Unit 1 (Set Theory)

Proposition
A proposition is a declarative statement that is either true (T) or false (F),
but not both.
Examples:
- "2 + 3 = 5" (True)
- "The Sum is a planet" (False)
- "x > 5 ( Not a proposition, as its truth value depends on x)

Logical Operators
Logical operators (also called connectives) are used to combine
propositions to form compound statements.
- Negation ( ¬ )
□ The negation of a proposition P is written as ¬ P.
□ It reverses the truth value of P.
□ Example: If P is "It is raining", then ¬ P is "It is not
raining".
P ¬P
T F
F T
- Conjunction (AND, ^)
□ The conjunction of P and Q, written as P ^ Q, is true only if
both P and Q are true.
□ Example: "It is raining and it is cold."
P Q P^Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
- Disjunction (OR, v)
□ The disjunction of P and Q, written as P v Q, is true if at
least one of P or Q is true.
□ Example: "I will go to the park or I will stay at home."
P Q PvQ
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
- Implication (→, "if… then")
□ The implication P → Q means "if P, then Q."
□ It is false only if P is true and Q is false.
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 □ It is false only if P is true and Q is false.
□ Example:
- If "It is raining" (P), then "The road is wet" (Q).
- If it rains and the road is not wet, the statement is false.
P Q P→Q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
- Biconditional (↔," if and only if ")
□ The biconditional P ↔ Q is true if both propositions have
the same truth value.
□ Example: "You are enter if and only if you have a ticket."
P Q P↔Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Logical Equivalences / Theorems

Some Common equivalences are:
1. Identity Law
- P ^ True = P
- P v false = P

2. Domination Laws
- P ^ False = False
- P v True = True

3. Idempotent Law
- P^P=P
- PvP=P

4. Complement Laws
- P v ¬ P = T (True)
- P ^ ¬ P = F (False)

5. Double Negation Law

- ¬ (¬ P) = P

6. Commutative Law
- PvQ=QvP
- P^Q=Q^P

7. Associative Law
- P v (Q v R) = (P v Q) v R

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 - P v (Q v R) = (P v Q) v R
- P ^ (Q ^ R) = (P ^ Q) ^ R

8. Distributive Laws
- P ^ (Q v R) = (P ^ Q) v (P ^ R)
- P v (Q ^ R) = (P v Q) ^ (P v R)

9. Absortition Law
- P v (P ^ Q) = P
- P ^ ( P v Q) = P

10. De Morgan's Laws:

- ¬ (P v Q) = ¬ P ^ ¬ Q
- ¬ (P ^ Q) = ¬ P v ¬ Q

11. Law of Implication

- P → Q = ¬P v Q

12. Law of contradiction and Tautology

- P ^ ¬P = false
- P v ¬P = true

13. Law of Contraposition

- P→Q= ¬Q→¬P

14. Law of Excluded Middle

- P v ¬ P = true

Example:
Construct a Truth Table for (P v Q) → R
P Q R PvQ PvQ→R
T T T T T
T T F T F
T F T T T
T F F T F
F T T T T
F T F T F
F F T F T
F F F F T

Propositional Function
A propositional function is a expression the contains one or more variable
and becomes a proposition when the variables are assigned specific values.
- It is generally represented as P(x), where x is a variable.
- Unlike a proposition, a propositional function does not have a
definite truth value until the variable is substituted.
Example:
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 Example:
Statement: "x is greater than 5"
• Represented as: P(x): x > 5
• If x = 6, then P(6) is true
• If x = 4, then P(4) is false

Difference Between Propositions and Propositional Functions

Feature Proposition Propositional Function
Definition A statement that is A statement that contains variables and
either true or false. becomes a proposition when values are
substituted.
Example " 2 is an even " x is an even number. "
number. "
Truth Definite (True or Depends on the variable's value.
Value False
Represent P P(x)
ation

Contradiction
A contradiction is a statement that is always false, regardless of the truth
values of its components. It is the opposite of a tautology (which is always
true).
- A contradiction occurs when a proposition and its negation are both
true in the same logical expression.
- Mathematically, a contradiction is represented as P ^ ¬ P (where P =
"It is raining").
Example:
- Statement: "It is raining and it is not raining at the same time."
- Logically: P ^ ¬P (where P = "It is raining")
- This statement is always false.
Truth Table
P ¬P P ^ ¬P
T F F
F T F
Since the result is always false, P ^ ¬P is a contradiction.

