Automatic Control - 1 ( EPM 312)

Prof. Dr. Hamdy El-Goharey

Section 5: Stability
complex GH-plane
complex s-plane mapping s  GH(s) Im{GH(j)}
j

Re{GH(j)}

-1

RHS

Copyright © 2007 by Hamdy S. K. El-Goharey. All rights reserved

12/23/2022 HSK - EPM 312 - Stability 1
 Learning objectives
• To state the definition of stability

• To understand the Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion

• To understand the concept of the Nyquist stability criterion

• To calculate the gain and phase margins of the system

from the frequency response

• To establish the relationship between the Bode plots and

stability analysis

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 Stability Definitions
• Bounded Input Bounded Output Stability:
A system is BIBO stable if, for every bounded input,
the output remains bounded with increasing time (all
system poles must lie in the left half of the s-plane).
• Marginal Stability:
A system is marginally stable if some of the poles lie
on the imaginary axis, while all others are in the
LHS of the s-plane. Some inputs may result in the
output becoming unbounded with time.
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 Stability Analysis
• To test the stability of a Linear Time Invariant
(LTI) system we need only to examine the poles
of the system, i.e. the roots of the c/c equation.
• Methods are available for testing for roots with
positive real parts, which do not require the
actual solution of the characteristic equation.
• Also, methods are available for testing the
stability of a closed-loop system based only on
the loop transfer function characteristics.
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Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion, Special Case 2:

• An all zero row in the Routh array which corresponds to

pairs of roots with opposite signs.
• Remedy:
– form an auxiliary polynomial from the coefficients in the
row above.
– Replace the zero coefficients from the coefficients of the
differentiated auxiliary polynomial.
– If there is not a sign change, the roots of the auxiliary
equation define the roots of the system on the imaginary
axis.
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 The Nyquist Criterion
• The Routh-Hurwitz Criterion provides a check
of absolute stability based on the closed-loop
characteristic equation.
• The Nyquist Criterion may be used to analyze
the relative stability of the closed-loop system
based on the loop characteristics.
• Relative stability refers to how close the system
is to the absolute stability boundary.
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 The Nyquist Criterion
• Consider the general feedback system
R(s) C(s) The closed-loop
+
G(s)
transfer function is
–
C ( s) = G ( s)
H(s)
R ( s ) 1 + GH ( s )
• The characteristic equation is
1 + GH ( s ) = 0
• Define F(s) as
F ( s ) = 1 + GH ( s)
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 The Nyquist Criterion
• F(s) is a rational polynomial in s and can be
written generally as
( s + z1 )( s + z2 )( )L
F (s) =
( s + p1 )( s + p2 )( )L
where -zi are the zeroes of F(s) and -pi are the
poles of F(s) .

Note: zeroes of F(s)  roots of the characteristic

equation  poles of the closed-loop system.

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 The Nyquist Criterion:
Notes on Zeroes and Poles
• The zeroes of F(s) are the values of s that make F(s) = 0
and the poles are the values of s that make F(s) =  .
• If GH ( s) = N L ( s) , then F (s) = 1 + N L ( s) = DL ( s) + N L ( s)
DL ( s ) DL ( s) DL ( s)
• The denominator and numerator order of F(s) are equal
to the order of the loop transfer function GH(s) .

• poles of F(s)  poles of GH(s) (loop transfer function)

• zeroes of F(s)  roots of the characteristic equation,
DL ( s) + N L ( s) = 0
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 The Nyquist Criterion
The Principle of the Argument
• The stability analysis of the closed-loop system now
becomes the task of finding if there are any zeroes
of F(s) in the right hand side (RHS) of the s-plane.
• This is achieved through the application of the
principle of the argument, a result from general
complex number theory.
• This involves a function mapping from the complex
s-plane to the complex F(s) or GH(s) plane.

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 The Principle of the Argument:
Some Definitions
• Encirclements in the complex plane.
Im Im
Path  is a 
 A counter-
Re clockwise Re
encirclement of clockwise
A encirclement
point A

• Enclosements in the complex plane.

