Data Link Layer o Framing & Link access: Data Link Layer protocols encapsulate each

network frame within a Link layer frame before the transmission across the
o In the OSI model, the data link layer is a 4th layer from the top and 2nd layer
link. A frame consists of a data field in which network layer datagram is
from the bottom.
inserted and a number of data fields.
o The communication channel that connects the adjacent nodes is known as
o Reliable delivery: Data Link Layer provides a reliable delivery service, i.e.,
links, and in order to move the datagram from source to the destination, the
transmits the network layer datagram without any error. A reliable delivery
datagram must be moved across an individual link.
service is accomplished with transmissions and acknowledgements.
o The main responsibility of the Data Link Layer is to transfer the datagram
o Flow control: A receiving node can receive the frames at a faster rate than it
across an individual link.
can process the frame. Without flow control, the receiver's buffer can
o The Data link layer protocol defines the format of the packet exchanged
overflow, and frames can get lost.
across the nodes as well as the actions such as Error detection,
o Error detection: Errors can be introduced by signal attenuation and noise.
retransmission, flow control, and random access.
Data Link Layer protocol provides a mechanism to detect one or more
o The Data Link Layer protocols are Ethernet, token ring, FDDI and PPP.
errors. This is achieved by adding error detection bits in the frame and then
Following services are provided by the Data Link
receiving node can perform an error check.
Layer:
o Error correction: Error correction is similar to the Error detection, except
that receiving node not only detect the errors but also determine where the
errors have occurred in the frame.
o Half-Duplex & Full-Duplex: In a Full-Duplex mode, both the nodes can
transmit the data at the same time. In a Half-Duplex mode, only one node
can transmit the data at the same time.

Error Detection
When data is transmitted from one device to another device, the system does not
guarantee whether the data received by the device is identical to the data transmitted
by another device. An Error is a situation when the message received at the receiver
end is not identical to the message transmitted.

Types Of Errors
Errors can be classified into two categories: The duration of noise in Burst Error is more than the duration of noise in Single-Bit.
o Single-Bit Error Burst Errors are most likely to occurr in Serial Data Transmission.
The number of affected bits depends on the duration of the noise and data rate.
o Burst Error

Error Detecting Techniques:

Single-Bit Error: The most popular Error Detecting Techniques are:
The only one bit of a given data unit is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.
o Single parity check
o Two-dimensional parity check
o Checksum
o Cyclic redundancy check

Single Parity Check

In the above figure, the message which is sent is corrupted as single-bit, i.e., 0 bit is
o Single Parity checking is the simple mechanism and inexpensive to detect
changed to 1.
Single-Bit Error does not appear more likely in Serial Data Transmission. For the errors.
example, Sender sends the data at 10 Mbps, this means that the bit lasts only for 1 ?s
o In this technique, a redundant bit is also known as a parity bit which is
and for a single-bit error to occurred, a noise must be more than 1 ?s.
Single-Bit Error mainly occurs in Parallel Data Transmission. For example, if eight appended at the end of the data unit so that the number of 1s becomes even.
wires are used to send the eight bits of a byte, if one of the wire is noisy, then single-
Therefore, the total number of transmitted bits would be 9 bits.
bit is corrupted per byte.
Burst Error: o If the number of 1s bits is odd, then parity bit 1 is appended and if the
The two or more bits are changed from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0 is known as Burst Error. number of 1s bits is even, then parity bit 0 is appended at the end of the data
The Burst Error is determined from the first corrupted bit to the last corrupted bit.
unit.
o At the receiving end, the parity bit is calculated from the received data bits
and compared with the received parity bit.
 o This technique generates the total number of 1s even, so it is known as even- o In Two-Dimensional Parity check, a block of bits is divided into rows, and
parity checking. the redundant row of bits is added to the whole block.
o At the receiving end, the parity bits are compared with the parity bits
computed from the received data.

Drawbacks Of Single Parity Checking Drawbacks Of 2D Parity Check

o It can only detect single-bit errors which are very rare. o If two bits in one data unit are corrupted and two bits exactly the same

o If two bits are interchanged, then it cannot detect the errors. position in another data unit are also corrupted, then 2D Parity checker will
not be able to detect the error.
o This technique cannot be used to detect the 4-bit errors or more in some
cases.

Checksum
A Checksum is an error detection technique based on the concept of redundancy.