Tautology
A tautology is a logical statement that is always true, regardless of the truth
values of its components.
- It is the opposite of a contradiction (which is always false).
- Mathematically, a tautology is represented as P v ¬P (Laws of the
Excluded Middle).
Example
- Statement: "It is either raining or not raining."
- Logically: P v ¬P, where P = "It is raining"
- This statement is always true, no matter what.
Truth Table
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 Truth Table
P ¬P P v ¬P
T F T
F T T
Since the result is always true, P v ¬P is a tautology.

Implication
An implication is a logical statement that connects two propositions in the
form:
P→Q
This is read as "If P, then Q" (P implies Q).
- Here, P is called the hypothesis, and Q is called the conclusion
- The implication is false only when P is true and Q is false; otherwise,
it is always true.
Truth Table
P Q P→Q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Mathematical Induction
Mathematical Induction is a proof technique used to prove statements that
are defined for natural numbers (N). It is particularly useful for providing
formulas, inequalities, and properties of sequence or sums.

Principle of Mathematical Induction

To prove a statement P(n) is true for all n ≥ k (usually k = 1), we
follow these two steps:
Step 1: Base Case
• Prove that P(k) is true (i.e., prove the statement for the
smallest value, usually n = 1).
Step 2: Inductive Step
• Assume that P(n) is true for some arbitrary n = k (this is
called the inductive hypothesis).
• Prove that P(n + 1) is also true, i.e., prove that if P(n) is true,
then P(n + 1) is true.
If both steps are successful, then by the principle of mathematical
induction, the statement is true for all n ≥ k.

Example: Sum of First n Natural Numbers

Statement:
S(n) = 1 + 2 + 3 + … + n =
For all n ≥ 1.
Step 1: Base Case (n = 1)
For n = 1

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 For n = 1
S(1) = 1 = = = 1
Step 2: Inductive Step
Assume that for some n = k, for formula holds:
S(k) =
Prove for n = k + 1
S(k + 1) = 1 + 2 + 3 + … + k + (k + 1)
Using the induction hypothesis
S(k + 1) =
Factor k + 1:
S(k + 1) =
S(k + 1) =
Which is the same as the given formula for n = k + 1
Conclusion:
Since both the base case and inductive step are prove, the formula
S(n) =
is true for all n ≥ 1.

Application of Mathematical Induction

1. Providing formulas (like sum of series, product formulas).
2. Providing inequalities (like 2n > n2 ).
3. Providing divisibility (e.g., providing 3n - 1 is divisible by 2).
4. Algorithm correctness (e.g., providing properties of recursive
functions).
5. Graph Theory (e.g., providing properties of trees, networks).

Quantifiers
Quantifiers are symbols used in logic and mathematics to specify the
quantity of elements in a set that satisfy a given property. They helps
express logical statements concisely and are essential in predicate logic.
Types of Quantifiers
There are two main types of quantifiers:
1. Universal Quantifier ( ∀ )
The universal quantifier (∀) expresses that a statement is true
for all elements in a given domain.
Notation:
∀x p(x)
This means "for all x, the statement P(x) is true."
Example:
1. Mathematical Statement
∀ x ∈ N, x + 0 = x
"for all natural number x, adding zero does not
change x."
2. Real-World Example
- "all human are mortal"
- Let P(x) be "x is mortal"

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 - Let P(x) be "x is mortal"
- The statement can be written as:
∀x ( if x is human, then x is mortal )
2. Existential Quantifier (∃)
The existential quantifier (∃) expresses that at least one
element satisfies a given property.
Notation:
∃x P(x)
This means "there exists at least one x such that P(x) is
true."
Example:
1. Mathematical Statement:
∃x ∈ Z, x + x = 0
This means "there exists at least one x such that
P(x) is true".
2. Real-world Example
- "There is a person who speaks French"
- Let P(x) be "x speaks French."
- The statement can be written as:
∃x P(x)

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Unit 2 (Algebraic Structure)

Algebraic Structure
An algebraic structure is not-empty set S with a binary operation * that
satisfies the closure property.
if (a * b) ∈ S
∀ (a , b) ∈ S
Here, * is a binary operation on S, meaning that performing the
operation on any two elements in S results in another element within S.
Example
- Consider the set S = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} with operation + .
- If we take any two elements, say 2 + 3 = 5 , the result is still in S.
- Thus, (S, +) forms an algebraic structure.

