent points. In a grid map, if the movement between pi and pi+1 is
√
horizontal or vertical, then d( pi , pi+1 ) = 1; if it is diagonal, then d( pi , pi+1 ) = 2.
(2) Safety Evaluation Index
Safety can be reflected in the reliability of the path by quantifying the distance between
the robot and obstacles. This metric aims to ensure that the robot remains as far away
from obstacles as possible, achieving a collision-free path. Safety is directly related to the
distance between the robot and the nearest obstacle. The calculation of the safety index is
shown in Equations (20)–(23):
(
1, i f pi is dangerous
D ( pi ) = (20)
0, i f pi is sa f e

n
D path = ∑ D ( pi ) (21)
i =1
Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 16 of 32

n
∑ Dmin
i =1
S= (22)
D path + ϖ
q
Dmin = ( x o − x i )2 + ( y o − y i )2 (23)

where Dpath represents the number of hazardous grid cells along the path, S denotes the
overall safety metric, and Dmin is the minimum distance between each point on the path
and the nearest obstacle. In addition, ϖ is a very small parameter to avoid D path being 0,
while ( xo , yo ) is the coordinate value of the obstacle closest to pi .
(3) Energy Consumption Evaluation Index
Energy consumption evaluation plays a crucial role in path planning, directly impact-
ing the endurance of mobile robots. This study considers the path length, path angular
variation, and turning frequency as the primary influencing factors, while also accounting
for the energy consumption required for rotation during the motion of the TurtleBot3-
Burger robot. The comprehensive energy consumption indicator can be represented by
Equations (24)–(28):

n −1
E = E L + µ1 ∗ ∑ |ϕi+1 − ϕi | + µ2 ∗ Nturn + Eθ (24)
i =2

EL = U ∗ I ∗ t L (25)
y i +1 − y i
ϕi+1 = arctan (26)
x i +1 − x i
y i − y i −1
ϕi = arctan (27)
x i − x i −1
Eθ = P ∗ tθ (28)

in which E represents the total energy consumption, where EL is the energy consumed
due to the path length, U is the voltage, I is the current, and t L is the motion time with
n −1
t L = L/v, where v is the linear velocity. In addition, ∑ |ϕi+1 − ϕi | is defined as the angle
i =2
change between adjacent path segments ϕi+1 and ϕi , Nturn represents the total number
of turns along the path, µ1 and µ2 are the respective weight coefficients of the path angle
change and number of turns, Eθ represents the rotational energy consumption, P is the
rotational power, and tθ is the rotation time, calculated as tθ = θ/w, where θ is the rotation
angle and ω is the angular velocity.
(4) Time Complexity Evaluation Index
In global path planning for mobile robots based on ACO, the algorithm’s time com-
plexity is primarily determined by the path generation time, which depends on both the
initialization of the state matrix parameters and the path exploration process [37].
The state matrix initialization time can be expressed as follows:
   
T1 = O t0 + S2 ∗ t1 + M ∗ t2 + t3 ∗ S = O S2 (29)

where S is the dimensionality of the space and M is the number of ants. The assumed
initialization time for the algorithm’s information parameters is denoted as t0 , while the
time required to initialize the pheromone matrix is S2 ∗ t1 , the initialization time for each
ant is M ∗ t2 , and the time to initialize the path states is t3 ∗ S.
The time of the path exploration phase can be expressed as follows:
Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 17 of 32

h i h i
T2 = O ( M ∗ f (S)) + t4 + ( M − 1)t5 + 8 ∗ t6 + t7 + t8 + t9 + M ∗ t10 + S2 ∗ t1 = O S2 + f (S) (30)

where K is the maximum number of iterations, M ∗ f (S) is the time to calculate the fitness
function, t4 is the time to select the optimal individual, ( M − 1) ∗ t5 is the time to replace
the final individual in the iteration, 8 ∗ t6 is the time to compute the next potential grid
point on the path, t7 is the computation time for the improved state transition function, t8
is the dynamic adjustment time for pheromone evaporation rate and intensity, and t9 is the
time to generate random numbers. The time required to select the next node position is
M ∗ t10 , and the time to update the pheromone is S2 ∗ t1 .
In summary, the time T of the algorithm can be expressed as
h i
T = T1 + T2 = O S2 + f (S) . (31)