It is divided into two parts:

Checksum Generator
Two-Dimensional Parity Check A Checksum is generated at the sending side. Checksum generator subdivides the
o Performance can be improved by using Two-Dimensional Parity data into equal segments of n bits each, and all these segments are added together by
using one's complement arithmetic. The sum is complemented and appended to the
Check which organizes the data in the form of a table. original data, known as checksum field. The extended data is transmitted across the
o Parity check bits are computed for each row, which is equivalent to the network.
Suppose L is the total sum of the data segments, then the checksum would be ?L
single-parity check.
 Following are the steps used in CRC for error detection:
o In CRC technique, a string of n 0s is appended to the data unit, and this n
number is less than the number of bits in a predetermined number, known as
division which is n+1 bits.
o Secondly, the newly extended data is divided by a divisor using a process is
known as binary division. The remainder generated from this division is
known as CRC remainder.
o Thirdly, the CRC remainder replaces the appended 0s at the end of the
original data. This newly generated unit is sent to the receiver.
1. The Sender follows the given steps: o The receiver receives the data followed by the CRC remainder. The receiver
2. The block unit is divided into k sections, and each of n bits. will treat this whole unit as a single unit, and it is divided by the same

3. All the k sections are added together by using one's complement to get the sum. divisor that was used to find the CRC remainder.
If the resultant of this division is zero which means that it has no error, and the data
4. The sum is complemented and it becomes the checksum field. is accepted.
5. The original data and checksum field are sent across the network. If the resultant of this division is not zero which means that the data consists of an
error. Therefore, the data is discarded.

Checksum Checker
A Checksum is verified at the receiving side. The receiver subdivides the incoming
data into equal segments of n bits each, and all these segments are added together,
and then this sum is complemented. If the complement of the sum is zero, then the
data is accepted otherwise data is rejected.
1. The Receiver follows the given steps:
2. The block unit is divided into k sections and each of n bits.
3. All the k sections are added together by using one's complement algorithm to get
the sum.
4. The sum is complemented.
5. If the result of the sum is zero, then the data is accepted otherwise the data is disc
arded.
Let's understand this concept through an example:
Suppose the original data is 11100 and divisor is 1001.
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) CRC Generator
CRC is a redundancy error technique used to determine the error.
 o A CRC generator uses a modulo-2 division. Firstly, three zeroes are o When the string 11100111 is received at the receiving end, then CRC
appended at the end of the data as the length of the divisor is 4 and we know checker performs the modulo-2 division.
that the length of the string 0s to be appended is always one less than the o A string is divided by the same divisor, i.e., 1001.
length of the divisor. o In this case, CRC checker generates the remainder of zero. Therefore, the
o Now, the string becomes 11100000, and the resultant string is divided by the data is accepted.
divisor 1001.
o The remainder generated from the binary division is known as CRC
remainder. The generated value of the CRC remainder is 111.
o CRC remainder replaces the appended string of 0s at the end of the data unit,
and the final string would be 11100111 which is sent across the network.

Error Correction
Error Correction codes are used to detect and correct the errors when data is
transmitted from the sender to the receiver.
Error Correction can be handled in two ways:
o Backward error correction: Once the error is discovered, the receiver
requests the sender to retransmit the entire data unit.
o Forward error correction: In this case, the receiver uses the error-
correcting code which automatically corrects the errors.
A single additional bit can detect the error, but cannot correct it.
For correcting the errors, one has to know the exact position of the error. For
CRC Checker example, If we want to calculate a single-bit error, the error correction code will
determine which one of seven bits is in error. To achieve this, we have to add some
o The functionality of the CRC checker is similar to the CRC generator. additional redundant bits.
Suppose r is the number of redundant bits and d is the total number of the data bits. Total number of bits = d+r = 4+3 = 7;
The number of redundant bits r can be calculated by using the formula:
2r>=d+r+1

Determining the position of the redundant bits

The number of redundant bits is 3. The three bits are represented by r1, r2, r4. The
Hamming Code position of the redundant bits is calculated with corresponds to the raised power of 2.
Parity bits: The bit which is appended to the original data of binary bits so that the Therefore, their corresponding positions are 1, 21, 22.
total number of 1s is even or odd.
Even parity: To check for even parity, if the total number of 1s is even, then the 1. The position of r1 = 1
value of the parity bit is 0. If the total number of 1s occurrences is odd, then the value
2. The position of r2 = 2
of the parity bit is 1.
Odd Parity: To check for odd parity, if the total number of 1s is even, then the value 3. The position of r4 = 4
of parity bit is 1. If the total number of 1s is odd, then the value of parity bit is 0. Representation of Data on the addition of parity bits:

Algorithm of Hamming code:

o An information of 'd' bits are added to the redundant bits 'r' to form d+r.
o The location of each of the (d+r) digits is assigned a decimal value.
o The 'r' bits are placed in the positions 1,2,. ....2k-1. Determining the Parity bits
o At the receiving end, the parity bits are recalculated. The decimal value of Determining the r1 bit
the parity bits determines the position of an error. The r1 bit is calculated by performing a parity check on the bit positions whose
binary representation includes 1 in the first position.
Relationship b/w Error position & binary number.