Im Im

  The area to the right of

Re Re
the path  is the area
enclosed by  .

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 The Principle of the Argument
Complex Function Mapping
• S-plane → F(s) complex plane mapping.
j
unique Im{F}
s1
s2 F(s1)

 Re{F}
s3 F(s2)
non unique
F(s3)
• If F(s) is analytic along the path  (no poles of F(s) on
) and s starts at s = s1 and traces a closed path
terminating at s1 , then F(s) will trace a closed path in
the F plane starting at F(s1) and terminating at F(s1) .
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 The Principle of the Argument
• The principle of the argument states that for an
arbitrary closed path  in the s-plane, the
corresponding closed path in the F plane will
encircle the origin as many times as the difference
between the number of zeroes of F(s) and poles of
F(s) located in the area enclosed by the path  .
• The direction of the encirclements of origin is the
same as the path  if the number of zeroes of F(s) is
greater than the poles.
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 The Nyquist Path
• Define the Nyquist j
j
path  such that it
 
encloses the right Poles of F(s)

hand side of the s- 


plane, but does not

go through any
poles of F(s). -j

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 The Nyquist Criterion
• Map F(s) for the Nyquist path enclosing the RHS.
• Then the number of clockwise encirclements of the
origin of the F(s) plane is N = Z – P , where Z is
the number of zeroes of F(s) in the RHS, P is the
number of poles of F(s) in the RHS.
Z, corresponds to the number of poles of the closed- loop
system in the RHS.
P, corresponds to the number poles of the loop transfer
function in the RHS.

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 The Nyquist Criterion
• Normally, P is known. If the loop transfer
function is stable, then P = 0 and N must be zero
for a stable closed-loop system.
• If P is non zero, then there must be P
counterclockwise encirclements of the origin.
• A slight modification of the process is to map the
GH(s) function rather than F(s) and then check
for encirclements of the –1 point in the complex
GH(s) plane. This works since F(s) = 1 + GH(s) .
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 Summary: Interpretations and explanations
– If the s-plane contour encircles a zero of 1+GH in a certain
direction, the image contour will encircle the origin in the
same direction. (related to Z)
– If the s-plane contour encircles a pole of 1+GH in a certain
direction, the image contour will encircle the origin in the
opposite direction. (related to P)
– The net number of same-direction encirclements, Ncw ,
equals the difference Ncw = Z- P.
– Actually, we should investigate 1+GH and encirclements
around the origin, but easier to investigate GH and
encirclements around -1.
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 Summary: Interpretations and explanations
– The loop function G(s)H(s) is examined for the
presence of poles in the R.H.S. of the s-plane and
hence, the number of PR is determined.
– The presence of pole of G(s)H(s) on the imaginary
axis is evaluated and the Nyquist contour is
designed accordingly.
– Construct the mapping of the s-plane contour by
G(s)H(s) and apply the criterion of stability to
arrive at a conclusion as to the stability or
instability of the closed loop feedback system.
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 The Nyquist Criterion: A Simple Example

• Consider a system with the loop TF

K
s-plane GH ( s) = GH-plane
s(s + a)
j Im{GH}
j
j mapping
Pole of 
GH

 Re{GH}
-1

-j -j

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 The Nyquist Criterion: A Simple Example
• The number of encirclements of the –1 point in
the GH-plane is zero, N = 0.
• The number poles of the loop transfer function
GH(s) in the RHS, is zero (P = 0). Note: the
Nyquist path excludes the pole at the origin.
• Therefore, the number of poles of the closed-loop
system = the zeroes of 1 + GH(s), in the RHS, is
Z=N+P =0+0 =0.
• The closed-loop system is stable.
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 The Nyquist Criterion:
Sketching the GH(s) Function
• In most cases only an approximate sketch of the
GH(s) mapping is required.
• Consider various segments of the Nyquist path.
j Section I : s =  e j ;  → 0
j
 = –90 → +90
II III
Section II : s = j0+ → j


