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Q1. Define sensor, actuators and transducer
Sensor
A sensor is a device that can detect or measure a physical input (stimulus) from the
environment by converting it into an electrical signal which can be read by an instrument.
Actuators
An actuator is a device that produces a motion by converting energy and signals going into
the system. The sensor generates electrical signals whereas the actuator generates heat or
motion.
Transducer
A transducer is part of the sensor devices that convert one form of energy (an input signal)
to another (an output signal).

Q2. Define Conductometric sensor. Explain the working principle of conductometric

sensor and mention its applications.

Conductometric sensor
A conductivity sensor is a sensor used to measure the conductivity of various solutions or
the concentration of the overall ion in a sample. It is based on the measurement of the specific
conductance of an analyte.
Construction
• A conductometric sensor consists of two inert
metal electrodes.
• Those two electrodes are separated at a certain
fixed distance before applying AC voltage, which
later causes current flow.
• The sensor is immersed in the conductive liquid
which acts as the electrical conductor between the
sensor electrodes.
Working principle
The conductance depends on the mobility of ions as well as the number of ions migrating
between the electrodes. The basic principle of a conductometric sensor involves a reaction
that changes the ionic species concentration. This reaction leads to changes in ionic
concentration as well as the conductance between the electrodes. That affects electrical
conductivity or current flow. The analyzer applies an alternating voltage to the drive coil,
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which induces a voltage in the liquid surrounding the coil. The voltage causes an ionic
current to flow proportional to the conductance of the liquid.
Applications
• Monitoring the quality of human drinking water
• Monitoring the quality of industrial water
• Battery electrolyte density monitoring
• Making devices for producing electrolytic oxygen and hydrogen

Q3. Define optical sensor. Discuss the working principle of optical sensors and mention
its applications.
Optical sensor
An optical sensor is a device that can detect light, typically at a specific range of
electromagnetic spectrum (ultraviolet, visible, and infrared) by converting it into electrical
signals.

Working principle optical sensor

• Transmitter (Light Source): Optical sensors have a light source that emits light. This
source can be an LED (Light-Emitting Diode) or laser diode.
• Interaction with Target: The emitted light interacts with the target or the
environment. This interaction involves reflection, absorption, transmission,
scattering, or diffraction of light by the target.
• Light Detection (Receiver): Optical sensors have a light detector, which can be a
photodiode. The detector can sense the change in the properties of the light.
• Conversion to Electrical Signal: The light detector converts the detected optical
signals into electrical signals. The amount of change in the electrical signal is related
to the properties of the light interacting with the target.
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Applications
• The following are the applications of optical sensors:
• It is used in remote sensing satellite
• Used in imaging
• Quality and Process Control applications
• Metrology
• Medical instruments
Q4. Define thermometric sensor. Discuss the working principle of thermometric sensor and
mention its applications.

Thermometric sensor
A temperature sensor is a device, typically, a thermocouple or resistance temperature
detector, that provides temperature measurement in a readable form through an electrical
signal.
Working principle
The working principle of a thermometric sensor is based on the concept that the physical
properties of materials change with temperature. They are composed of two dissimilar
metals that generate an electrical voltage or resistance when a temperature change occurs
by measuring the voltage across the
diode terminals.
• Thermocouples
In this case, when there is a
temperature gradient between the
measuring junction and reference
junction, a voltage is generated. The
magnitude of this voltage depends on
the temperature difference between
the two junctions and the types of
metals used in the thermocouple.
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• Resistance temperature detector (RTD)

Here, the electrical resistance of certain

metals (mainly used platinum, copper
and Nickel) changes with temperature.
When the temperature of the RTD
changes, the electrical resistance of the
material changes in a repeatable
manner. This change in resistance is
then correlated to the temperature
using calibration curves.

Applications
• Used for verifying design and construction.
• Used to measure the temperature rise during the process of curing concrete.
• They can measure rock temperatures near liquid gas storage tanks
• It can measure water temperatures in reservoirs and boreholes.
• They can also be used to study the temperature effect in the instruments.

Q5. Define electrochemical sensor. Discuss the working principle of electrochemical

sensors and mention its applications.