We observe from the above figure that the bit positions that includes 1 in the first
position are 1, 3, 5, 7. Now, we perform the even-parity check at these bit positions.
Let's understand the concept of Hamming code through an example:
The total number of 1 at these bit positions corresponding to r1 is even, therefore,
Suppose the original data is 1010 which is to be sent.
the value of the r1 bit is 0.
Total number of data bits 'd' = 4
Number of redundant bits r : 2r >= d+r+1
2r>= 4+r+1 Determining r2 bit
The r2 bit is calculated by performing a parity check on the bit positions whose
Therefore, the value of r is 3 that satisfies the above relation. binary representation includes 1 in the second position.
 R1 bit
The bit positions of the r1 bit are 1,3,5,7

We observe from the above figure that the bit positions that includes 1 in the second
position are 2, 3, 6, 7. Now, we perform the even-parity check at these bit positions.
The total number of 1 at these bit positions corresponding to r2 is odd, therefore, We observe from the above figure that the binary representation of r1 is 1100. Now,
the value of the r2 bit is 1. we perform the even-parity check, the total number of 1s appearing in the r1 bit is an
even number. Therefore, the value of r1 is 0.

Determining r4 bit R2 bit

The bit positions of r2 bit are 2,3,6,7.
The r4 bit is calculated by performing a parity check on the bit positions whose
binary representation includes 1 in the third position.

We observe from the above figure that the binary representation of r2 is 1001. Now,
we perform the even-parity check, the total number of 1s appearing in the r2 bit is an
even number. Therefore, the value of r2 is 0.
We observe from the above figure that the bit positions that includes 1 in the third
position are 4, 5, 6, 7. Now, we perform the even-parity check at these bit positions.
The total number of 1 at these bit positions corresponding to r4 is even, therefore,
the value of the r4 bit is 0.

R4 bit
Data transferred is given below: The bit positions of r4 bit are 4,5,6,7.

Suppose the 4th bit is changed from 0 to 1 at the receiving end, then parity bits are
recalculated.
 The transmitter transmits the frame called an Enquiry (ENQ) asking whether the
receiver is available to receive the data or not.
The receiver responses either with the positive acknowledgement(ACK) or with the
negative acknowledgement(NACK) where positive acknowledgement means that the
receiver is ready to receive the transmission and negative acknowledgement means
that the receiver is unable to accept the transmission.
Following are the responses of the receiver:
o If the response to the ENQ is positive, the sender will transmit its data, and
once all of its data has been transmitted, the device finishes its transmission
We observe from the above figure that the binary representation of r4 is 1011. Now,
with an EOT (END-of-Transmission) frame.
we perform the even-parity check, the total number of 1s appearing in the r4 bit is an
odd number. Therefore, the value of r4 is 1. o If the response to the ENQ is negative, then the sender disconnects and

Data Link Controls restarts the transmission at another time.

