2.

6 Summary 47

7) During a single line-to-ground fault, the positive-, the negative-, and the zero-sequence
networks are connected in series.
8) During a line-to-line fault, the positive- and the negative-sequence networks are con-
nected in parallel.
9) During a double line-to-ground fault, the positive-, the negative-, and the zero-
sequence networks are connected in parallel.
10) Positive-sequence impedance of a transmission line is equal to the negative-sequence
impedance of a transmission line. The zero-sequence impedance of a transmission line
is greater than the positive-sequence impedance, typically by a factor of 3.
 49

Fault Location on Transmission Lines

Fault location techniques for transmission lines can be classified into impedance-based
and traveling-wave technologies. Impedance-based algorithms use fundamental frequency
(60 Hz) voltage and current phasors recorded by digital relays, digital fault recorders,
and other intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) during a fault to estimate the apparent
impedance between the IED and location of the short-circuit fault. Given the line
impedance in ohms per unit distance, the apparent impedance can be converted to a
distance estimate. A number of impedance-based fault location algorithms have been
developed for transmission networks. Those that use data captured by an IED at one end
of the line are commonly referred to as one-ended impedance-based algorithms (also
referred to as single-ended impedance-based algorithms), while those using data captured
by IEDs at all ends of a multi-ended transmission line are referred to as multi-ended
impedance-based algorithms.
Traveling-wave fault location algorithms, on the other hand, move away from 60 Hz and
use high frequency traveling waves generated by the fault to determine fault location. Fault
location is based on a very simple concept of physics, velocity equals distance over travel
time. Similar to its counterpart, traveling-wave fault location techniques can also be classi-
fied into single- and double-ended algorithms.
In this chapter, we focus on presenting the underlying theory behind impedance-based
and traveling-wave fault location algorithms. We highlight the motivation behind the devel-
opment of each fault-locating algorithm, define the input data requirement of each algo-
rithm, and identify the strengths and weaknesses of each algorithm. We then work through
exercises based on field events to further solidify our concepts.

3.1 One-Ended Impedance-Based Fault Location Algorithms

One-ended impedance-based fault location algorithms estimate the location of a fault
by looking into a transmission line from only one end [36]. Voltage and current phasors
recorded by a digital relay at one end of the line during a fault are used to determine the
apparent impedance between the relay and the fault. Given the line impedance in ohms,
the per-unit distance to a fault can be easily obtained. The advantages of using one-ended
algorithms are that they are straightforward to implement, yield reasonable location
estimates, and require data from only one end of a line.

Fault Location on Transmission and Distribution Lines: Principles and Applications, First Edition.
Swagata Das, Surya Santoso, and Sundaravaradan N. Ananthan.
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/das/faultlocation
50 3 Fault Location on Transmission Lines

Zapp
EG
Terminal G IGf Fault Point F f
IH Terminal H
EH
abc abc
mZ1 (1-m)Z1
ZGeq, ZGeq ZHeq, ZHeq
1 0 1 0
Relay f Relay
f VF VH
f
VG abc abc
abc
Rf IFf
a

A-G Fault

Figure 3.1 Two-terminal network.

We illustrate the principle of one-ended methods by using the two-terminal network

shown in Figure 3.1. The overhead line between terminals G and H is homogeneous and
has a positive- and zero-sequence impedance of Z1 and Z0 ohms, respectively. Recall from
Chapter 2 that the negative-sequence impedance of the line is equal to the positive-sequence
impedance of the line. The line is LL miles long. The network upstream from terminal G
is represented by an ideal source, EG , in series with an impedance that has positive- and
eq eq
zero-sequence values of ZG and ZG ohms, respectively. The network upstream from ter-
1 0
minal H is also represented by an ideal source, EH , in series with an impedance that has
eq eq
positive- and zero-sequence values of ZH and ZH ohms, respectively.
1 0
When the transmission line experiences an internal A-G fault with a resistance of Rf at m
per unit distance from terminal G, both terminals contribute to the fault. Voltage and cur-
rent phasors recorded by a digital relay at terminal G during the fault on all three phases
f f
are VG volts and IG amperes, respectively. Similarly, the voltage and current phasors
abc abc
f
recorded by a digital relay at terminal H during the fault on all three phases are VH volts
abc
f f
and IH amperes, respectively. Voltage of all three phases at the fault point is VF volts.
abc abc
f f
The total phase current flowing into the fault is IF and is equal to the summation of IG
a a
f
and IH . Because one-ended methods use measurements from only one terminal (termi-
a
f
nal G or terminal H), IF is unknown since the contribution from the other terminal is
a
not known.
Let us calculate the apparent impedance measured by the relay at terminal G during the
fault. Figure 3.2 shows the interconnection of the positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence
networks during the single line-to-ground fault. The positive-sequence voltage phasor at
f
the fault point, VF , can be calculated using the measurements from terminal G as:
1

f f f
VF = VG − mZ1 × IG [V], (3.1)
1 1 1

f
where VG is the positive-sequence voltage phasor measured by the relay at terminal G dur-
1
f
ing the fault in volts and IG is the positive-sequence current phasor recorded by the relay at
1
terminal G during the fault in amperes. The negative-sequence voltage phasor at the fault
f
point, VF , can be written as:
2