In the application of path planning for the TurtleBot3-Burger robot, multiple perfor-
mance indicators exhibit complex interactions and potential conflicts, forming a multidi-
mensional optimization problem. Specifically, four key indicators are mutually constraining,
namely, the path length, energy consumption, safety, and time complexity, constituting a
highly coupled system. For instance, while the shortest path may minimize time, it could
lead to increased energy consumption and reduced safety; conversely, overemphasizing
safety might extend path length, thereby increasing both energy consumption and time.
Consequently, the path optimization process requires a method capable of dynamically
balancing these competing objectives. To address this multi-objective optimization problem,
this study proposes a weighted comprehensive evaluation method. The proposed method
can be represented by the following formula:

1
R = h L ∗ L + hS ∗ + hE ∗ E + hT ∗ T (32)
S

where h L , hS , h E , and h T represent the weight coefficients for the four key performance
indicators. This weighted combination method provides a flexible framework capable of
effectively handling the complex interrelationships and potential conflicts among various
indicators. The determination of weight coefficients is a crucial parameter tuning process,
typically based on the specific characteristics of the robot’s working environment, the
particular requirements of the task, and the associated constraints.
By adjusting the weight coefficients, this method can flexibly balance different perfor-
mance indicators according to the requirements of specific application scenarios, including
the path length, energy consumption, and safety. This customizability allows for precise
tuning of the weights based on the characteristics of the TurtleBot3-Burger and its opera-
tional environment, thereby adapting to diverse task requirements. This multi-objective
optimization approach provides a more comprehensive and flexible solution for robot
path planning in complex environments, with the potential to significantly enhance the
overall performance of the TurtleBot3-Burger across various application scenarios. There-
fore, the robot’s path planning problem can be formalized as a constrained multi-objective
optimization problem, expressed as follows:

1
minR = min(h L ∗ L + hS ∗ + h E ∗ E + h T ∗ T ), (33)
S

Algorithm 1 provides the pseudocode for IEACO, while the IEACO flowchart is shown
in Figure 15.
Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 18 of 32

Algorithm 1 Process based on IEACO

Input: initialize the parameters, such as K, M, α, β, Q, and ρ, as well as the heuristic
information matrix, path matrix, and pheromone concentration;
1: Build a grid map environment model;
2: Initialize the parameters and build the start grid S and the target grid T;
′
3: τ (initial ) = D ∗ n
8 ∗ τ (initial ); D = e∧ (−diT ) ∗ dST , d ≥ 1;
4: Arrange all ants at the designated start point S to initiate the path planning process;
5: for k=1 to K do
6: for m=1 to M do
7: while ant m does not arrive at the target grid T do
′ ′
8: Optimize the exponents α and β ;
′
   ′  
9: α = α 11 − 10 ∗ e∧ − Kk , β = β ∗ e∧ − Kk ;
10: Implement the heuristic mechanism with target information and angle;
1
11: ηij = δ1 dij +δ2 diT + angleSiT ;

12: Select thenext optional grid by state transition probability;


 pijm (k) , 0 ≤ ε < ε0
13: Gijm (k) = 
 α′   β′

 argmax τij (k)
 ηij (k) , ε0 ≤ ε ≤ 1
14: end while
15: if All the ants have successfully reached the target grid T then
16: Update global pheromone on all effective paths;
     
ρ 1 + k , 0 ≤ k < 0.8K  Q ∗ e∧ −4k , 0 ≤ k < 0.8K
′ K ′ K ∗ln( M)
17: ρ = ,Q = , τmin ≤
 ρ, 0.8K ≤ k ≤ K  Q, 0.8K ≤ k ≤ K

τmax =
 dST
τij (k) ≤ τmax , (2−ρ′ )∗ Lbest
τmin = τmax


N
18: end if
19: end for
20: end for
Output: The final optimal path;

In general, compared with traditional ACO, the innovations of this paper are as follows:
(1) a non-uniform initial pheromone distribution to enhance search efficiency; (2) an adaptive
ε-greedy state transition mechanism that effectively balances exploration and exploitation;
(3) dynamic adjustment of the α and β exponents to improve adaptability to varying con-
ditions; (4) a multi-objective heuristic function that considers both distance and turning
penalties, guiding the search towards smoother paths; (5) an adaptive global pheromone
update mechanism that ensures continued exploration while focusing on promising paths;
and (6) transformation into a multi-objective optimization problem, optimizing not only path
length but also safety, energy consumption, and computational efficiency.
Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 19 of 32

Figure 15. Flowchart of IEACO.