Data Link Control is the service provided by the Data Link Layer to provide reliable o If the response is neither negative nor positive, the sender assumes that the
data transfer over the physical medium. For example, In the half-duplex transmission
ENQ frame was lost during the transmission and makes three attempts to
mode, one device can only transmit the data at a time. If both the devices at the end
of the links transmit the data simultaneously, they will collide and leads to the loss of establish a link before giving up.
the information. The Data link layer provides the coordination among the devices so
that no collision occurs.
The Data link layer provides three functions:
o Line discipline
o Flow Control
o Error Control
Line Discipline
o Line Discipline is a functionality of the Data link layer that provides the
coordination among the link systems. It determines which device can send,
and when it can send the data.
Line Discipline can be achieved in two ways:
o ENQ/ACK
o Poll/select
END/ACK
END/ACK stands for Enquiry/Acknowledgement is used when there is no wrong
receiver available on the link and having a dedicated path between the two devices so
that the device capable of receiving the transmission is the intended one.
END/ACK coordinates which device will start the transmission and whether the
recipient is ready or not.
Poll/Select
Working of END/ACK
The Poll/Select method of line discipline works with those topologies where one
device is designated as a primary station, and other devices are secondary stations. one frame one after another or sometimes it may be required to send ACK
before sending each one, depending on the type of the protocol being used.
Working of Poll/Select
o In this, the primary device and multiple secondary devices consist of a single
transmission line, and all the exchanges are made through the primary
device even though the destination is a secondary device.
o The primary device has control over the communication link, and the
secondary device follows the instructions of the primary device.
o The primary device determines which device is allowed to use the
communication channel. Therefore, we can say that it is an initiator of the
session.
Select
o The select mode is used when the primary device has something to send.
o When the primary device wants to send some data, then it alerts the
secondary device for the upcoming transmission by transmitting a Select
(SEL) frame, one field of the frame includes the address of the intended
secondary device.
o When the secondary device receives the SEL frame, it sends an Flow Control
acknowledgement that indicates the secondary ready status. o It is a set of procedures that tells the sender how much data it can transmit
before the data overwhelms the receiver.
Poll o The receiving device has limited speed and limited memory to store the data.
o The Poll mode is used when the primary device wants to receive some data Therefore, the receiving device must be able to inform the sending device to
from the secondary device. stop the transmission temporarily before the limits are reached.
o When a primary device wants to receive the data, then it asks each device o It requires a buffer, a block of memory for storing the information until they
whether it has anything to send. are processed.
o Firstly, the primary asks (poll) the first secondary device, if it responds with Two methods have been developed to control the flow of data:
the NACK (Negative Acknowledgement) means that it has nothing to send.
o Stop-and-wait
Now, it approaches the second secondary device, it responds with the ACK
o Sliding window
means that it has the data to send. The secondary device can send more than
Stop-and-wait
 o In the Stop-and-wait method, the sender waits for an acknowledgement after o The size of the window is represented as n-1. Therefore, maximum n-1
every frame it sends. frames can be sent before acknowledgement.
o When acknowledgement is received, then only next frame is sent. The o When the receiver sends the ACK, it includes the number of the next frame
process of alternately sending and waiting of a frame continues until the that it wants to receive. For example, to acknowledge the string of frames
sender transmits the EOT (End of transmission) frame. ending with frame number 4, the receiver will send the ACK containing the
Advantage of Stop-and-wait
number 5. When the sender sees the ACK with the number 5, it got to know
The Stop-and-wait method is simple as each frame is checked and acknowledged
before the next frame is sent. that the frames from 0 through 4 have been received.

Disadvantage of Stop-and-wait Sender Window

Stop-and-wait technique is inefficient to use as each frame must travel across all the
way to the receiver, and an acknowledgement travels all the way before the next o At the beginning of a transmission, the sender window contains n-1 frames,
frame is sent. Each frame sent and received uses the entire time needed to traverse and when they are sent out, the left boundary moves inward shrinking the
the link.
size of the window. For example, if the size of the window is w if three

Sliding Window frames are sent out, then the number of frames left out in the sender window

o The Sliding Window is a method of flow control in which a sender can is w-3.

transmit the several frames before getting an acknowledgement. o Once the ACK has arrived, then the sender window expands to the number

o In Sliding Window Control, multiple frames can be sent one after the which will be equal to the number of frames acknowledged by ACK.

another due to which capacity of the communication channel can be utilized o For example, the size of the window is 7, and if frames 0 through 4 have
efficiently. been sent out and no acknowledgement has arrived, then the sender window

o A single ACK acknowledge multiple frames. contains only two frames, i.e., 5 and 6. Now, if ACK has arrived with a

o Sliding Window refers to imaginary boxes at both the sender and receiver number 4 which means that 0 through 3 frames have arrived undamaged and
end. the sender window is expanded to include the next four frames. Therefore,
o The window can hold the frames at either end, and it provides the upper the sender window contains six frames (5,6,7,0,1,2).
limit on the number of frames that can be transmitted before the
acknowledgement.
o Frames can be acknowledged even when the window is not completely
filled.
o The window has a specific size in which they are numbered as modulo-n
means that they are numbered from 0 to n-1. For example, if n = 8, the
frames are numbered from 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,0,1........
Receiver Window
o At the beginning of transmission, the receiver window does not contain n
frames, but it contains n-1 spaces for frames. Error Control
o When the new frame arrives, the size of the window shrinks. Error Control is a technique of error detection and retransmission.
o The receiver window does not represent the number of frames received, but
Categories of Error Control:
it represents the number of frames that can be received before an ACK is
sent. For example, the size of the window is w, if three frames are received
then the number of spaces available in the window is (w-3).
o Once the acknowledgement is sent, the receiver window expands by the
number equal to the number of frames acknowledged.
o Suppose the size of the window is 7 means that the receiver window
contains seven spaces for seven frames. If the one frame is received, then the
receiver window shrinks and moving the boundary from 0 to 1. In this way,
window shrinks one by one, so window now contains the six spaces. If
frames from 0 through 4 have sent, then the window contains two spaces
before an acknowledgement is sent.
Stop-and-wait ARQ
Stop-and-wait ARQ is a technique used to retransmit the data in case of damaged or
lost frames.
This technique works on the principle that the sender will not transmit the next frame
until it receives the acknowledgement of the last transmitted frame.

