College of Engineering

Department of Electrical Engineering

ELEC 325: Engineering Electromagnetics

Dr. Hamad M. Alkhoori

Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering

Email: [email protected]

Spring 2024
Part I: Vectors

The first part of this course will be a review on vectors. The sequence of topics are as follows:

ˆ Chapter 1: Vector algebra.

ˆ Chapter 2: Coordinate systems and transformation.

ˆ Chapter 3: Vector calculus.

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Chapter 1

Vector Algebra

Vectors and Scalars:

ˆ A vector is a quantity that has a magnitude and a direction. Examples are velocity, acceleration, force,

and momentum.

ˆ A scalar is a quantity that has a magnitude only. Examples include mass, charge, and temperature.

The Magnitude and The Direction of a Vector:

ˆ The magnitude of a vector A is written as |A|, or just A.

ˆ The direction of the vector A is given by

A
âA = . (1.1)
|A|

ˆ The vector âA is called a unit vector because its magnitude is unity.

Vector Expansion:

ˆ A vector A can be expanded into Cartesian unit vectors by

A = Ax âx + Ay ây + Az âz , (1.2)

where âx , ây , and âz are unit vectors in the direction of the x axis, the y axis, and the z axis,

respectively. These unit vectors are often called basis vectors. Ax , Ay , and Az are components of

the vector A in the direction of the x axis, the y axis, and the z axis, respectively; see Fig. 1.1.

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ELEC 325 Hamad M. Alkhoori Spring 2024

Figure 1.1: Vector expansion.

Vector Addition and Subtraction:

ˆ Given the vectors A = Ax âx + Ay ây + Az âz and B = Bx âx + By ây + Bz âz , we obtain A + B as

A + B = (Ax + Bx )âx + (Ay + By )ây + (Az + Bz )âz . (1.3)

ˆ For subtraction, A − B, we can make it as A + (−B) and proceed.

ˆ Addition/ subtraction is commutative (i.e., A + B = B + A).

ˆ Addition/ subtraction is associative [i.e., (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)].

ˆ Addition/ subtraction is distributive (i.e., α(A + B) = αA + αB).

Vector Multiplication (Dot Product):

ˆ The dot product is defined by

A • B ≡ |A||B| cos θ, (1.4)

where θ is the angle between A and B when placed tail-to-tail; see Fig. 1.2.

Figure 1.2: Dot product.

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ELEC 325 Hamad M. Alkhoori Spring 2024

ˆ When θ = 0◦ or θ = 180◦ , A and B are parallel to each other, whereas when θ = 90◦ , A and B are

perpendicular (normal or orthogonal) to each other.

ˆ Note that âx • âx = ây • ây = âz • âz = 1, whereas âx • ây = 0, etc.

ˆ In component form, the dot product can be written as

A • B = Ax B x + Ay B y + Az B z . (1.5)

ˆ From Eq. (1.5), the magnitude of a vector A can be written as

q
|A| = A2x + A2y + A2z . (1.6)

ˆ The dot product is commutative (i.e., A • B = B • A).

ˆ The dot product is associative (i.e., A • (B + C) = A • B + A • C).

ˆ Example 1: Let A = 3âx + 4ây + âz and B = 2ây − 5âz . Find the angle θ between A and B.
√ √
Solution: We have A • B = (3)(0) + (4)(2) − (5)(1) = 3, |A| = 32 + 4 2 + 1 2 = 26, and |B| =
√ √
22 + 52 = 29. Therefore, θ = cos−1 √ 3
26×29
= 83.7◦ .

Vector Multiplication (Cross Product):

ˆ The cross product is defined by

A × B = |A||B| sin θ ân , (1.7)

where ân is a unit vector perpendicular (normal) to the plane formed by A and B.

ˆ In component form, the cross product can be written as

âx ây âz

A × B = Ax Ay Az = âx (Ay Bz − Az By ) + ây (Az Bx − Ax Bz ) + âz (Ax By − Ay Bx ). (1.8)

Bx By Bz

ˆ If we set A = âx and B = ây in Eq. (1.8), one finds that âx × ây = âz .

ˆ By a similar approach, ây × âz = âx and âz × âx = ây .

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ELEC 325 Hamad M. Alkhoori Spring 2024

ˆ Cross product is distributive (i.e., A × (B + C) = A × B + A × C).

ˆ Cross product is not commutative (i.e., B × A = −A × B).

Vector Multiplication (Triple Products):

ˆ Scalar triple product: A • (B × C) = B • (C × A) = C • (A × B).

ˆ Vector triple product: A × (B × C) = B(C • A) − C(A • B).