f f f
VF = VG − mZ1 × IG [V], (3.2)
2 2 2
 3.1 One-Ended Impedance-Based Fault Location Algorithms 51

f f
VG1 Fault Point F
f
VH 1
f
Terminal G IG 1 IH 1 Terminal H

ZGeq1 mZ1 (1-m)Z1 ZHeq1

f
VF 1
EG Relay Relay EH
+
_

f f
VG2 f f VH 2
IG 2 IH 2
3Rf
ZGeq1 mZ1 (1-m)Z1 Z Heq1
f
VF 2
Relay Relay
+

f
VG0 f f VH 0
f

IG 0 IH 0
ZGeq0 mZ0 (1-m)Z0 ZHeq0
f
Relay VF0 Relay
+

Figure 3.2 Interconnection of sequence networks during the single line-to-ground fault.

f
where VG is the negative-sequence voltage phasor measured by the relay at terminal G
2
f
during the fault in volts and IG is the negative-sequence current phasor recorded by the
2
relay at terminal G during the fault in amperes. The zero-sequence voltage phasor at the
f
fault point, VF , can be expressed as:
0

f f f
VF = VG − mZ0 × IG [V], (3.3)
0 0 0

f
where VG is the zero-sequence voltage phasor measured by the relay at terminal G during
0
f
the fault in volts and IG is the zero-sequence current phasor recorded by the relay at termi-
0
nal G during the fault in amperes. Adding (3.1), (3.2), and (3.3), we get the voltage phasor
f
of the faulted phase at the fault point, VF , as:
a

f f f f
VF = VF + VF+ VF
a 0 ( 2
1 ) (3.4)
f f f f
= VG − mZ1 IG + IG − mZ0 IG [V].
a 1 2 0

f f
To further simplify, we add and subtract term mZ1 IG from (3.4). We also express VF as the
0 a
voltage drop across the fault resistance and get the following:
( )
f f f f f f f
Rf IF = VG − mZ1 IG + IG + IG − mZ0 IG + mZ1 IG . (3.5)
a a 1 2 0 0 0
52 3 Fault Location on Transmission Lines

On rearranging the terms, we get:

f f f ( ) f
VG = mZ1 IG + mIG Z0 − Z1 + Rf IF
a
( a 0
) a
(3.6)
f f f
= mZ1 IG + kIG + Rf IF [V],
a 0 a

where k is the zero-sequence compensation factor and is defined as:

Z0 − Z1
k= . (3.7)
Z1
The apparent impedance measured by the relay at terminal G during the A-G fault, Zapp , is:
f
VG ⎛ f
IF ⎞
Zapp = a
= mZ1 + Rf ⎜ f a ⎟ [Ω]. (3.8)
f
IG + kIG
f ⎜ I + kI f ⎟
a 0 ⎝ Ga G0 ⎠

Generalizing the above equation for all fault types, we get:

( )
V IF
Zapp = G = mZ1 + Rf [Ω], (3.9)
IG IG
where VG and IG are defined in Table 3.1 for all fault types. For single line-to-ground faults,
VG equals the faulted phase voltage and IG equals the summation of the faulted phase cur-
rent and k times the zero-sequence current. For line-to-line or double line-to-ground faults,
VG equals the line-to-line voltage between the faulted phases and IG equals the line-to-line
current between the faulted phases. For three-phase faults, any of the phase-to-phase loops
can be used.
Equation 3.9 is the fundamental equation that governs all one-ended impedance-based
fault location algorithms. Unfortunately, because measurements from only one end of the
line are available, (3.9) has four unknowns: m, Rf , and the magnitude and phase angle of
IF . Several one-ended algorithms have been developed to eliminate Rf and IF from the fault
location computation and are discussed in detail below.

3.1.1 Simple Reactance Method

The simple reactance method capitalizes on the fact that fault resistance is resistive in
nature and estimates the reactance to the fault [36]. The method assumes that currents IF

Table 3.1 Definition of VG and IG for Different Fault Types

Fault Type VG IG

f f f
A-G VG IG + kIG
a a 0

f f f
B-G VG IG + kIG
b b 0

f f f
C-G VG IG + kIG
c c 0

f f f f
AB, AB-G, ABC VG − VG I G − IG
a b a b

f f f f
BC, BC-G, ABC VG − VG IG − IG
b c b c

f f f f
CA, CA-G, ABC VG − VG IG − IG
c a c a
 3.1 One-Ended Impedance-Based Fault Location Algorithms 53