5. Simulation and Experimental Analysis

In this section, the performance advantages of IEACO in global path planning of mo-
bile robots are validated through systematic simulations and experiment. Four simulations
are employed to validate the effectiveness of each improvement integrated into the pro-
posed approach, the robustness of IEACO under varying complexity levels on 20 × 20 grid
maps, the algorithm’s performance on larger 30 × 30 grid maps, and its performance ad-
vantages compared to other well-known methods. In addition, the experimental evaluation
is implemented on the robot operating system (ROS) platform using a TurtleBot3-Burger
mobile robot, and comparative studies with commonly used path planning algorithms in
practical engineering applications are conducted to validate the performance advantages
of IEACO in real-world scenarios.

5.1. Simulation I
To validate the effectiveness of the proposed improvement methods, this study pro-
gressively combined these methods with traditional ACO in order to construct a series of
algorithm variants, sequentially named ACO-1, ACO-2, ACO-3, ACO-4, and IEACO (as
shown in Table 2). The simulation was conducted in a 20 × 20 grid map testing environment
containing multiple obstacle traps, as illustrated in Figure 16. In the figure, the start point
S and target point T are marked with red and blue pentagrams with grid coordinates at
(0.5,19.5) and (19.5,0.5), respectively, corresponding to grid indices 1 and 400. The initial
parameter settings for each algorithm variant are presented in Table 3.
Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 20 of 32

Table 2. Improvement methods for the different ACO variants.

Improving the Methods of ACO Variants

Traditional ACO ACO
ACO with the improvement method proposed in Section 4.1
ACO-1
(Non-uniform distribution of initial pheromone)
ACO with the improvement methods proposed in Sections 4.1 and 4.2
(Non-uniform distribution of initial pheromone) ACO-2
(State transition probability improved by the ε-greedy strategy)
ACO with the improvement methods proposed in Sections 4.1–4.3
(Non-uniform distribution of initial pheromone)
ACO-3
(State transition probability improved by the ε-greedy strategy)
(Optimization of the exponents α and β)
ACO with the improvement methods proposed in Sections 4.1–4.4
(Non-uniform distribution of initial pheromone)
(State transition probability improved by the ε-greedy strategy) ACO-4
(Optimization of the exponents α and β)
(Multi-objective heuristic function)
ACO with the improvement methods proposed in Sections 4.1–4.5
(Non-uniform distribution of initial pheromone)
(State transition probability improved by the ε-greedy strategy)
IEACO
(Optimization of the exponents α and β)
(Multi-objective heuristic function)
(Adjusting the global pheromone update mechanism)

Table 3. Parameter settings of the traditional ACO algorithm and variants.

Algorithm M K α β Q ρ
ACO 50 100 1 7 1 1
′ ′ ′ ′
Variants 50 100 α β Q ρ

Considering the stochastic characteristics of intelligent optimization algorithms, solu-

tions obtained from single searches may exhibit fluctuations; therefore, this study employs
statistical metrics for performance evaluation, with each algorithm independently executed
ten times to solve an identical path planning problem. The optimal paths obtained by each
algorithm and their convergence curves are shown in Figures 16 and 17, respectively, with
detailed performance comparison results summarized in Table 4.

Figure 16. Optimal paths obtained by the six algorithms.

Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 21 of 32

Figure 17. Convergence iteration curves of the six algorithms.

Table 4. Simulation results of the ACO algorithm and variants.

Algorithm Optimal Path Length Average Path Length Number of Convergence Iterations Number of Turns
ACO 33.556 34.675 - 11
ACO-1 31.798 33.986 72 8
ACO-2 31.213 33.142 31 5
ACO-3 29.799 31.053 23 6
ACO-4 29.799 29.799 18 3
IEACO 29.799 29.799 9 2

The simulation results demonstrate the progressive performance improvement of the