Position and Distance Vectors:

ˆ The position vector for a point represented by coordinates (x, y, z) is given by

r = xâx + yây + zâz . (1.9)

Suppose that another point is represented by (x′ , y ′ , z ′ ), with a corresponding position vector

r′ = x′ âx + y ′ ây + z ′ âz . (1.10)

Then, the distance vector between the two points is given by

R = r − r′ . (1.11)

The magnitude of the distance vector |R| gives the distance between the two points.

ˆ Example 2: A point is given by (0, 2, 4) and another point by (−3, 1, 5).

(a) Find the position vector r of the first point.

Solution: r = 0âx + 2ây + 4âz = 2ây + 4âz .

(b) Find the distance vector between the two points.

Solution: R = r − r′ = (0, 2, 4) − (−3, 1, 5) = (3, 1, −1) = 3âx + ây − âz .

(c) Find the distance between the two points.

p
Solution: The distance is equal to |R| = (3)2 + (1)2 + (−1)2 = 3.317.

Component of a Vector:

ˆ The scalar component (projection) of a vector A in the direction of a vector B is written as AB , which

is given by the formula

AB = A • âB . (1.12)

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ELEC 325 Hamad M. Alkhoori Spring 2024

ˆ The vector component of a vector A in the direction of a vector B is written as AB , which is given by

the formula

AB = AB âB . (1.13)

Suggested Problems for Chapter 1

ˆ Section 1.6: Example 1.1.

ˆ Section 1.8: Example 1.5.

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Chapter 2

Coordinate Systems and Transformation

In this course, we will be dealing with spatial variables. These variables are referred to as coordinates.

In three dimensions, a set of three coordinates is called a coordinate system. We introduce here the

most common three coordinate systems. These are the Cartesian coordinates, cylindrical coordinates, and

spherical coordinates.

2.1 Cartesian Coordinates

Figure 2.1: Representation of a point P in Cartesian Coordinates.

Cartesian coordinates are the most simplest coordinate system and are represented by (x, y, z). The cylin-

drical coordinates of a point P are defined in Fig. 2.1. These coordinates can take on any real value; that

is, x ∈ (−∞, ∞), y ∈ (−∞, ∞), and z ∈ (−∞, ∞). In addition, Cartesian coordinate system has a set of

constant unit vectors (âx , ây , âz ) whereby vectors can be expanded. By the word constant, I mean âx does

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ELEC 325 Hamad M. Alkhoori Spring 2024

not depend on either x, y, or z, etc.

Constant Coordinates

ˆ The equation x = x0 is the equation of an infinite plane parallel to the yz plane with a coordinate

x = x0 .

ˆ The equation y = y0 is the equation of an infinite plane parallel to the xz plane with a coordinate

y = y0 .

ˆ The equation z = z0 is the equation of an infinite plane parallel to the xy plane with a coordinate

z = z0 .

ˆ The equation {x = x0 , y ∈ [a, b], z ∈ [c, d]}, is the equation of a plane parallel to the yz plane from

y = a to y = b and from z = c to z = d, with coordinate x = x0 .

ˆ The equation {x ∈ [a, b], y = y0 , z ∈ [c, d]}, is the equation of a plane parallel to the xz plane from

x = a to x = b and from z = c to z = d, with coordinate y = y0 .

ˆ The equation {x ∈ [a, b], y ∈ [c, d], z = z0 }, is the equation of a plane parallel to the xy plane from

x = a to x = b and from y = c to y = d, with coordinate z = z0 .

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ELEC 325 Hamad M. Alkhoori Spring 2024

2.2 Cylindrical Coordinates

The cylindrical coordinates {ρ, ϕ, z} of a point P are shown in Fig. 2.2.

Figure 2.2: Representation of a point P in cylindrical coordinates.

These cylindrical coordinates are related to the Cartesian coordinates through



x = ρ cos ϕ





y = ρ sin ϕ  , (2.1)





z=z 


where ρ ∈ [0, ∞) is the distance from the z axis to the point P , and ϕ ∈ [0, 2π], called the azimuthal angle,

is measured from the x axis in the xy plane.

Equations (2.1) can be used when converting from Cartesian coordinates to cylindrical coordinates. To

convert from cylindrical coordinates to Cartesian coordinates, we use


p 
2
ρ= x +y  2 





−1 y . (2.2)
ϕ = tan
x  




z=z 


Constant Coordinates

ˆ The equation ρ = ρ0 is the equation of an infinite cylinder with a radius ρ0 .

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ELEC 325 Hamad M. Alkhoori Spring 2024

ˆ The equation ϕ = ϕ0 is the equation of an infinite plane making an angle ϕ0 with respect to the positive

x axis.

ˆ The equation z = z0 is the equation of an infinite plane parallel to the xy plane with a coordinate

z = z0 .