jX jX
jX Rf ( IIF )
F G F F

1
1

mZ
mZ

mZ
Zapp
Zapp Zapp

G R G R G R
(a) IF = IG (b) Rf ≠ 0 Ω, IF leads IG (c) Rf ≠ 0 Ω, IF lags IG

Figure 3.3 (a) When there is no load and the system is homogeneous, the simple reactance
method is accurate with no reactance error even if the fault has resistance. (b) Reactance error is
inductive due to a combination of load, a non-homogeneous system, and fault resistance. The fault
appears farther away than it actually is. (c) Reactance error is capacitive due to a combination of
load, a non-homogeneous system, and fault resistance. The fault appears closer than it actually
is. [23].
( )
and IG are in phase with each other. As a result, the term Rf IF ∕IG reduces to a real number
as illustrated in Figure 3.3 (a). Considering only the imaginary components on both sides
of (3.9), fault location from terminal G is given by:
( )
V
imag I G
( ) [pu],
G
m= (3.10)
imag Z1
Multiplying the per unit value of m with LL gives the fault location in the same unit as LL.
While estimating the reactance to fault is an effective way to eliminate Rf and IF from
the fault location calculation, the accuracy of the simple reactance method is compromised
when IF and IG are not in phase. This can occur due to load or a non-homogeneous system.
A homogeneous system is one in which the source impedances have the same impedance
angle as the line impedance. An example of such a system is shown in Figure 3.4. In reality,
most transmission networks are non-homogeneous. Because the impedance angles are dif-
ferent, fault current contributed by each terminal have different phase angles. As a result,
IF , which is the summation of currents contributed by all terminals, has a different phase
( )
angle than IG . The term Rf IF ∕IG becomes a complex number and presents an additional
reactance to the fault location calculation. Neglecting this reactance introduces an error in
the location estimates that is commonly referred to as the reactance error.

Terminal G Terminal H
EG EH
Z1
ZG1eq, ZG0eq ZH1eq, ZHeq
0

ZG1eq = 1 78° Ω Z1 = 5 78° Ω ZH1eq = 1 78° Ω

ZG0eq = 3 78° Ω Z0 = 15 78° Ω ZH0eq = 3 78° Ω

Figure 3.4 Example homogeneous system. The local and remote source impedances have the
same impedance angle as the line impedance (78∘ ).
54 3 Fault Location on Transmission Lines

When IF leads IG , for instance, the apparent impedance is greater than the actual
impedance to fault. This inductive effect, shown in Figure 3.3 (b), causes the simple
reactance method to overestimate the fault location. Or in other words, the fault appears
to be farther away than it actually is. When IF lags IG , on the other hand, the apparent
impedance is lower than the actual impedance to fault. This capacitive effect, shown in
Figure 3.3 (c), causes the simple reactance method to underestimate the fault location. Or
in other words, the fault appears to be closer than it actually is.

3.1.2 Takagi Method

The Takagi method [50] improves upon the performance of the simple reactance method by
using the superposition principle and subtracting out the effect of load. The superposition
principle states that a network during fault is the summation of a prefault network and
a pure fault network. Figure 3.5 illustrates the principle of superposition when applied to
the two-terminal network during a single line-to-ground fault on phase A. Notice that the
pure fault network is driven by the positive-sequence voltage phasor at the fault point F
before the fault, VF1 . All other voltage sources are shorted. The pure fault current phasor,
ΔIG , can be derived as:
f f f
ΔIG = ΔIG + ΔIG + ΔIG , (3.11)
0 1 2

f f f
where ΔIG , ΔIG , and ΔIG are the zero-, positive-, and negative-sequence pure fault current
0 1 2
phasors, respectively, measured by the relay at terminal G in amperes. Because the network
f f
is balanced before fault (no negative- or zero-sequence current), ΔIG is equal to IG . In a
0 0
f f f
similar manner, ΔIG is equal to IG . Pure fault current ΔIG is equal to the positive-sequence
2 2 1
fault current phasor minus the prefault current phasor. Therefore, (3.11) can be written as:
( )
f f f
ΔIG = IG + IG − IG + IG
0 1 1 2
(3.12)
f
= IG − IG .
a a

The above equation for ΔIG is valid for an A-G fault. Table 3.2 defines ΔIG for different fault
types where IGabc are the prefault current phasors recorded in all three phases at terminal
G in amperes. Next, multiple both sides of (3.9) with the complex conjugate of ΔIG and
rearrange the terms to get:
( )
VG × ΔIG∗ = mZ1 IG × ΔIG∗ + Rf IF × ΔIG∗ . (3.13)
Because the pure fault current phasor exists only during the fault, it is reasonable to assume
that the phase angle of ΔIG is the same as that of IF in a homogeneous system. As a result,
(3.13) reduces to:
VG × ΔIG∗ = mZ1 IG × ΔIG∗ + Rf × |IF | × |ΔIG |. (3.14)
Saving only the imaginary components gets rid of the unknown fault resistance term and
allows for fault location to be calculated from terminal G as:
( )
imag VG × ΔIG∗
m= ( ) [pu]. (3.15)
imag Z1 × IG × ΔIG∗
 3.1 One-Ended Impedance-Based Fault Location Algorithms 55

VG1 Fault Point F VH1

Terminal G IG 1 IH 1 Terminal H
ZGeq1 mZ1 (1-m)Z1 ZHeq1

Prefault
VF 1
EG Relay Relay EH
+

+
f f
VG1 Fault Point F
f
VH 1
f
Terminal G IG 1 IH 1 Terminal H

ZGeq1 mZ1 (1-m)Z1 ZHeq1

f
VF1
Relay Relay

f f
3Rf
VG2 f f VH 2
IG 2 IH 2

Pure Fault
ZGeq1 mZ1 (1-m)Z1 ZHeq1
f
VF2 _
Relay Relay
VF 1
+

f
VG0 f f VH0
f

IG 0 IH 0
ZGeq0 mZ 0 (1-m)Z 0 ZHeq0
f
Relay VF 0 Relay

Figure 3.5 Superposition principle applied to the two-terminal transmission network during a
single line-to-ground fault.