Four features are required for the retransmission:

 Sliding Window ARQ
o The sending device keeps a copy of the last transmitted frame until the
Sliding Window ARQ is a technique used for continuous transmission error control.
acknowledgement is received. Keeping the copy allows the sender to
Three Features used for retransmission:
retransmit the data if the frame is not received correctly.
o In this case, the sender keeps the copies of all the transmitted frames until
o Both the data frames and the ACK frames are numbered alternately 0 and 1
they have been acknowledged. Suppose the frames from 0 through 4 have
so that they can be identified individually. Suppose data 1 frame
been transmitted, and the last acknowledgement was for frame 2, the sender
acknowledges the data 0 frame means that the data 0 frame has been arrived
has to keep the copies of frames 3 and 4 until they receive correctly.
correctly and expects to receive data 1 frame.
o The receiver can send either NAK or ACK depending on the conditions. The
o If an error occurs in the last transmitted frame, then the receiver sends the
NAK frame tells the sender that the data have been received damaged. Since
NAK frame which is not numbered. On receiving the NAK frame, sender
the sliding window is a continuous transmission mechanism, both ACK and
retransmits the data.
NAK must be numbered for the identification of a frame. The ACK frame
o It works with the timer. If the acknowledgement is not received within the
consists of a number that represents the next frame which the receiver
allotted time, then the sender assumes that the frame is lost during the
expects to receive. The NAK frame consists of a number that represents the
transmission, so it will retransmit the frame.
damaged frame.
Two possibilities of the retransmission:
o The sliding window ARQ is equipped with the timer to handle the lost
o Damaged Frame: When the receiver receives a damaged frame, i.e., the
acknowledgements. Suppose then n-1 frames have been sent before
frame contains an error, then it returns the NAK frame. For example, when
receiving any acknowledgement. The sender waits for the
the data 0 frame is sent, and then the receiver sends the ACK 1 frame means
acknowledgement, so it starts the timer and waits before sending any more.
that the data 0 has arrived correctly, and transmits the data 1 frame. The
If the allotted time runs out, the sender retransmits one or all the frames
sender transmits the next frame: data 1. It reaches undamaged, and the
depending upon the protocol used.
receiver returns ACK 0. The sender transmits the next frame: data 0. The Two protocols used in sliding window ARQ:
receiver reports an error and returns the NAK frame. The sender retransmits o Go-Back-n ARQ: In Go-Back-N ARQ protocol, if one frame is lost or
the data 0 frame. damaged, then it retransmits all the frames after which it does not receive the
o Lost Frame: Sender is equipped with the timer and starts when the frame is positive ACK.
Three possibilities can occur for retransmission:
transmitted. Sometimes the frame has not arrived at the receiving end so that
o Damaged Frame: When the frame is damaged, then the receiver sends a
it can be acknowledged neither positively nor negatively. The sender waits
NAK frame.
for acknowledgement until the timer goes off. If the timer goes off, it
retransmits the last transmitted frame.
 o Lost Acknowledgement: The sender can send as many frames as the
windows allow before waiting for any acknowledgement. Once the limit of
the window is reached, the sender has no more frames to send; it must wait
for the acknowledgement. If the acknowledgement is lost, then the sender
could wait forever.

o Selective-Reject ARQ
Selective-Reject ARQ technique is more efficient than Go-Back-n ARQ.
o In this technique, only those frames are retransmitted for which negative
acknowledgement (NAK) has been received.
o The receiver storage buffer keeps all the damaged frames on hold until the
frame in error is correctly received.
o The receiver must have an appropriate logic for reinserting the frames in a
correct order.
o The sender must consist of a searching mechanism that selects only the
requested frame for retransmission.