I Section III : s = R e j ; R → 
IV  = +90 → –90
-j Section IV : s = – j → j0–
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 The Nyquist Criterion:
Sketching the GH(s) Function
• Consider a general loop transfer function
K( s + z1 )( s + z2 )( )L
GH ( s ) = k
s ( s + p1 )( s + p2 )( )L
• Section I: ( s =  e j ,  → 0 ,  = – 90º → + 90º )
K (  e j
+ z1 )( L )
GH (  e ) = k j k
j
 e (  e j + p1 )( L )
as  → 0 As  varies from
– 90º→ +90º (CCW)
Kz1z 2 L
GH → →  / - k /GH varies from
 e p1p2 L
k j k
k 90º → – k 90º (CW)
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 The Nyquist Criterion:
Sketching the GH(s) Function
• Section II: (s = j ,  = 0+→ )
 → 0+ 
GH ( j ) →  -
/ k 90


 →  → - -
GH ( j ) 0 / (n m)90


where, n = the order of the denominator of GH

m = the order of the numerator of GH
This represents the normal frequency response of
the loop system GH(j).

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 The Nyquist Criterion:
Sketching the GH(s) Function
• Section IV:
This section is the mirror image of Section II.
• Section III: ( s = Re j , R →  ,  = +90º → –90º )

j K ( R e j
+ z1 )( L ) K
GH ( R e ) = k j k j
→ ( n - m ) j ( n - m )
R e ( R e + p1 )( L ) R e
= 0 /- (n - m)

This corresponds to (n-m)180 º counter-clockwise rotations

about the origin.
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 The Nyquist Criterion: Example 1
K
GH ( s ) = 2
Nyquist Path s (s + a)
j Sec. II: s = j 0+ , GH(j) →  /-180º
j
s = j , GH(j) → 0 /-270º
II III
Sec. III: no effect.


Sec. IV: mirror image of II.
I
Sec. I: (k = 2) Then GH(j0) rotates
IV
360º clockwise from GH(j0–) to
-j
GH(j0+) with a magnitude of  .

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 The Nyquist Criterion: Example 1
K
GH ( s ) = 2
j Im{GH}
s (s + a)

• Stability Analysis:

GH(j0+) Re{GH} ➢ There are 2 clockwise rotations of GH(s)

-1 about the “–1” point,  N = 2.
GH(j0–) ➢ No poles of GH(s) in the RHS, P=0 .
➢ No poles of GH(s) in the RHS,  P=0 .
➢ Then, Z = N+P = 2 which means there
-j are two poles of the closed-loop system
in the RHS, i.e. the system is unstable.

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 The Nyquist Criterion: Example 2
K
GH ( s ) =
s ( s + a )( s + b)
j Sec. II:
j s = j 0+ , GH(j) →  /-90º
II III s = j , GH(j) → 0 /-270º

 Sec. III: no effect.
I Sec. IV: mirror image of II.
IV Sec. I: (k = 1) Then GH(j0) rotates
-j 180º clockwise from GH(j0–) to
GH(j0+) with a magnitude of  .

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 The Nyquist Criterion: Example 2
j Im{GH} K
GH ( s ) =
s ( s + a )( s + b)
GH(jc)
• Where is the “–1” point?
Re{GH} • If the “–1” point is inside the
-1 GH path, then
N=2 , P= 0 and Z=2
 the system is unstable.
-j • If the “–1” point is to the left
of the GH path, then
Find |GH(jc)| where c is defined N=0 , P= 0 and Z=0
by Im{GH(jc)} = 0 .  the system is stable.
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 The Nyquist Criterion: Example 2
K
GH ( j ) = GH ( s ) =
K
j ( j + a )( j + b) s ( s + a )( s + b)
K
=
- j 3 + ab j - ( a + b) 2

For, Im{GH ( j c )} = 0 Check if this is

- j c3 + ab j c = 0 →  c = ab less than –1 .