Table 3.2 Definition of ΔIG for different fault types.

Fault Type 𝚫IG

f
A-G IG − IG
a a

f
B-G IG − IG
b b

f
C-G IG − IG
c c
( ) ( )
f f
AB, AB-G, ABC I G − IG − I G − IG
a a b b
( ) ( )
f f
BC, BC-G, ABC IG − IG − I G − IG
b b c c
( ) ( )
f f
CA, CA-G, ABC I G − IG − IG − IG
c c a a
56 3 Fault Location on Transmission Lines

Multiplying the per unit value of m with LL gives the fault location in the same unit as
LL. Although the Takagi method makes clever use of pure fault current to minimize any
reactance error due to system load, the success of this method relies on the network being
homogeneous in nature. A non-homogeneous system will cause a reactance error that is
proportional to the degree of non-homogeneity.

3.1.3 Modified Takagi Method

This method follows the same principle as the Takagi method to calculate fault location with
one important difference. It uses the zero-sequence current instead of the pure fault current
to account for load current during a single line-to-ground fault [51, 52]. This substitution is
made possible since the zero-sequence current, similar to the pure fault current, exists only
during a ground fault. The distance to fault from terminal G is computed as
( )
f∗
imag VG × 3IG
0
m= ( ) [pu]. (3.16)
f∗
imag Z1 × IG × 3IG
0

Multiplying the per unit value of m with LL gives the fault location in the same unit as
LL. The method can also compensate for a non-homogeneous system by applying an angle
correction factor. The factor may be calculated by exercising the current division rule on
the zero-sequence network shown in Figure 3.6 as:
f eq eq
IF ZG + Z0 + ZH
= d0 ∠𝛽0 ,
0 0 0
f
= eq (3.17)
IG (1 − m)Z0 + ZH
0 0

where d0 is the current distribution factor for the zero-sequence network and angle 𝛽0
represents the degree of non-homogeneity of the zero-sequence network. 𝛽0 is zero in a
f f
homogeneous system (currents IF and IG in phase with each other) but has a finite value in
0 0
a non-homogeneous system. It follows that applying an angle correction of e−j𝛽0 to the fault
location computation in (3.16) would force the system to be homogeneous and improve the
accuracy of location estimates. However, to calculate 𝛽0 , the distance to fault, m, must be
known. Therefore, locating single line-to-ground faults using the modified Takagi method
requires three simple steps. First, calculate a preliminary estimate of m using (3.16). Second,
use the preliminary estimate of m to calculate the angle correction factor 𝛽0 in (3.17). Third,

Terminal G Terminal H
f f
f
IG0 IF0 IH0

ZGeq
0
mZ0 f
(1-m)Z0 ZHeq
0
V F0 f
f
V G0 V H0
Relay + Relay

Figure 3.6 Zero-sequence network during a ground fault.

 3.1 One-Ended Impedance-Based Fault Location Algorithms 57

use the equation below to calculate fault location.

( )
f∗
imag VG × 3IG × e−j𝛽0
0
m= ( ) [pu]. (3.18)
f∗
imag Z1 × IG × 3IG × e−j𝛽0
0

The modified Takagi method with angle correction has a superior performance
over the Takagi method as it addresses the two major sources of error, load and a
non-homogeneous system. The success of the method, however, relies on accurately know-
ing the zero-sequence impedances of the local and remote sources. If the zero-sequence
impedance of the local source is not available, it can be estimated as follows:
f
VG
eq 0
ZG =− f
[Ω]. (3.19)
0
IG
0

The remote zero-sequence source impedance, on the other hand, must be known. Practi-
cally, this impedance is often not available. As a result, it is typical to apply the modified
Takagi method without angle correction as given by (3.16).
Another version of the modified Takagi method uses the negative-sequence current
instead of the zero-sequence current to account for load. Using the negative-sequence
current has two benefits. First, negative-sequence current is present for all unbalanced
faults. This allows the modified Takagi method to be used for locating any unbalanced fault.
In contrast, using the zero-sequence current limits the use of the modified Takagi method
to locating single line-to-ground faults only. Second, the negative-sequence network is
more homogeneous than the zero-sequence network. (Transformer connections can make
the zero-sequence network non-homogeneous.) As a result, fault location accuracy can
improve when using the negative-sequence current over the zero-sequence current. Fault
location can be obtained from the equation below.
( ∗
)
imag VG × Iseq
m= ( ∗
) [pu], (3.20)
imag Z1 × IG × Iseq
where Iseq depends on the fault type and is defined in Table 3.3.