In the above figure, three frames have been transmitted before an error discovered in
the third frame. In this case, ACK 2 has been returned telling that the frames 0,1 have
been received successfully without any error. The receiver discovers the error in data
2 frame, so it returns the NAK 2 frame. The frame 3 is also discarded as it is
transmitted after the damaged frame. Therefore, the sender retransmits the frames
2,3.
o Lost Data Frame: In Sliding window protocols, data frames are sent
sequentially. If any of the frames is lost, then the next frame arrive at the
receiver is out of sequence. The receiver checks the sequence number of
each of the frame, discovers the frame that has been skipped, and returns the
NAK for the missing frame. The sending device retransmits the frame
indicated by NAK as well as the frames transmitted after the lost frame.
 algorithm, STP provides redundant paths through the LAN while preventing
Network Standards loops in the LAN that are created by multiple active paths between stations.
 IEEE 802.1q? virtual LANs (VLANs)? A VLAN is a network of computers
If the different network standards in place today were in print, they would fill that behaves as if the computers are connected to the same physical network
volumes upon volumes of text. These network standards serve specific purposes, as segment, even though these computers might be physically located on
defined by the standard itself. different segments of a LAN.
IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Standards
ITU (International Telecommunication Union) Several Ethernet standards are used in today's network environment. Some of these
The three sectors of the ITU are Radio communication (ITU-R), Telecommunication standards dictate the bandwidth and operation of the Ethernet LAN, such as Ethernet
Standardization (ITU-T), and Telecommunication Development (ITU-D). and Fast Ethernet, whereas other standards dictate how these Ethernet networks
 ITU-R draws up the technical characteristics of terrestrial and space-based function, such as the STP.
wireless services and systems, and develops operational procedures. It also
undertakes the important technical studies, which serve as a basis for the
regulatory decisions made at radio communication conferences.
 ITU-T experts prepare the technical specifications for telecommunication
systems, networks, and services, including their operation, performance, and
maintenance. Their work also covers the tariff principles and accounting
methods used to provide international service.
 ITU-D experts focus their work on the preparation and development of
recommendations, opinions, guidelines, handbooks, manuals and reports.
These documents provide decision makers with "best business practices"
relating to a host of issues ranging from development strategies and policies
to network management.
The IEEE 802.3 standards define how the Ethernet standard is used in the networking
IEEE 802 Group environment. These 802.3 standards are as follows:
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE, pronounced "eye-triple-  IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet)? 10-Mbps Ethernet specification developed by
E") is a nonprofit, technical professional association in 150 countries. The IEEE is a Xerox, served as the basis for the IEEE 802.3 standard. This specification
leading authority in technical areas ranging from computer engineering, to describes the use of carrier sense multiple access collision detect
biomedical technology, to telecommunications, to electric power, to aerospace and (CSMA/CD) in handling the simultaneous demands for network access.
consumer electronics. The IEEE produces 30 percent of the world's published Often used in LAN environments.
literature in electrical engineering, computers, and control technology and has nearly  IEEE 802.3u (Fast Ethernet)? 100-Mbps Ethernet specification working at
900 active standards with 700 under development. 10 times the speed of 10-Mbps Ethernet. Often used in LAN environments.
Some of the best-known IEEE standards are as follows:  IEEE 802.3z (Gigabit Ethernet)? 1000-Mbps/1-Gbps Ethernet
 IEEE 802.1 (LAN/MAN) specification that transfers data at 1 gigabit per second (1000 Mbps). Often
 IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet) used in large LAN environments at the core layer.
 IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring)  IEEE 802.3ae (10Gigabit Ethernet)? 10,000-Mbps/10-Gbps Ethernet
 IEEE 802.11 (Wireless LAN) specification that transfers data at 10 gigabits per second (10,000 Mbps).
Often used in metropolitan-area networks (MANs).
IEEE 802.1 LAN/MAN Standards
The IEEE 802.1 group defined internetworking standards, with IEEE 802.1d and IEEE 802.5 Token Ring Standards
IEEE 802.1q used in the local-area networking environment. The standards are as With Ethernet, any host on the network can send data at any time, as long as no one
follows: else is on the line. In contrast, the Token Ring works by passing a token around the
 IEEE 802.1d? Spanning Tree Protocol (STP)? STP is a link-management network, almost like a relay-race runner passing the baton to the next runner.
protocol that is part of the IEEE 802.1 standard for Media Access Control IEEE 802.5 is a related specification and compatible with the Token Ring standard
bridges and is used for Layer 2 redundancy. Using the spanning-tree developed by IBM. Token Ring refers to both IBM Token Ring and IEEE 802.5
network implementations. IBM originally developed the Token Ring network in the Switching by Bridges
1970s; however, IBM gave up on Token Ring in favor of Ethernet several years ago.
When a data frame arrives at a particular port of a bridge, the bridge
examines the frame’s data link address, or more specifically, the MAC
IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN (WLAN) Standards
The IEEE 802.11 standard refers to a family of specifications developed for wireless
address. If the destination address as well as the required switching is
LAN technology. IEEE 802.11 specifies an over-the-air interface between a wireless valid, the bridge sends the frame to the destined port. Otherwise, the frame
client and a base station, such as a wireless laptop and a wireless base unit or is discarded.
between two wireless clients, such as between two wireless laptops. If any segment of the bridged network is wireless, a wireless bridge is
used to perform the switching.
There are three main ways for bridging −
 simple bridging
 multi-port bridging
 learning or transparent bridging

Multiple Access Protocol- ALOHA,

Bridges
A data link layer bridge connects multiple LANs (local area networks)
CSMA, CSMA/CA and CSMA/CD
together to form a larger LAN. This process of aggregating networks is
called network bridging. A bridge connects the different components so It divides the layer into parts such as data link control and the multiple
that they appear as parts of a single network. access resolution/protocol.
The following diagram shows connection by a bridge − The upper layer has the responsibility to flow control and the error control
in the data link layer, and hence it is termed as logical of data link
control. Whereas the lower sub-layer is used to handle and reduce the
collision or multiple access on a channel. Hence it is termed as media
access control or the multiple access resolutions.