ACO through sequential enhancements in path planning. Initially, the introduction of
non-uniform initial pheromone distribution (ACO-1) reduces the optimal path length from
33.556 to 31.798, decreases the average path length from 34.675 to 33.986, and improves
path smoothness by reducing the number of turns from 11 to 8.
Further enhancement of the state transition probability (ACO-2) continues to improve
algorithm performance, reducing the optimal path length to 31.213, lowering the average
path length to 33.142, and significantly improving convergence speed (from 72 to 31) while
further reducing the number of turns to 5. Subsequently, optimization of pheromone
and heuristic function exponents (ACO-3) notably enhances path planning capability,
reducing the optimal path length to 29.799, lowering the average path length to 31.053, and
decreasing the number of iterations to convergence to 23.
With the improved heuristic function (ACO-4), the algorithm shows significantly
enhanced stability, achieving consistency between average and optimal path lengths (both
29.799), further improving the convergence speed to 18 iterations, and reducing the number
of turns to 3. Finally, through the improved pheromone evaporation mechanism (IEACO),
the algorithm’s performance reaches optimality, maintaining the optimal path length
(29.799) and solution stability while improving the convergence speed to only 9 iterations
and achieving the minimum number of turns at 2.
These simulation results clearly demonstrate the performance enhancement contribu-
tion of each improvement step. From the initial ACO to the final IEACO, the algorithm
achieves significant improvements through its non-uniform initial pheromone distribu-
tion, state transition probability optimization, adjustment of the pheromone and heuristic
function exponents, improved heuristic function, and pheromone evaporation mechanism
optimization, improving the key metrics of path length, convergence speed, and path
smoothness to develop a superior path planning algorithm.

5.2. Simulation II
In this section, the performance of IEACO is evaluated through comparative simula-
tions with IAACO [38]. The simulations are conducted in two 20 × 20 spatial environment
Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 22 of 32

models, consistent with the configurations reported in the literature [38]. The start point
S (denoted by a red pentagram) and target point T (denoted by a blue pentagram) are
positioned at indices 1 (top-left corner) and 400 (bottom-right corner) of the environmental
model, respectively.
The algorithmic parameters employed in the simulations are summarized in Table 5. To
ensure experimental consistency, common parameters are maintained across ACO, IACO,
IAACO, and IEACO at identical values (e.g., M = 50, K = 100). Algorithm-specific param-
eters in IACO and IAACO, such as the angle guidance factor weight coefficient (λ) and
adjustment coefficient (k), are set to their optimal values as reported in the literature [38].
The comparative results for both spatial environments are presented in Tables 6 and 7,
with the detailed optimal path planning and optimal path convergence of simple map
outcomes shown in Figures 18 and 19. The algorithms’ optimal path planning and optimal
path convergence characteristics of complex map are depicted in Figures 20 and 21.

Table 5. Parameter settings for ACO, IACO, IAACO, and IEACO.

Algorithm M K λ k α β δ1 δ2 Rs δ0 Q KL KS KE ρ
ACO 50 100 7 0.9 1 7 0.1 0.9 0.5 0.15 2.5 0.7 0.1 0.2 0.2
IACO 50 100 7 0.9 1 7 0.1 0.9 0.5 0.15 2.5 0.7 0.1 0.2 -
IAACO 50 100 7 0.9 1 7 0.1 0.9 0.5 0.15 2.5 0.7 0.1 0.2 -
′ ′ ′ ′
IEACO 50 100 - - α β - - - - Q - - - ρ

The simulation results demonstrate that the proposed IEACO exhibits significant
advantages across all performance metrics. In terms of path length, IEACO achieves the
optimal path length (29.78), outperforming traditional ACO (33.56) and surpassing IACO
(32.00) and IAACO (29.80). Notably, IEACO demonstrates perfect stability in repeated
experiments with a path length standard deviation of 0, which is significantly superior to
the other three algorithms. Regarding convergence performance, both IEACO and IAACO
exhibit excellent convergence speeds, achieving optimal solutions within 5 iterations, with
the average convergence iterations (6.5 and 6.4, respectively) being comparable. This
performance significantly surpasses that of IACO (best: 6, average: 9.8) and traditional
ACO (best: 14, average: 23.1). It is worth noting that IEACO maintains rapid convergence
while ensuring solution stability. In terms of path smoothness, IEACO generates paths with
6 turns; although slightly higher than IACO’s 4, this result is superior to IAACO’s 8 and
ACO’s 12. Considering IEACO’s significant advantages in path length and convergence
performance, this minor increase in the number of turns represents an acceptable trade-off.
A comprehensive comparison indicates that IEACO achieves the shortest path length,
fastest convergence speed, and most stable algorithmic performance while maintaining a
relatively low number of turns, demonstrating comprehensive advantages in path planning
problems. Compared to the other three algorithms, IEACO achieves optimal or near-
optimal levels in key indicators such as solution quality, convergence efficiency, and stability,
providing a more efficient and reliable solution for path planning problems.