Electrochemical sensor
An electrochemical sensor is a chemical sensor that measures the concentration of a specific
substance or analyte in a sample by an electrochemical reaction.
Construction

• Working electrode (sensing electrode): electrochemical reaction occurs on the

surface of the sensing electrode.
• Counter electrode: helps to measure the current flow during the electrochemical
reaction.
• Reference electrode: Provide a stable potential against which the working
electrode’s potential is measured.
• Breathable membrane: A gas-permeable membrane is used to control the gas flow
reaching the electrode surface.
• Filter: to filter out the unwanted analyte
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Working principle
The principle of an electrochemical sensor is based on the measurement of electrical signals
generated as a result of electrochemical reactions occurring on the sensor electrode surface.
• The electrical signal will be proportional to the analyte concentration.
• All electrodes act as a transducer to convert the chemical reaction into a measurable
electrical signal.

Applications:
• Widely used in agriculture, food, and oil industries
• Environmental and biomedical applications
• Detection of toxic gases with high selectivity and sensitivity
• Used in water analysis and environmental monitoring

Q6. Explain the working principle electrochemical gas sensors work for the detection
of SOx and NOx.

Construction

• Working electrode (sensing electrode): Gold

• Counter electrode: Platinum
• Reference electrode: Ag/AgCl
• Electrolyte: ionically conducting materials (3-7M H2SO4)
• Membrane: A gas-permeable membrane is used to control the gas flow reaching the
electrode surface.
• Filter: to filter out the unwanted gas
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Working
• The electrodes are separated and immersed in an aqueous medium (electrolyte).
• The gas molecules diffuse through a porous membrane that is placed in contact with
the working electrode.
• In this electrode surface, gas molecules lose electrons after the oxidation process.
• A reduction of oxygen occurs at the counter electrode in electrochemical sensors.
• Electrons move through wires connected to the electrodes and an external circuit.
• Flow of electrons generates an electrical signal proportional to the concentration of
toxic gas.
• The medium provides hydrogen ions (H+) that move through the aqueous solution

Electrochemical reactions for the SO2 and NO gas sensors are:

Working electrode (Anode): SO2 + H2O SO3 + 2 H+ + 2 e-

Counter electrode (Cathode): (1/2) O2 + 2 H+ + 2 e- H2O

Working electrode (Anode): NO + H2O NO2 + 2 H+ + 2 e-

Counter electrode (Cathode): (1/2) O2 + 2 H+ + 2 e- H2O

Q7. Define dissolved oxygen. Explain the application of electrochemical sensor in the
measurement of dissolved oxygen (DO).

Dissolved oxygen
Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to the amount of oxygen gas that is dissolved in water. The
concentration of dissolved oxygen in water can be measured via electrochemical DO sensor.
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Construction

Electrochemical DO sensors mainly use a Clark electrode, which consists of a cathode and
an anode separated by an electrolyte. The anode serves as a reference electrode, providing a
stable potential for the cathode.

• Working electrode (Anode): Lead or Zinc

• Counter electrode (Cathode): Gold or
platinum
• Electrolyte: Aqueous NaOH
• Separator: a thin layer of hydrophobic
material, such as Teflon.

Working

When the Clark electrode is immersed in a liquid

sample, oxygen molecules diffuse through the
hydrophobic layer and react with the cathode
surface, producing a current that is proportional
to the amount of oxygen present in the water.

Anode (Pb): 2Pb ￫ 2Pb2+ + 4e-

Cathode (Ag): O2 + 4e- + 2H2O ￫ 4OH-
Overall reaction: O2 + 2H2O + 2Pb ￫ 2Pb(OH)2

The white solid, Pb(OH)2, that is produced by these reactions is precipitated out into the
electrolyte solution. It neither coats the anode nor consumes the electrolyte, and thus does
not affect the sensor’s performance until the quantity becomes excessive.

Applications

They are widely used in industrial and environmental applications, such as monitoring the
oxygen levels in wastewater treatment plants, fish farms, and drinking water supplies.
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Q8. Explain the detection of a pharmaceutical (diclofenac) and hydrocarbons (1-

Hydroxypyrene) with electrochemical sensor.