3.1.4 Current Distribution Factor Method

This method uses current distribution factors to overcome any reactance error caused
by fault resistance, load, and system non-homogeneity [53]. The distance to fault can be
obtained by solving the quadratic equation below.
m2 − k1 m + k2 − k3 Rf = 0, (3.21)

Table 3.3 Definition of Iseq for Different Fault Types

Fault Type Iseq

f
single line-to-ground IG
2

f
line-to-line, double line-to-ground jIG
2
58 3 Fault Location on Transmission Lines

where constants k1 , k2 , and k3 are complex functions of voltage, current, line impedance,
and source impedances and are defined as follows:
eq
ZH ( )
VG
k1 = a + jb = 1 + 1 + ,
Z1 Z1 × IG
( eq )
VG ZH
k2 = c + jd = 1+ 1 ,
Z1 × IG Z1
( eq eq )
ΔIG ZH + ZG
.
1 1
k3 = e + jf = 1+
Z1 × IG Z1

Separating (3.21) into real and imaginary parts, the distance to fault m can be solved from
the following quadratic equation:
( ) √( )2 ( )
eb eb ed
a− ± a− −4 c−
f f f
m= [pu], (3.22)
2
where m can take two possible values. Usually one of the values will be positive and less
than 1 per unit while the other value will either be positive but greater than 1 per unit or
be negative. Since the fault location estimate must be positive and less that the total line
length, the value of m that lies between 0 and 1 per unit should be chosen as the location
estimate. Multiplying the chosen per unit value of m with LL gives the fault location in the
same unit as LL.
If the local source impedance is not available, it can be calculated using (3.23) for unbal-
anced faults as:
f
VG
eq eq 2
ZG = ZG = − f
[Ω]. (3.23)
1 2
IG
2

Use (3.24) to calculate the local source impedance for a three-phase fault.
f
ΔVG
eq 1
ZG =− f
1
ΔIG
1
f
(3.24)
VG − VG
1 1
=− f
[Ω],
IG − IG
1 1

f
where ΔVG is the positive-sequence pure fault voltage phasor at terminal G in volts. The
1
remote positive-sequence source impedance must be known.

3.2 Two-Ended Impedance-Based Fault Location Algorithms

Two-ended impedance-based fault location algorithms use waveform data captured at both
ends of a two-terminal transmission line to estimate fault location. The fault-locating prin-
ciple is similar to that of one-ended methods, i.e., using the voltage and current during a
 3.2 Two-Ended Impedance-Based Fault Location Algorithms 59

fault to estimate the apparent impedance between the monitoring location and the fault.
Additional measurements from the remote end of the transmission line help eliminate
any reactance error caused by fault resistance, load current, or system non-homogeneity.
Depending on data availability, several two-ended methods have been developed in the lit-
erature. They are described below.

3.2.1 Synchronized Method

This method assumes that measurements from both ends of a transmission line are
recorded at the same sampling rate and synchronized to a common time reference via the
Global Positioning System (GPS) or other global navigation satellite system (GNSS). The
GPS satellite system is owned by the United States government and provides geolocation
and time information at no cost to a GPS receiver anywhere on earth. The receiver must
have line of sight to at least four satellites in order to produce time signals with a 100 ns
accuracy with respect to UTC (Coordinated Universal Time).
Any one of the three symmetrical components can be used for fault location computa-
tion. Using negative-sequence components is however, more advantageous since they are
not affected by load current, zero-sequence mutual coupling, uncertainty in zero-sequence
line impedance, or infeed from zero-sequence tapped loads [54, 55]. To illustrate the
fault-locating principle, consider the negative-sequence network during an unbalanced
f
fault as shown in Figure 3.7. The negative-sequence voltage at the fault point F, VF , can
2
be calculated from terminal G and H as
f f f
Terminal G: VF = VG − mZ1 IG , (3.25)
2 2 2

f f f
Terminal H: VF = VH − (1 − m)Z1 IH , (3.26)
2 2 2

f f
where VG and IG are the negative-sequence voltage and current phasors measured by the
2 2
f f
relay at terminal G during the fault, respectively, VH and IH are the negative-sequence volt-
2 2
age and current phasors measured by the relay at terminal H during the fault, respectively,
f
and Z1 is the positive-sequence line impedance. Since VF is equal when calculated from
2
either terminal, equate (3.25) and (3.26) to solve for the distance to fault m as:
f f f
VG − VH + Z1 IH
m = (2 )
2 2
[pu]. (3.27)
f f
IG + IH Z1
2 2

Terminal G Terminal H
f f f
IG IF IH
2 2 2

ZGeq mZ1 f
(1-m)Z1 ZHeq
VF2
2 2

f f
VG2 VH 2
Relay + Relay

Figure 3.7 Negative-sequence network of a two-terminal line during an unbalanced fault.

60 3 Fault Location on Transmission Lines

Equation 3.27 is applicable for locating any unbalanced fault such as a single line-to-ground,
line-to-line, or double line-to-ground fault. However, during a three-phase balanced fault,
negative-sequence components do not exist. In such a case, the same fault-locating principle
is applied to a positive-sequence network, and the distance to fault is computed as [56]
f f f
VG − VH + Z1 IH
m = (1 )
1 1
[pu], (3.28)
f f
IG + IH Z1
1 1

f f
where VG and IG are the positive-sequence voltage and current phasors measured by the
1 1
f f
relay at terminal G during the fault, respectively, and VH and IH are the positive-sequence
1 1
voltage and current phasors measured by the relay at terminal H during the fault, respec-
tively. This method does not require the knowledge of fault type. The presence or absence
of negative-sequence components can be used to differentiate between an unbalanced and
a balanced fault. Also note that multiplying the per unit value of m in (3.27) and (3.28) with
LL gives the fault location in the same unit as LL.