Table 6. Statistical results of ACO, IACO, IAACO, and IEACO on the simple map.

Path Length Number of Convergence Iterations

Algorithm Number of Turns
Optimal Path Mean Std. Best Mean Std.
ACO 33.56 36.609 3.4189 14 23.1 6.789 12
IACO 32.00 33.22 0.9938 6 9.8 3.3407 4
IAACO 29.80 30.122 0.3953 5 6.4 1.0168 8
IEACO 29.78 29.78 0 5 6.5 1.0243 6
Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 23 of 32

Figure 18. Optimal paths of the four algorithms on the simple map.

Figure 19. Convergence iteration curves of the four algorithms on the simple map.

The simulation results in the complex map environment further validate the superior
performance of IEACO. Regarding path length, both IEACO and IAACO achieve the
optimal path length of 28.63, representing major reductions compared to ACO (31.80) and
IACO (32.00). Notably, IEACO demonstrates perfect stability across multiple experiments
(standard deviation of 0); despite achieving the same optimal path length, IAACO shows a
standard deviation of 0.7497, indicating IEACO’s unique advantage in solution stability.
In terms of convergence performance, IEACO and IAACO again demonstrate significant
advantages, both achieving optimal solutions within 3 iterations, with average convergence
iterations of 4.5 and 4.0, respectively. This performance substantially surpasses that of
IACO (average 9.3) and the traditional ACO algorithm (average 27.4), demonstrating that
the improved algorithms maintain efficient convergence characteristics even in a more
complex environment. Regarding path smoothness, both IEACO and IAACO produce
solutions with 7 turns, showing significant improvement over IACO’s 9 and ACO’s 17. This
indicates that IEACO can find the shortest path in complex environment while maintaining
good path smoothness.

Table 7. Statistical results of ACO, IACO, IAACO, and IEACO on the complex map.

Path Length Number of Convergence Iterations

Algorithm Number of Turns
Optimal Path Mean Std. Best Mean Std.
ACO 31.80 33.764 2.9262 17 27.4 5.5353 17
IACO 32.00 33.26 0.8294 6 9.3 3.6069 9
IAACO 28.63 29.505 0.7497 3 4 0.8944 7
IEACO 28.63 28.63 0 3 4.5 1.3512 7
Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 24 of 32

Figure 20. Optimal paths of the four algorithms on the complex map.

Figure 21. Convergence iteration curves of the four algorithms on the complex map.

5.3. Simulation III

In this section, IEACO’s performance is evaluated on a 30×30 grid map through a
comparative analysis with S-IACO [39]. The environmental model from S-IACO [39] is
precisely replicated to ensure experimental validity, as illustrated in Figure 22. The start
point S (denoted by a red pentagram) and target point T (denoted by a blue pentagram) are
positioned at indices 1 (top-left corner) and 900 (bottom-right corner). To establish statistical
significance, ten independent simulation experiments were conducted for each algorithm.
The algorithmic parameters for both S-IACO and IEACO were configured according to the
optimal values reported in [39], as detailed in Table 8.

Table 8. Parameter settings for S-IACO and IEACO.

Algorithm M K α β Q ρ ξ
S-IACO 50 100 1 7 2 2 0.5
′ ′ ′ ′
IEACO 50 100 α β Q ρ -

Table 9 shows the results of the four algorithms in ten simulations, including the path
length and number of convergence iterations. Figures 22 and 23 present the optimal results
of the simulations. These results demonstrate the significant advantages of IEACO in terms
of two key metrics, namely, convergence performance and path planning quality. Regarding
convergence iterations, IEACO exhibits exceptional stability and efficiency, maintaining
consistent convergence within 20 iterations across all ten experiments. In contrast, the
other algorithms show notably slower convergence rates; PSO requires an average of
46 iterations (range: 45–48), GA requires an average of 50 iterations (range: 47–53), and
S-IACO requires an average of 40 iterations (range: 38–42). This demonstrates IEACO’s
significant advantage in convergence speed. In terms of path length, IEACO consistently
maintains an optimal path length of 44.52, achieving the same optimization level as S-IACO.
Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 25 of 32