Data Link Control

A data link control is a reliable channel for transmitting data over a dedicated link
using various techniques such as framing, error control and flow control of data
packets in the computer network.

What is a multiple access protocol?

When a sender and receiver have a dedicated link to transmit data packets, the
data link control is enough to handle the channel. Suppose there is no dedicated
path to communicate or transfer the data between two devices. In that case,
multiple stations access the channel and simultaneously transmit the data over the
channel. It may create collision and cross talk. Hence, the multiple access
protocol is required to reduce the collision and avoid crosstalk between the ALOHA Random Access Protocol
channels.
For example, suppose that there is a classroom full of students. When a teacher
It is designed for wireless LAN (Local Area Network) but can also be used in a
asks a question, all the students (small channels) in the class start answering the
shared medium to transmit data. Using this method, any station can transmit data
question at the same time (transferring the data simultaneously). All the students
across a network simultaneously when a data frameset is available for
respond at the same time due to which data is overlap or data lost. Therefore it is
transmission.
the responsibility of a teacher (multiple access protocol) to manage the students
and make them one answer. Aloha Rules
Following are the types of multiple access protocol that is subdivided into the 1. Any station can transmit data to a channel at any time.
different process as:
2. It does not require any carrier sensing.
3. Collision and data frames may be lost during the transmission of data
through multiple stations.
4. Acknowledgment of the frames exists in Aloha. Hence, there is no
collision detection.
5. It requires retransmission of data after some random amount of time.

Random Access Protocol

In this protocol, all the station has the equal priority to send the data over a
channel. In random access protocol, one or more stations cannot depend on
Pure Aloha
Whenever data is available for sending over a channel at stations, we use Pure
another station nor any station control another station. Depending on the
Aloha. In pure Aloha, when each station transmits data to a channel without
channel's state (idle or busy), each station transmits the data frame. However, if
checking whether the channel is idle or not, the chances of collision may occur,
more than one station sends the data over a channel, there may be a collision or
and the data frame can be lost. When any station transmits the data frame to a
data conflict. Due to the collision, the data frame packets may be lost or changed.
channel, the pure Aloha waits for the receiver's acknowledgment. If it does not
And hence, it does not receive by the receiver end.
acknowledge the receiver end within the specified time, the station waits for a
Following are the different methods of random-access protocols for broadcasting
random amount of time, called the backoff time (Tb). And the station may
frames on the channel. assume the frame has been lost or destroyed. Therefore, it retransmits the frame
o Aloha until all the data are successfully transmitted to the receiver.
o CSMA 1. The total vulnerable time of pure Aloha is 2 * Tfr.
o CSMA/CD 2. Maximum throughput occurs when G = 1/ 2 that is 18.4%.
o CSMA/CA 3. Successful transmission of data frame is S = G * e ^ - 2 G.
 when trying to send a frame at the beginning of two or more station time
slot.
1. Maximum throughput occurs in the slotted Aloha when G = 1 that
is 37%.
2. The probability of successfully transmitting the data frame in the
slotted Aloha is S = G * e ^ - 2 G.
3. The total vulnerable time required in slotted Aloha is Tfr.