3.2.2 Unsynchronized Method

Waveforms captured by IEDs at both ends of a transmission line may not be synchronized
with each other. The IEDs can have different sampling rates or the GPS device may be absent
or not functioning correctly. Therefore, to align the voltage and current measurements of
terminal G with respect to terminal H, authors in [23] use a synchronizing operator ej𝛿 as,
f f f
Terminal G: VF = VG ej𝛿 − mZ1 IG ej𝛿 , (3.29)
i i i

f f f
Terminal H: VF = VH − (1 − m)Z1 IH , (3.30)
i i i

where the subscript i refers to either the positive-sequence or negative-sequence compo-

nent. Negative-sequence components are used to compute the location of an unbalanced
fault while positive-sequence components are used to compute the location of a balanced
three-phase fault. Equating (3.29) with (3.30), the synchronizing operator takes the form of
f f
VH − (1 − m)Z1 IH
ej𝛿 = i
f f
i
. (3.31)
VG − mZ1 IG
i i

Now, ej𝛿 can be eliminated from the fault location computation by taking the absolute value
on both sides of (3.31) as
| V f − (1 − m)Z I f |
| j𝛿 | | Hi 1 Hi |
|e | = 1 = || |.
| (3.32)
| | | V − mZ1 I
f f
|
| Gi Gi |
Simplifying and rearranging the terms results in a quadratic equation. The unknown m can
be solved by
√
−B ± B2 − 4AC
m= [pu], (3.33)
2A
where the constants are defined as
| f |2 | f |2
A = |Z1 IG | − |Z1 IH | ,
| i| | i|
 3.2 Two-Ended Impedance-Based Fault Location Algorithms 61

[ ( )∗ ( )( )∗ ]
f f f f f
B = −2 × Re VG Z1 IG + VH − Z1 IH Z1 IH ,
i i i i i

| f |2 | f f |2
C = |VG | − |VH − Z1 IH | .
| i| | i i|

Solving the quadratic equation yields two values of m. One of the values is usually between
0 and 1 per unit and should be chosen as the location estimate. In the rare case that
both values of m are between 0 and 1 per unit, use another symmetrical component to
solve (3.33) and get a unique estimate for m. Multiplying the chosen per unit value of m
with LL gives the fault location in the same unit as LL. This method does not require the
knowledge of the fault type. The presence of negative-sequence quantities implies an
unbalanced fault.

3.2.3 Unsynchronized Negative-Sequence Method

This method makes use of the negative-sequence network to calculate fault location. The
negative-sequence fault voltage phasor from either terminal as [57]:
( )
f eq f
Terminal G: VF = − ZG + mZ1 × IG , (3.34)
2 1 2
( )
f eq f
Terminal H: VF = − ZH + (1 − m)Z1 × IH , (3.35)
2 1 2

eq eq
where ZG and ZH are the positive-sequence source impedance parameters behind ter-
1 1
f
minals G and H, respectively. Equate (3.34) with (3.35) to eliminate VF . Also, to avoid
2
any alignment issues with data sets from both ends of the line, consider only the absolute
values as
( )
| eq |
| ZG + mZ1 |
|f | | 1 f |
| IH | = | ( ) × IG | . (3.36)
| 2 | | eq 2|
| ZH + (1 − m)Z1 |
| 1 |
Squaring and rearranging the terms, we end up with a quadratic equation. Solve for m
using (3.33) where the constants are defined as
| f |2 ( ) ( )
A = |IH | × g2 + h2 − c2 + d2 ,
| 2|
| f |2
B = −2 × |IH | (eg + fh) − 2 (ac + bd),
| 2|
| f |2 ( 2 ) ( )
C = |IH | × e + f 2 − a2 + b2 ,
| 2|
f eq
a + jb = IG × ZG ,
2 1
f
c + jd = Z1 × IG ,
2
eq
e + jf = ZH + Z1 ,
1

g + jh = Z1 .
Solve the quadratic equation to obtain two values of m. One of the values lies between 0 and
1 per unit and must be selected as the location estimate. Multiplying the chosen per unit
value of m with LL gives the fault location in the same unit as LL. This method is applicable
for locating unbalanced faults only. Knowledge of the fault type is not necessary. However,
62 3 Fault Location on Transmission Lines

Table 3.4 Definition of Ipol for Different Fault Types

Fault Type Ipol

f f
A-G, B-G, C-G IG + I H
2 2

f f f f
AB, AB-G, ABC (IG + IH ) − (IG + IH )
a a b b

f f f f
BC, BC-G, ABC (IG + IH ) − (IG + IH )
b b c c

f f f f
CA, CA-G, ABC (IG + IH ) − (IG + IH )
c c a a

the success of the method does depend on accurately knowing the source impedance
parameters. If the local and remote source impedance is not known, (3.23) may be used to
calculate the required parameters.