This result significantly outperforms PSO (53.29) and GA (54.63). Notably, both IEACO
and S-IACO achieve shorter paths while maintaining completely consistent path lengths
across all ten simulations, demonstrating exceptional solution stability. Comprehensive
analysis indicates that IEACO maintains the optimal path length while achieving faster
convergence, demonstrating the significant advantages of our proposed improvements. The
simulation results validate IEACO’s comprehensive superiority over traditional intelligent
optimization algorithms (PSO and GA) and improved ant colony algorithm (S-IACO) in
path planning problems, particularly in terms of stable convergence characteristics and
path optimization capability.

Table 9. Statistical results of PSO, GA, S-IACO, and IEACO.

Number of Convergence Iterations Path Length

Algorithm PSO GA S-IACO IEACO PSO GA S-IACO IEACO
1 45 51 39 20 53.29 54.63 44.52 44.52
2 47 50 39 20 53.29 54.63 44.52 44.52
3 47 51 40 20 53.29 54.63 44.52 44.52
4 46 49 38 20 53.29 54.63 44.52 44.52
5 45 48 42 20 53.29 54.63 44.52 44.52
6 47 53 40 20 53.29 54.63 44.52 44.52
7 48 53 41 20 53.29 54.63 44.52 44.52
8 45 47 38 20 53.29 54.63 44.52 44.52
9 45 50 42 20 53.29 54.63 44.52 44.52
10 46 51 40 20 53.29 54.63 44.52 44.52
Average 46 50 40 20 53.29 54.63 44.52 44.52

Figure 22. Optimal paths of S-IACO, PSO, GA, and IEACO.

Figure 23. Convergence iteration curves of S-IACO, PSO, GA, and IEACO.
Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 26 of 32

5.4. Simulation IV
In this section, IEACO’s performance is evaluated through a comparative analysis
with HGA-ACO [40] and MAACO [41]. The simulation utilizes a 20 × 20 spatial envi-
ronment model, consistent with the configurations employed in the HGA-ACO [40] and
MAACO [41] studies. As illustrated in Figures 24 and 25, the start point S (denoted by a red
pentagram) and target point T (denoted by a blue pentagram) are positioned at coordinates
(0.5, 0.5) and (19.5, 19.5), corresponding to indices 381 and 20, respectively. To maintain
the relative accuracy of the different algorithms’ results, the common parameters of the
different algorithms were set to be consistent and the different parameters were set to their
respective optimal values. The specific parameter settings are shown in Table 10. Based on
the grid map spatial environment model, we independently ran each algorithm 20 times.

Figure 24. Optimal paths of HGA-ACO, GA, ACO, and IEACO.

Figure 25. Optimal paths of the MAACO, Dijkstra, A*, and IEACO algorithms.

Table 10. Parameter settings for ACO, HGA-ACO, MAACO, and IEACO.

Algorithm M K α β Q ρ Pc Pm a b A B Nc whmax whmin q0−initial

ACO 50 100 1 7 1 0.3 - - - - - - - - - -
HGA-ACO 50 100 1 7 1 0.3 0.8 0.2 1 7 0 100 100 - - -
MAACO 50 100 1 7 1 0.3 - - 1 - - - - 0.9 0.2 0.5
′ ′ ′ ′
IEACO 50 100 α β Q ρ - - - - - - - - - -

The simulation results (Table 11) demonstrate the comprehensive performance advan-
tages of the IEACO algorithm when compared with the other six. Regarding path length,
IEACO achieves an optimal path length of 28.63, comparable to HGA-ACO, A*, Dijkstra,
and MAACO and superior to GA (30.63) and ACO (29.46). Notably, IEACO, A*, Dijkstra,
and MAACO demonstrate perfect path length stability, with standard deviations of zero.
In terms of convergence performance, IEACO exhibits optimal convergence characteristics,
achieving the optimal solution in just six iterations, with an average convergence of 6.6 and
a small standard deviation of 0.1243. This performance significantly surpasses the other
iterative algorithms, including GA (36), HGA-ACO (10), ACO (65), and MAACO (best: 7,
average: 8.5, standard deviation: 0.2036). Regarding path smoothness, IEACO achieves
Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 27 of 32

seven turns, equivalent to A* and MAACO and superior to the others (Dijkstra: 9, ACO: 11,
HGA-ACO: 8, GA: 16). This indicates that IEACO maintains good path smoothness while
ensuring shortest path optimization. In conclusion, the simulation results demonstrate that
IEACO achieves optimal or near-optimal performance across the three key metrics of path
length optimality, convergence speed, and path smoothness. In particular, IEACO shows
distinct advantages in convergence performance while maintaining high solution stability,
validating its comprehensive superiority in path planning problems.