Semi-Group
An algebraic structure (S, *) is called a semigroup if it follows
associative property.
i.e. (a * b)* c = a*(b * c) ∀ a, b, c ∈ S
Key properties of a Semigroup:
- Binary Operation: The operation * is defined for all elements in
S.
- Associativity: Grouping of operations does not affect the result.
- No Identity Required: Unlike monoids, semigroups do not require
an identity element.
Example:
Set S Operation * Semigroup?
N (Natural Number) + (Addition) Yes
N X (Multiplication) Yes
Strings Concatenation Yes
2 * 2 Matrices Matrix Multiplication Yes
Set of all even numbers + (Addition) Yes
Set Z+ (Positive Integer) - (Subtraction) No

Monoids
A semigroup (S, *) is called Monoid if there exists an element 'e' ∈ S
such that
(a * e) = (e * a) = a ,∀ a ∈ S
Key properties of a Monoid
- Associativity: (a*b)*c = a*(b*c)
- Identity Element e: There exists an element e ∈ S such as a * e =
e*a=a
- Inverse in Not Required: Unlike groups, a monoid does not
require an inverse for every element.
Example

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 Set S Operation * Associati Identity Monoid
ve? Element e ?
N (Natural + (Addition) Yes Yes (0) Yes
Number)
N X Yes Yes (1) Yes
(Multiplicatio
n)
Strings Concatenation Yes Empty Yes
String
2 x 2 Matrices Matrix Yes Identity Yes
Multiplication Matrix
Non-empty (Intersection) Yes Universal Yes
Subsets of a Set Set
Integer Z - (Subtraction) No No No
Example Explanation:
• (N, +) is a monoid because:
- Associativity: (2 + 3) + 4 = 2 + ( 3 + 4)
- Identity: 0 is the identity since a + 0 = 0 + a = a.
• String concatenation forms a monoid
- Associativity: ("a" + "b") + "c" = "a" + ("b" + "c")
- Identity: Empty String "" since "a" + "" = "" + "a" = "a".
• Matrix Multiplication forms a monoid
- Associativity: Matrix Multiplication follows the
associativity property.
- Identity: The identity matrix I satisfies AI = IA = A
• Non-Example: (Z, -) is not a monoid because subtraction is
not associative and has no identity.

Group
A group is a monoid (S, *) with identity element e, where every
element has an inverse
∀ a ∈ S, ∃ b ∈ S such that (a*b) = (b*a) = e
Here, b is called inverse of a, denoted by a-1.
Key Features of a Group:
1. Closure: a*b ∈ S, ∀ a, b ∈ S
2. Associativity: (a * b)*c = a*(b*c), ∀ a, b, c ∈ S.
3. Identity Element: There exists an element e such that a * e = e * a
= a, ∀ a ∈ S
4. Inverse Element: For every a ∈ S, there exists a-1∈ S such that a *
a-1 = a-1 * a = e.
Example
Set S Operation Associa Identity Inverse Group
* tive? Exists? Exists? ?
Z (Integer) + Yes Yes (0) Yes (-a) Yes
(Addition)
Q* (Non-zero X Yes Yes (1) Yes Yes

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 Q* (Non-zero X Yes Yes (1) Yes Yes
Relational (Multiplic
Numbers) ation)
N + Yes Yes (0) No No
(Addition)
2*2 Matrix Yes Identity Inverse Yes
Matrices Multiplica Matrix Exists
(Invertible) tion
Symmetric Function Yes Identity Inverse Yes
Group Sn Compositi Function Function
on Exists
Example Explanation:
• (Z, +) is a group because:
- Identity: 0 since a + 0 = 0 + a = a.
- Inverse: - a since a + (- a) = 0
• Multiplication in non-zero rational (Q*, x) is a group:
- Identity: 1 since a x 1 = 1 x a = a
- Inverse: since a x = 1.
• Non-example: (N, +) is not a group because natural numbers
do not have inverses.