3.2.4 Synchronized Line Current Differential Method

This method is an extension of the modified Takagi method and takes advantage of the fact
that measurements from the remote line terminal allow us to calculate the current at the
fault point. Consider the negative-sequence network shown in Figure 3.7 during a single
line-to-ground fault. Let us define a polarization current, Ipol , whose equation is given by:
f f f
Ipol = IG + IH = IF . (3.37)
2 2 2

This polarization current is nothing but the negative-sequence current at the fault point.
This polarization current has the same phase angle as the phase fault current at the fault
point. Therefore, multiplying both sides of (3.9) with the complex conjugate of Ipol and sav-
ing only the imaginary components, we can calculate the fault location as:
( )
∗
imag VG × Ipol
m= ( ) [pu]. (3.38)
∗
imag Z1 × IG × Ipol

The form taken by VG and IG , and Ipol for all fault types are defined in Table 3.1 and Table 3.4,
respectively. Note that this method requires current data from both terminals of the line
to be synchronized with each other and is best suited for implementation in a line cur-
rent differential scheme. This is because in this scheme, the two relays are already set up
to exchange synchronized current data with each other for line protection [58]. This fault
location method is immune to load and non-homogeneous systems. However, unlike the
other two-ended methods, it requires knowledge of the fault type and is affected by mutual
coupling and inaccurate zero-sequence line impedance during a ground fault.

3.3 Three-Ended Impedance-Based Fault Location Algorithms

A three-terminal line is one that has three sources. Figure 3.8 shows an example of
such a system. They are quite prevalent in utility transmission networks as they are
 3.3 Three-Ended Impedance-Based Fault Location Algorithms 63

Terminal T
f
V Tabc
f

Relay
IT abc

Line 3
f
V G abc V H abc
f
Terminal G IG abc f
IHabc Terminal H
Line 1 Line 2
Tap
Relay Relay

Figure 3.8 Three-terminal system.

a more cost- and time-effective solution to address immediate system requirements.

They also provide increased voltage support, improve system performance, and offer
operational flexibility [57]. Three-terminal lines may also be the only viable solution
when right-of-way to construct new lines and stations are not available or when obtaining
regulatory approvals is a concern [59]. On the downside, however, three-terminal lines
increase the complexity of the network and pose a challenge to line protection and fault
location. In this section, we adapt the two-ended fault location algorithms described in the
previous section for application to a three-terminal line. The algorithms use information
recorded by fault locators (relays in this example) at all three terminals to pinpoint the
actual location of the fault. The approach is simple and consists of two steps. The first
step identifies the line section with the fault. The second step reduces the three-terminal
system into an equivalent two-terminal system and applies the two-ended fault location
algorithms.

3.3.1 Synchronized Method

This method requires that all three relays be synchronized to a common GPS time clock.
When an unbalanced fault occurs on Line 1, the negative-sequence network of the
three-terminal line can be drawn as shown in Figure 3.9. It is evident from the figure
that terminals T and H are operating in parallel to feed the fault on Line 1. As a result,
f
the negative-sequence voltage phasor at the tap point (VTap ) calculated from terminal H
2
would be identical to that calculated from terminal T. The negative-sequence tap voltage
phasor calculated from terminal G, on the other hand, would be quite different. If the fault
was on Line 2 instead, the negative-sequence tap voltage phasor calculated from terminal
G would be identical to that calculated from terminal T while the negative-sequence tap
voltage phasor calculated from terminal H would be different. In a similar manner, if the
fault was on Line 3, the negative-sequence tap voltage phasor calculated from terminal
H would be identical to that calculated from terminal G while the negative-sequence tap
voltage phasor calculated from terminal T would be different. We make use of these facts
to identify the faulted line section.
64 3 Fault Location on Transmission Lines

f
VT2
f
IT 2
Terminal T
Z1-L3 ZTeq
2

Relay

f f
VG2 VH 2
f f
Terminal G IG 2 IH 2 Terminal H
ZGeq2 mZ 1-L1 (1-m)Z1-L1 Z1-L2 ZHeq2
f f
VF V Tap
2 2
Relay + + Relay

_ _

Figure 3.9 Negative-sequence network of the three-terminal system during an unbalanced fault.

First, calculate the negative-sequence tap voltage phasor from each terminal during the
fault using the equations given below.
f f f
Terminal G: VTap = VG − Z1−L1 IG , (3.39)
2@G 2 2

f f f
Terminal H: VTap = VH − Z1−L2 IH , (3.40)
2@H 2 2

f f f
Terminal T: VTap = VT − Z1−L3 IT . (3.41)
2@T 2 2

f f
Here VG and IG are the negative-sequence voltage and current phasors measured by the
2 2
f f
relay at terminal G during the fault, respectively, VH and IH are the negative-sequence volt-
2 2
age and current phasors measured by the relay at terminal H during the fault, respectively,
f f
VT and IT are the negative-sequence voltage and current phasors measured by the relay at
2 2
terminal T during the fault, respectively, Z1−L1 is the positive-sequence impedance of Line
1, Z1−L2 is the positive-sequence impedance of Line 2, and Z1−L3 is the positive-sequence
impedance of Line 3. The tap voltage phasor calculated using the faulted line section will
be different than those calculated with the healthy line sections. In our example, you will
find:
f f
VTap = VTap ,
2@H 2@T
f f
VTap ≠ VTap ,
2@G 2@H
f f
VTap ≠ VTap .
2@G 2@T