As we can see in the figure above, there are four stations for accessing a
shared channel and transmitting data frames. Some frames collide because
most stations send their frames at the same time. Only two frames, frame
1.1 and frame 2.2, are successfully transmitted to the receiver end. At the
same time, other frames are lost or destroyed. Whenever two frames fall
on a shared channel simultaneously, collisions can occur, and both will
suffer damage. If the new frame's first bit enters the channel before
finishing the last bit of the second frame. Both frames are completely
finished, and both stations must retransmit the data frame. CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
Slotted Aloha It is a carrier sense multiple access based on media access protocol to
The slotted Aloha is designed to overcome the pure Aloha's efficiency sense the traffic on a channel (idle or busy) before transmitting the data. It
because pure Aloha has a very high possibility of frame hitting. In slotted means that if the channel is idle, the station can send data to the channel.
Aloha, the shared channel is divided into a fixed time interval called slots. Otherwise, it must wait until the channel becomes idle. Hence, it reduces
So that, if a station wants to send a frame to a shared channel, the frame the chances of a collision on a transmission medium.
can only be sent at the beginning of the slot, and only one frame is allowed
to be sent to each slot. And if the stations are unable to send data to the CSMA Access Modes
beginning of the slot, the station will have to wait until the beginning of
the slot for the next time. However, the possibility of a collision remains 1- Persistent: In the 1-Persistent mode of CSMA that defines each node,
first sense the shared channel and if the channel is idle, it immediately
sends the data. Else it must wait and keep track of the status of the channel and if the channel is inactive, it sends a frame with a P probability. If the
to be idle and broadcast the frame unconditionally as soon as the channel data is not transmitted, it waits for a (q = 1-p probability) random time
is idle. and resumes the frame with the next time slot.

Non-Persistent: It is the access mode of CSMA that defines before O- Persistent: It is an O-persistent method that defines the superiority of
transmitting the data, each node must sense the channel, and if the channel the station before the transmission of the frame on the shared channel. If it
is inactive, it immediately sends the data. Otherwise, the station must wait is found that the channel is inactive, each station waits for its turn to
for a random time (not continuously), and when the channel is found to be retransmit the data.
idle, it transmits the frames.
CSMA/ CD
 It is carriers sense multiple access/ collision detection network
protocol to transmit data frames.
 The CSMA/CD protocol works with a medium access control
layer.
 Therefore, it first senses the shared channel before broadcasting the
frames, and if the channel is idle, it transmits a frame to check
whether the transmission was successful.
 If the frame is successfully received, the station sends another
frame.
 If any collision is detected in the CSMA/CD, the station sends a
jam/ stop signal to the shared channel to terminate data
transmission.
 After that, it waits for a random time before sending a frame to a
channel.

CSMA/ CA

 It is a carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance network

protocol for carrier transmission of data frames.
 It is a protocol that works with a medium access control layer.
When a data frame is sent to a channel, it receives an
acknowledgment to check whether the channel is clear.
 If the station receives only a single (own) acknowledgments, that
means the data frame has been successfully transmitted to the
receiver.
 But if it gets two signals (its own and one more in which the
P-Persistent: It is the combination of 1-Persistent and Non-persistent collision of frames), a collision of the frame occurs in the shared
modes. The P-Persistent mode defines that each node senses the channel, channel.
  Detects the collision of the frame when a sender receives an FDMA
acknowledgment signal. It is a frequency division multiple access (FDMA) method used to divide
the available bandwidth into equal bands so that multiple users can send
Following are the methods used in the CSMA/ CA to avoid data through a different frequency to the sub-channel. Each station is
the collision: reserved with a particular band to prevent the crosstalk between the
channels and interferences of stations.
 Interframe space: In this method, the station waits for the channel
to become idle, and if it gets the channel is idle, it does not
immediately send the data. Instead of this, it waits for some time,
and this time period is called the Interframe space or IFS.
However, the IFS time is often used to define the priority of the
station.
 Contention window: In the Contention window, the total time is
divided into different slots. When the station/ sender is ready to
transmit the data frame, it chooses a random slot number of slots
as wait time. If the channel is still busy, it does not restart the
entire process, except that it restarts the timer only to send data
packets when the channel is inactive.
 Acknowledgment: In the acknowledgment method, the sender
station sends the data frame to the shared channel if the
acknowledgment is not received ahead of time.
Controlled Access Protocol
It is a method of reducing data frame collision on a shared channel. In the
controlled access method, each station interacts and decides to send a data
frame by a particular station approved by all other stations. It means that a
single station cannot send the data frames unless all other stations are not
approved. It has three types of controlled access: Reservation, Polling, TDMA
and Token Passing. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a channel access method. It
allows the same frequency bandwidth to be shared across multiple
Channelization Protocols stations. And to avoid collisions in the shared channel, it divides the
It is a channelization protocol that allows the total usable bandwidth in a
channel into different frequency slots that allocate stations to transmit the
shared channel to be shared across multiple stations based on their time,
data frames.
distance and codes. It can access all the stations at the same time to send CDMA
the data frames to the channel. The code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method.
Following are the various methods to access the channel based on their In CDMA, all stations can simultaneously send the data over the same
time, distance and codes: channel. It means that it allows each station to transmit the data frames
1. FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access) with full frequency on the shared channel at all times. It does not require
2. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
the division of bandwidth on a shared channel based on time slots. If
multiple stations send data to a channel simultaneously, their data frames
3. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) are separated by a unique code sequence.