Abelian Group
A Group (G, *) is said to be abelian group (or commutative group) if it
satisfies the commutative property:
(a * b) = (b * a), ∀ a, b ∈ G
Key Features of an Abelian Group
1. Closure: a * b ∈ G, ∀ a, b ∈ G
2. Associativity: (a * b)*c = a*(b * c), ∀ a, b, c ∈ G
3. Identity Element: There exists an element e such that a * e = e * a
= a, ∀ a ∈ G
4. Inverse Element: For every a ∈ G there exists a-1 ∈ G such that a *
a-1 = a-1 * a = e.
5. Commutativity: a * b = b * a, ∀ a, b ∈ G.
Example
Set G Operat Closu Associ Identit Invers Comm Abelian
ion * re ? ative ? y ? e? utative Group
? ?
Z + Yes Yes 0 Yes (- Yes Yes
(Integer (Additi a)
s) on)
Q* X Yes Yes 1 Yes Yes Yes
(Non- (Multip
Zero lication
Rational )
Number
)
2*2 Matrix Yes Yes Identit Invers Invers No (AB
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2*2 Matrix Yes Yes Identit Invers Invers No (AB
Matrice Multipl y e Exists BA
s ication Matrix Exists in
general
)
Rn (Real + Yes Yes 0 Yes (- Yes Yes
Number a)
s Under
Addition
)

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Unit 3 (Graph Theory)

Introduction
Graph Theory is a branch of discreate mathematics that deals with graphs,
which are mathematical structures used to model pairwise relationships
between objects.

A Graph is defined as a pair G = (V, E) , where:

• V is a set of vertices (also called nodes or points)
• E is a set of edges (also called links or lines) that connect pairs of
vertices
• Example
Graph G = (V,E)
V = {A, B, C, D}
E = {(A,D), (B,C), (C,D), (D,A)}

Types of Graphs
1. Undirected Graph: Edges have no direction
2. Directed Graph: Edges have direction
3. Weighted Graph: Edges have weights or costs
4. Simple Graph: No loops or multiple edges
5. Multigraph: Can have multiple edges between the same vertices
6. Complete Graph: Every pair of vertices is connected by an edge
7. Null Graph: No edges at all.

Basic Terminologies of graph

▪ Degree: Number of edges connected to vertex.
▪ Path: A sequence of vertices with edges between them
▪ Cycle: A path that starts and ends at the same vertex.
▪ Connected Graph: There is a path between every pair of
vertices.
▪ Subgraphs: A graph form a subset of vertices and edges.
▪ Tree: A connected graph with no cycles.

Connectivity
To measure the connectedness of a graph G we consider the minimum
number of vertices and edges to be removed from the graph in order to
disconnect it.

• Edge Connectivity
- The edge connectivity is the minimum number of edges that need
to be removed to disconnect the graph
- Denoted by

• Vertex Connectivity
- The vertex connectivity of a graph is the minimum number of
vertices that need to be removed to disconnect the graph or make
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 vertices that need to be removed to disconnect the graph or make
it trivial (one vertex).
- Denoted by

Traversals
Graph Traversal means visiting all the vertices of a graph in a specific
order. It's essential for searching, analyzing, and solving problems on
graphs (like shortest paths, connectivity, etc.)
There are two primary types of graph traversals:

1. Breadth - First Search (BFS)

BFS explores a graph level by level. It starts at a selected
node and visits all its neighbors first, then moves to the
neighbor's neighbors, and so on.

How it Works:
• Use a Queue (FIFO) to track the next vertex to visit
• Mark visited vertices to avoid repetition.

Applications:
• Shortest path in unweighted graphs
• Web crawling
• Social network analysis

2. Depth - First Search (DFS)

DFS explores a graph as deep as possible before
backtracking

How it works:
• Use a stack (LIFO) or recursion
• Mark visited vertices to prevent cycles

Applications:
• Solving puzzles like mazes
• Detecting cycles in a graph
• Topological sorting

Lattices
A Lattice is a special type of partially ordered set (POSET) in which every
pair of elements has a unique least upper bound and greatest lower bound.

A lattice is a poset (L, ) in which:

• Least Upper Bound (LUB) (also called join, denoted by a b) exists
for every pair a,b ∈ L
• Greatest Lower Bound (GLB) (also called meet, denoted as a b)
exists for every pair a,b ∈ L

Application of Lattices
• Logic and Boolean algebra
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 • Logic and Boolean algebra
• Switching circuits and digital design
• Database query optimization
• Cryptography and security models
• Formal concept analysis

Semi-Lattices
A Semi-Lattice is a special kind of partially ordered set (poset) that
supports only one of the two lattice operations - either join (v) or meet (^) -
but not necessarily both.