This indicates that Line 1 is experiencing the fault. Once the faulted line has been identified,
we refer to the two terminals operating in parallel to feed the fault as Remote Terminal 1
and Remote Terminal 2. We call the third terminal the Local Terminal.
Next, reduce the three-terminal system into an equivalent two-terminal system. This is
f f
illustrated in Figure 3.10 where Vloc and Iloc are the negative-sequence voltage and cur-
2 2
rent phasors measured by the local relay, respectively, the positive-sequence impedance of
the faulted line is Z1−line , the positive-sequence source impedance behind the relay at the
 3.3 Three-Ended Impedance-Based Fault Location Algorithms 65

f f
V loc 2 VTap
2@R1
f f
Local Terminal Iloc 2 ITap2
eq eq
Zloc mZ1-line (1-m)Z1-line ZTap
2 f 2
VF 2
Relay + Relay

Figure 3.10 Negative-sequence network of the equivalent two-terminal system.

eq f
local terminal is Zloc , VTap is the negative-sequence tap voltage phasor calculated from
2 2@R1
f
Remote Terminal 1, ITap is the summation of the negative-sequence currents contributed by
2
eq
the two remote terminals, and ZTap is the equivalent negative-sequence source impedance
2
behind the tap point. In our example, the new notations are equivalent to:
f f
Vloc = VG ,
2 2
f f
VTap = VTap ,
2@R1 2@H
f f
Iloc = IG ,
2 2
f f f
ITap = IH + IT ,
2 2 2

Z1−line = Z1−L1 ,
eq eq
Zloc = ZG ,
2
(2 ) ( )
eq eq
Z1−L3 + ZT × Z1−L2 + ZH
eq 2 2
ZTap = eq eq ,
2
Z1−L2 + ZH + Z1−L3 + ZT
2 2

eq eq
where ZHand are the source impedances of terminals H and T, respectively. We can
ZT
2 2
then calculate the distance to an unbalanced fault as:
f f f
Vloc − VTap + Z1−line × ITap
( ) .
2 2@R1 2
m= (3.42)
f f
Iloc + ITap Z1−line
2 2

Negative-sequence quantities do not exist during a three-phase fault. Use the equation
below to locate three-phase faults:
f f f
Vloc − VTap + Z1−line × ITap
( ) .
1 1@R1 1
m= (3.43)
f f
Iloc + ITap Z1−line
1 1

3.3.2 Unsynchronized Method

This method uses voltage and current phasors captured by the relays at all terminals during
a fault to calculate the fault location. Relays need not be time aligned with each other. The
first step is to identify the faulted line section. To do this, calculate the negative-sequence
66 3 Fault Location on Transmission Lines

voltage phasor at the tap point from all three terminals using (3.39), (3.40), and (3.41).
The magnitude of the negative-sequence tap voltage phasor calculated using the faulted
line section will be different than those calculated using the healthy line sections. In our
f f f
example, |VTap | will equal |VTap | while |VTap | will have a different value.
2@H 2@T 2@G
The second step is to reduce the three-terminal system into the equivalent two-terminal
system shown in Figure 3.10. Follow the same procedure as outlined in the previous
method. The only difficulty lies in the fact that the negative-sequence fault current at the
tap point cannot be obtained by simply adding the negative-sequence fault currents mea-
sured by the relays at the remote terminals. This is because the relays are not synchronized
with each other. To overcome this difficulty, calculate the alignment angle of the relay at
Remote Terminal 2 with respect to the relay at Remote Terminal 1 as:
f
∠VTap
𝛿= f
2@R1
. (3.44)
∠VTap
2@R2

Phase-shifting the negative-sequence current measured at the Remote Terminal 2 with

angle delta aligns the current measured at that terminal with that measured at Remote
Terminal 1. In our example, we can calculate the negative-sequence current phasor at the
tap point as:
f f f
ITap = IH + IT ej𝛿 . (3.45)
2 2 2

Next, use the quadratic formula in (3.33) to obtain a location estimate where the constants
are defined as
| f |2 | f |2
A = |Z1−line Iloc | − |Z1−line ITap | ,
| 2| | 2|
[ ( )∗ ( )( )∗ ]
f f f f f
B = −2 × Re Vloc Z1−line Iloc + VTap − Z1−line ITap Z1−line ITap ,
2 2 2@R1 2 2

| f | f |2 f |2
C = |Vloc | − |VTap − Z1−line ITap | .
| 2| | 2@R1 2|

3.3.3 Unsynchronized Negative-Sequence Method

This method [57] uses only the current phasors recorded at each terminal during the fault
and source impedance data to pinpoint the location of a fault. The three relays need not
be synchronized with each other. Similar to the previous methods, the first step is to iden-
tify whether Line 1, Line 2, or Line 3 experienced the fault. This is achieved by using the
equations below to calculate the negative-sequence voltage phasor at the tap point from
each of the three terminals:
( )
f eq f
Terminal G: VTap = − ZG + Z1−L1 × IG , (3.46)
2@G 2 2
( )
f eq f
Terminal H: VTap = − ZH + Z1−L2 × IH , (3.47)
2@H 2 2
( )
f eq f
Terminal T: VTap = − ZT + Z1−L3 × IT . (3.48)
2@T 2 2

Compare the magnitudes of the tap voltage. Tap voltage calculated using the faulted line
f
will be different than those calculated using the healthy lines. In our example, |VTap | will
2@H
f f
equal |VTap | while |VTap | will have a different value.
2@T 2@G