PART A: Electrochemical sensor for pharmaceutical (Diclofenac)

Construction

• Working electrode: Carbon coated with MWCNT

• Counter Electrode: Platinum mesh (Pt)
• Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl
• Electrolyte: Aqueous solution of LiCl salt

Working
• When electrochemical sensor is immersed into the sample containing diclofenac drug
compound (pH 7.2), an electrochemical oxidation of diclofenac occurs on the surface
of the working electrode to which a potential is applied with respect to the reference
electrode while the corresponding current is measured.
• The change in potential of the reaction gives the concentration of diclofenac.

PART B: Electrochemical sensor for hydrocarbon (1-hydroxypyrene)

Construction

• Working electrode: PAMAM/Cr-MOF/ERGO

(Polyamidoamine /Cr-based metal organic framework /electrochemically reduced graphene
oxide)
• Counter Electrode: 0.5 mm Platinum (Pt) wire
• Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl
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Working
When electrochemical sensor is immersed into the sample containing 1-Hydroxypyrene,
electrochemical oxidation of 1-Hydroxypyrene occurs on the surface of the sensing
(working) electrode. The change in potential of the reaction gives the concentration of 1-
Hydroxypyrene. The oxidation mechanism for 1-hydropyrene as follow:

Q9. Define disposable sensors. Explain the detection of ascorbic acid (biomolecules)
using disposal sensor.

Disposable sensor

Disposable sensors are low-cost and easy-to-use sensing devices intended for short-term or
rapid single-point measurements.

Construction
• In the disposable strip, all three electrodes (working,
counter electrode and reference) and receptor is
printed on a single platform as shown in the figure.
• An active material is coated on sensing electrode which
can help to perform the electrochemical oxidation of
ascorbic acid.
• The active surfaces of the counter electrode and
working electrode have been coated with a conductive
ink of MWCNT and modified with gold nanoparticles.
• Reference electrode is Ag/AgCl.

Working:
• When the disposable sensor is immersed in the analyte, the analyte diffuses and
adsorbed on the sensing electrode.
• The sensing electrode oxidizes ascorbic acid into dehydroascorbic acid and produces
electric current and it is proportional to the concentration of the ascorbic acid.
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Q10. Define disposable sensors. Explain the detection of glyphosate (pesticides) using
disposal sensor.

Construction
• The sensor is a silicon-based chip comprising of three-electrode system.
• Working Electrode: A gold electrode of 4 mm diameter coated with 200nm thickness
gold nanoparticles.
• Counter electrode: A gold electrode of 4 mm diameter coated with 20nm thickness
gold nanoparticles.
• Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl

Working
• The electrochemical detection is based on the oxidation of Glyphosate on gold
working electrode.
• A potential of 0.78V is applied on working electrode, there is an interaction between
analyte and electrode surface.
• Glyphosate oxidizes on the working electrode brings a change in current in the
electrolyte medium.
• The change in the current is a measure of concentration of Glyphosate
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Q11. Define disposable sensors. Mention its advantages and disadvantages

Disposable sensor

Disposable sensors are low-cost and easy-to-use sensing devices intended for short-term or
rapid single-point measurements.

Advantages

• Cost-effective: no need for expensive cleaning, recalibration, or maintenance

procedures.
• Disposable sensors are biodegradable and sustainable
• Easy to use and fast response times.
• Convenient and time-saving:
• Prevents the contamination of samples
• Reduced the risk of sensor damage

Disadvantages
• Disposable sensors cannot be used multiple times,
• As designed for single-use, their disposal can contribute to environmental pollution
• Not accurate: high precision and accuracy are required
• They have lower sensitivity or detection limits

Q12. Define battery. Explain the construction and working (charging & discharging
reactions) in Lithium-ion batteries. Mention their applications.

Battery
Battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly into electrical energy via
electrochemical oxidation and reduction reaction.