K K
Then, GH ( j c ) = =
- ( a + b) c - ( a + b)ab
2

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 Relative Stability
Gain and Phase Margins
• Gain and phase margins are a measure of
how close the system is to instability.
Im{GH}
Gain Margin: the additional gain
in db, that will make the system
|GH(jc)|
critically stable.
1
20 log10
Re{GH} GH ( j c )
-1 fm
 Phase Margin: the additional phase
lag in degrees, that will make the
system critically stable.
fm = 180 + 
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 The Nyquist Criterion: Special Example
Sec. II: K
e j GH ( s) = 2
s +2
j 2 s = j 0 , GH(j) → K/2
+

s = j , GH(j) → 0 /-180º
Sec. I: Let s = j 2 + e j
j
j where  → 0 ;  = -90o → +90o
II  III then K
GH ( s ) =
I  (j 2 +  j 2
e ) +2
IV 
K
=
- 2 + j 2 2 e j +  2e j 2 + 2
-j
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 The Nyquist Criterion: Special Example
K
j
Im{GH}
For  → 0 GH ( s) =
s2 + 2
K
GH ( s ) 
Re{GH} 
2 2 e j ( + 90 )

-1 K/2 →  /- ( + 90)
• Sec. III: no effect
-j
• Sec. IV: mirror image of II.

There are no net rotations about the “–1” point, therefore, N = 0.

Since P = 0 ( no roots of GH in the RHS), Z = 0 and the closed loop
system is stable for all values of K.
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 Bode Plots and Stability Analysis
• In the Nyquist analysis, it became clear that
Section II of the plot was the most critical in
determining the stability of the closed-loop
system.
• The Bode plot of the loop transfer function,
GH(j) provides the same magnitude and angle
information as Section II of the Nyquist plot.
• Therefore, the Bode plot of GH(j) can be used
to evaluate the stability of the closed-loop
system.
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 Bode Plots and Stability Analysis
• Consider the definitions of the gain and phase
margins in relation to the Bode plot of GH(j) .
– Gain Margin: the additional gain required to make
| GH(j) | = 1 when /GH(j) = -180 . On the Bode
plot this is the distance, in dB, from the magnitude
curve up to 0dB when the angle curve crosses -180 .
– Phase Margin: the additional phase lag required to
make /GH(j) = -180 when | GH(j) | = 1. On the
Bode plot this is the distance in degrees from the phase
curve to -180 when the gain curve crosses 0dB.
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 Gain and phase margins
Phase crossover
Gain crossover

Im G(s)

Gain
margin

-1 ω180

φm Re G(s)

Phase
margin

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Gain margin and phase margin on the Bode plot

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 Examples

Calculate the gain and phase margins of

the following system from frequency
2500
.
s ( s + 5)(s + 50)

response

2500
G(s) = .
s( s + 5)(s + 50)

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 Example (Cont.)

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 Example (Cont.)

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 8( s + 70)
Gain and Phase Margin Example G ( s) =
Magnitude (dB) 40 s ( s + 4)( s + 25)
20
0
-20
GM = 19dB
-40
-60
-80
-100
-120

-80
-100
Phase (deg)

-120
-140

-160 fm = 40
-180

-200

-220
10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3

Frequency (rad/sec)
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 Transfer Function Identification Example 1
40
Magnitude (dB) 20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
-120

-80
-100
Phase (deg)

-120
-140

-160
-180
-200
-220
10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3
Frequency (rad/sec)

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 Transfer Function identification Example 2
40

Magnitude (dB)
20

-20

-40

-60

0
Phase (deg)

-50

-100

-150

-200
10 -2 10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2

Frequency (rad/sec)

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12/23/2022 HSK - EPM 312 - Stability 43
 Summary
• Frequency response of the open-loop system can
be used to predict the time domain response of
the system.
• The relative stability of the closed-loop system
can be assessed through the notation of gain
margin and phase margin.
• The control system design becomes to shape up
the open-loop frequency response.

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