Table 11. Statistical data of the seven algorithms.

Path Length Number of Convergence Iterations

Algorithm Number of Turns
Optimal Path Mean Std. Best Mean Std.
GA 30.63 - - 36 - - 16
HGA-ACO 28.63 - - 10 - - 8
ACO 29.46 29.46 0 65 - - 11
A* 28.63 28.63 0 - - - 7
Dijkstra 28.63 28.63 0 - - - 9
MAACO 28.63 28.63 0 7 8.5 0.2036 7
IEACO 28.63 28.63 0 6 6.6 0.1243 7

5.5. Experiment
To validate the effectiveness of IEACO in real-world environments, we designed a
physical experiment based on the TurtleBot3-Burger mobile robot platform, as shown in
Figure 26. The TurtleBot3-Burger is an open-source platform that is widely used in robotics
research, providing an ideal experimental vehicle for this study thanks to its modular
design and rich sensor configuration. Integrating the proposed IEACO algorithm into the
ROS control system of the TurtleBot3-Burger mobile robot allowed us to directly compare
the performance differences between our proposed algorithm and existing methods on
actual hardware.

Figure 26. Turtlebot3-Burger.

The positions of the start point and target point in the experimental setup are shown
in Figure 27; the red pentagram represents the start point, while the blue pentagram marks
the target point. To comprehensively evaluate the performance of IEACO in engineering ap-
plications, we selected the widely used A* and Dijkstra algorithms for this study. Through
comparative analysis with these two benchmark algorithms, the advantages of IEACO
over widely-used path planning algorithms can be systematically evaluated in terms of
key metrics such as path length and number of turns. This comparison also highlights the
potential value of IEACO in practical engineering applications.
To ensure the statistical significance and reliability of the results, each algorithm was
independently executed five times in each experimental scenario. Table 12 summarizes
the performance metrics for each algorithm across the five experiments, including key
parameters such as path length and number of turns. Additionally, Figures 28–30 presents
the optimal paths generated by each algorithm, facilitating intuitive comparison. The side
length of each grid is 0.05 m.
Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 28 of 32

Figure 27. Real-world experimental environment.

Table 12. Experimental results of the IEACO, A*, and Dijkstra algorithms.

Path Length
Algorithm Number of Turns
Optimal Path Mean Std
IEACO 3.51 3.51 0 6
A* 3.56 3.65 0.075 10
Dijkstra 3.62 3.73 0.095 16

Figure 28. Optimal path of IEACO algorithm.

Figure 29. Optimal path of A* algorithm.

Figure 30. Optimal path of Dijkstra algorithm.

The experimental results demonstrate that IEACO outperforms the traditional A* and
Dijkstra algorithms across all key performance metrics. Regarding path length, IEACO
achieves the shortest optimal path length of 3.51m, superior to both A* (3.56 m) and Dijkstra
(3.62 m). More significantly, IEACO exhibits perfect stability across multiple experiments,
with a path length standard deviation of 0, while the A* and Dijkstra algorithms show
Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 29 of 32

respective standard deviations of 0.075 and 0.095 and mean path lengths of 3.65 and 3.73.
In terms of path smoothness, IEACO requires only six turns to complete path planning,
significantly outperforming A* with 10 and Dijkstra with 16. This indicates that IEACO not
only finds shorter paths but also generates smoother motion trajectories. Comprehensive
analysis shows that IEACO demonstrates significant advantages in the two key metrics of
path length optimality and stability as well as in path smoothness, providing a superior
solution for path planning problems. These results conclusively validate the superior
performance of IEACO compared to traditional path planning algorithms.
Our comprehensive results from both simulations and real-world experiment demon-
strate the superior performance of the proposed IEACO algorithm in path planning tasks.
IEACO achieves performance enhancements through optimization of the initial pheromone
distribution strategies, improved state transition probability calculations, and enhance-
ments to the heuristic function and exponents. These innovative improvements work
together to accelerate algorithm convergence while effectively reducing the path length,
number of iterations to convergence, and number of turns. Notably, incorporation of
the dynamic pheromone evaporation mechanism effectively mitigates the problem of the
algorithm becoming trapped in local optima, enhancing IEACO’s capacity to generate the
globally optimal path and significantly improving the solution quality. Our experimen-
tal data indicate that IEACO exhibits significant improvements across key performance
metrics compared to a variety of existing methods. Its innovative enhancements endow
the IEACO algorithm with robust adaptive capabilities and exceptional performance in
global path planning tasks, establishing a solid foundation for its deployment in practical
engineering applications.