Li-ion battery
Li-ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery that uses lithium ions as the primary carrier
of electric charge. The movement of lithium-ion takes place through the electrolyte from one
electrode to another electrode.
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Construction

• Anode: Lithium intercalated graphite layer (LixC)

• Cathode: Lithium cobalt oxide layer (LiCoO2)
• Electrolyte: Lithium salts like LiCl, LiBr dissolved in propylene carbonate
• Separator: Polyolefin polymer
Working

• Anode reaction: LixC6 xLi+ + xe- + 6C

• Cathode reaction: Li1-xCoO2 + xLi+ + xe- LiCoO2
• Overall reaction: Li1-xCoO2 + LixC6 LiCoO2 + 6C
During discharge, Li+ ions are dissociated from the anode and then migrate from the anode
to cathode through the electrolyte. Electrons travel through an external circuit. This process
creates an electric current that can power a device or system.

During Charging: Li+ ions move from the cathode to the anode through the electrolyte.

Application of Lithium-ion battery

• They are commonly used in smart phones, tablets, laptops

• They are used in medical devices
• They are used in spacecraft and satellites
• They are used in electric cars.
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Q13. Explain the construction and working (charging & discharging reactions) in
sodium ion batteries. Mention their applications.

Na-ion battery
Na-ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery that uses sodium ions as the primary carrier
of electric charge. The movement of sodium-ion takes place through the electrolyte from one
electrode to another electrode.

Construction

• Anode: Sodium interacted Hard carbon

• Cathode: Sodium cobalt oxide layer (NaCoO2)
• Electrolyte: NaPF6 dissolved a mixture of carbonate solvents
• Separator: Polypropylene polymer
Working

• Anode reaction: NaxC6 xNa+ + xe- + 6C

• Cathode reaction: Na1-xCoO2 + xNa+ + xe- NaCoO2
• Overall reaction: Na1-xCoO2 + NaxC6 NaCoO2 + 6C

During discharge, Na+ ions are dissociated from the anode and migrate from the anode to
cathode through the electrolyte. Electrons travel through an external circuit. This process
creates an electric current that can power a device or system.

During Charging: Na+ ions move from the cathode to the anode through the electrolyte.
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Application of Lithium-ion battery

• They are commonly used boats and ships

• They are used in medical devices
• They are used in military and defence
• They are used in electric cars.

Q14. Explain the working principle, properties and applications of quantum dot
sensitized solar cell (QDSSC).

QDSCs

A quantum dot solar cell (QDSC) is a type of solar cell that utilizes quantum dots as a light-
absorbing material to convert sunlight into electricity.

Construction
• Transparent conducting electrode: FTO glass (Fluorine-doped Tin Oxide)
• Transparent Conductive Oxide Layer: TiO2 film
• Quantum dots layer: Light-absorbing semiconductor materials (CdSe or CdS)
• Electrolyte: Polysulphide is used as a redox electrolyte.
• Counter Electrode: used to complete the circuit and helps to generate electricity.

Working
a) Upon absorption of a photon, a quantum dot is excited from the ground state (QDS) to a
higher energy state (QDS*)
Excitation process: QDs + hv → QDs*

b) The absorption process results in the creation of electron-hole pair in the form of the
exciton. Dissociation of the exciton occurs if the thermal energy exceeds its binding energy
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Exciton dissociation: QDs* → e- + h+* (free energy)

c) The excited electron is then injected in the conduction band of the wide bandgap
semiconductor nanostructured TiO2 thin film. This process will cause the oxidation of the
photosensitizer
Injection process: QDs* + TiO2 → TiO2e-* + QDs+

d) The injected electron is transported between the TiO2 nanoparticles, and then gets
extracted to a load where the work done is delivered as electrical energy.

Energy generation: TiO2e-* + C.E → TiO2 + e* (CE)

Properties of QDSC

• Quantum dots have tunable bandgap which allow to absorb light across a broader
spectrum of wavelengths, increasing efficiency.
• Quantum dots can generate multiple excitons from a single high-energy photon,
enhancing the current output compared to traditional solar cells.
• Quantum dots exhibit enhanced light absorption which enabling them to capture
more sunlight than bulk materials.
• Quantum dot solar cells have shown potential for high conversion efficiencies.

QDSCs applications

• It is used as light-emitting Diodes

• It is used as a photoconductor and photodetector
• It is used as a photovoltaic
• It is used in biomedicine and environment.
• It is used in catalysis