A semi-lattice is a set S with a binary operation (either v or ^) such that for

all elements a, b, c ∈ S, the operations is:
▪ Associative: a * (b * c) = (a * b) * c
▪ Commutative: a * b = b *a
▪ Idempotent: a * a = a

Types of semi-Lattices
a) Join Semi-Lattices
• Operation: Join (v) = Least Upper Bound (LUB)
• For any two elements a, b, their join a v b exists in the set.
b) Meet Semi-Lattices
• Operation: Meet (^) = Greatest Lower Bound (GLB)
• For any two elements a, b, their meet a ^ b exists in the set

Sub Lattices
A sub lattice is exactly what it sounds like: a subset of a lattice that itself
forms a lattice under the same meet and join operations.

Let (L, V, ^) be a lattice, and let S L.

Then S is a sublattice of L if:
• For every a, b ∈ S, both a V b ∈ S and a ^ b ∈ S

Boolean Lattices
A Boolean Lattice is a special kind of distributive lattice that models the
structure of Boolean algebra - the foundation of digital logic and set theory.

A boolean lattice is a bounded, distributed lattice in which every element

has a complement.
Formally, it is a lattice (B, V, ^, 0, 1) where:
• V: join (least upper bound)
• ^: meet (greatest lower bound)
• 0: least element (bottom)
• 1: greatest element (top)
• Every element a ∈ B has a complement a' such that:
• a ^ a' = 0
• a V a' = 1

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Modular Lattices
A modular lattice is a type of lattice that satisfies a special identity called
the modular law. It's not as strict as a distributive lattice, but more
structured than a general lattice.

Let (L,V,^) be a lattice. Then it is modular if for all a, b, c ∈ L.

a V (b ^ c) = (a V b) ^ c

Geometric Lattice
A geometric lattice is a finite, atomistic, semi modular lattice that often
arises in geometry, combinatorics and matroid theory.

A geometric lattice satisfies the following properties:

1. Finite: It has a finite number of elements.
2. Atomistic: Every element is a join of atoms (atoms are elements that
cover the minimum element).
3. Semi modular: if x covers x ^ y, then x V y convers y.
4. Lattice: It has both meet (^) and join (V) operations for every pair of
elements.

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Unit 4 (Finite Fields)

Finite Fields
A finite fields is a field that contains a finite number of elements, where
all field properties (like addition, multiplication, inverses) hold.

A finite field (or Galois Field) is a field that contains a finite number of
elements, denoted by GF(q), where:

▪ p = a prime number
▪ q = a positive integer
The number of elements in any finite field is always a power of a prime.

Integral Domain
An integral domain is a commutative ring with unity ( 1 0 ) that also
satisfies the no zero divisors property.
Formally:
1. R is commutative under multiplication:
a.b=b.a
2. R has multiplicative identity ( 1 0 )
3. There are no zero divisors:
if a . b = 0, then either a = 0 or b = 0

Field
A field is a set F equipped with two operations:
○ Addition ( + )
○ Multiplication ( X )

Field Extension
A field extension is a bigger field that contains as a subfield.
Notation:
E/F
Means:
• E is a field extension of F
• F E
This means all operations of F are valid inside E, and E includes new
elements not in F.

Existence Theorem
The existence Theorem states that for every boolean function, there
exists a boolean expression (in terms of boolean variables and
operations like AND, OR, and NOT) that represents it.
We can construct:
▪ A sum of products (SOP) expression
▪ A product of sum (POS) expression

Boolean Algebra

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Boolean Algebra
Boolean Algebra is a branch of algebra that deals with:
• Binary values: 0 (false) and 1 (true)
• Logical Operations: AND, OR, NOT, etc.
It was invented be George Boole and forms the mathematical
foundations of digital logic and binary systems.

Boolean Function
A Boolean function is a function that takes binary inputs (0 or 1) and
gives a binary output (0 or 1)
Formally:

• It maps an n-tuple of binary values to a single binary result

• Used extensively in digital logic, computer science, and
mathematical logic.

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