6. Conclusions and Future Work

6.1. Conclusions
This paper has presented the intelligently enhanced ant colony optimization algorithm
(IEACO), which is aimed at improving the performance of traditional and colony optimiza-
tion in global path planning for mobile robots. The proposed algorithm incorporates six
key innovations: (1) optimization of the initial pheromone distribution strategy to enhance
early-stage search efficiency; (2) integration of an ε-greedy mechanism to optimize state
transition probability, ensuring a dynamic balance between exploration and exploitation;
(3) introduction of exponential adaptive adjustment strategies to improve the algorithm’s
adaptability across various scenarios; (4) development of a composite heuristic function
that combines target distance and turning angles for enhanced path evaluation accuracy;
(5) design of a dynamic pheromone update mechanism to effectively prevent premature con-
vergence to local optima; and (6) establishment of a multi-objective evaluation framework
to achieve more comprehensive path optimization.
Extensive simulation and experimental evaluations were conducted to validate the
advantages of IEACO. First, simulations on the Matlab platform verified the effectiveness
of the individual improvements incorporated into IEACO. Subsequently, the algorithm’s
computational efficiency and path planning quality were assessed through comparative
analyses with different state-of-the-art algorithms on grid maps of different scales. Addi-
tionally, practical experimental evaluation was carried out using the ROS platform and
a Turtlebot3-Burger mobile robot, demonstrating IEACO’s performance superiority in
real-world applications compared to current path planning algorithms commonly used in
engineering practice.
The results show that IEACO integrates the above improvements into a coherent frame-
work that outperforms traditional ACO in terms of path length, convergence speed, solution
stability, energy consumption, and computational efficiency. The proposed algorithm shows
Sensors 2025, 25, 1326 30 of 32

significant potential for real-world applications such as autonomous navigation in complex

environments, providing a promising approach for mobile robotics.

6.2. Future Work

The simulation and experimental results in this paper demonstrate that IEACO sig-
nificantly outperforms existing algorithms in key performance metrics, including path
length, convergence speed, and planning stability. However, there is still room for further
optimization and extension of this research. First, while the proposed algorithm has shown
promising results, its performance could be further validated in more challenging environ-
ments by increasing the complexity of the experimental scenarios or deploying it on actual
mobile robot platforms in industrial or real-world settings. Second, integrating IEACO with
curve optimization methods such as cubic B-spline curves could help to transform discrete
paths into continuous trajectories that better align with the kinematic characteristics of
mobile robots. Third, combining IEACO with local path planning methods is an important
avenue for future research. This would improve the algorithm’s adaptability in dynamic
and uncertain environments, helping to ensure real-time responsiveness and efficiency
in various application contexts. Future work will also focus on addressing quantitative
analysis of energy consumption and time complexity, where we plan to develop a robotic
experimental platform integrated with multi-dimensional sensors to acquire precise metrics
that will enable more rigorous evaluation and validation.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, D.W.; methodology, P.L. and L.W.; software, L.W.; valida-
tion, P.L. and L.W.; formal analysis, P.L.; resources, P.L.; data curation, P.L. and L.W.; writing—original
draft preparation, P.L. and L.W.; writing—review and editing, P.L., L.W., and D.W.; visualization,
P.L. and L.W.; supervision, P.L. and D.W.; project administration, P.L.; funding acquisition, P.L. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding: This paper is funded by the National Nature Science Foundation of China (Grant No.
61403204), the China Scholarship Council (Grant No. 202308320187), and the Shanghai Pujiang
Program (Grant No. 22PJ1420900).

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement: All data are contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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