ˆ The equation {ρ = ρ0 , ϕ = [0, 2π), z ∈ [a, b]}, is the equation of a finite cylinder of radius ρ0 and from

z = a to z = b.

ˆ The equation {ρ = [a, b], ϕ = ϕ0 , z = [c, d]}, is the equation of a plane from ρ = a to ρ = b and z = c

to z = d, with coordinate ϕ = ϕ0 .

ˆ The equation {ρ = [a, b], ϕ = [c, d], z = z0 }, is the equation of a plane from ρ = a to ρ = b and ϕ = c

to ϕ = d, with coordinate z = z0 .

Figure 2.3: Surfaces in cylindrical coordinates.

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ELEC 325 Hamad M. Alkhoori Spring 2024

Cylindrical Bases

Cylindrical coordinate system has a set of bases (âρ , âϕ , âz ) whereby vectors can be expanded. These are

shown in Fig. 2.2. Note that 


âρ • âρ = âϕ • âϕ = âz
âz = 1

•






âρ • âϕ = âρ • âz = âϕ • âz = 0





âρ × âϕ = âz . (2.3)






âϕ × âz = âρ









âz × âρ = âϕ


A vector A can be expanded in cylindrical coordinate system by

A = Aρ âρ + Aϕ âϕ + Az âz , (2.4)

where Aρ is the projection of A into âρ , Aϕ is the projection of A into âϕ , and Az is the projection of A

into âz . The cylindrical unit vectors (âρ , âϕ , âz ) are related to the Cartesian unit vector (âx , ây , âz ) through
    
 âρ   cos ϕ sin ϕ 0 âx 
    
    
â  = − sin ϕ cos ϕ 0 â  . (2.5)
 ϕ    y
    
    
âz 0 0 1 âz

Note that âρ should have been written as âρ (ϕ), but for the sake of compactness, we omit the ϕ dependence.

The same holds for âϕ . An inverse relation for Eq. (2.5) exists as
    
âx  cos ϕ − sin ϕ 0  âρ 
    
    
â  =  sin ϕ cos ϕ 0 â  , (2.6)
 y    ϕ
    
    
âz 0 0 1 âz

2.3 Spherical Coordinates

The spherical coordinates {r, θ, ϕ} of a point P are defined in Fig. 2.4.

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ELEC 325 Hamad M. Alkhoori Spring 2024

Figure 2.4: Representation of a point P in spherical coordinates.

These spherical coordinates are related to the Cartesian coordinates through



x = r sin θ cos ϕ 





y = r sin θ sin ϕ  , (2.7)





z = r cos θ 


where r ∈ [0, ∞) is the distance from the origin to the point P , θ ∈ [0, π], called the colatitude (or polar)

angle, is an angle drawn from the z axis, and ϕ is defined as before. Equations (2.7) can be used when

converting from Cartesian coordinates to spherical coordinates. To convert from spherical coordinates to

Cartesian coordinates, we use 

p 
r= x2
+ + y2 z2 



p 

x2 + y 2

−1 . (2.8)
θ = tan
z 



y 
ϕ = tan−1



x

Constant Coordinates

ˆ The equation r = r0 is the equation of a sphere with a radius r0 .

ˆ The equation θ = θ0 is the equation of an infinite cone of an angle θ0 .

ˆ The equation ϕ = ϕ0 is the equation of an infinite plane making an angle ϕ0 with respect to the positive

x axis.

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ELEC 325 Hamad M. Alkhoori Spring 2024

Figure 2.5: Surfaces in spherical coordinates.

Spherical Bases

Spherical coordinate system has a set of bases (âr , âθ , âϕ ) whereby vectors can be expanded. These are

shown in Fig. 2.4. Note that 


âr • âr = âθ • âθ = âϕ • âϕ = 1








âr âθ = âr âϕ = âθ âϕ = 0
• • • 




âr × âθ = âϕ . (2.9)






âθ × âϕ = âr









âϕ × âr = âθ


A vector A can be expanded in spherical coordinate system by

A = Ar âr + Aθ âθ + Aϕ âϕ , (2.10)

where Ar is the projection of A into âr , Aθ is the projection of A into θ, and Aϕ is the projection of A into

âϕ . The spherical unit vectors (âr , âθ , âϕ ) are related to the Cartesian unit vectors (âx , ây , âz ) through
    
 âr   sin θ cos ϕ sin θ sin ϕ cos θ  âx 
    
    
 â  = cos θ cos ϕ cos θ sin ϕ  ây  .
− sin θ (2.11)
 
 θ 
    
    
âϕ − sin ϕ cos ϕ 0 âz

Note that we write âr instead of âr (θ, ϕ) for the sake of compactness. The same holds for âθ , as well as for

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ELEC 325 Hamad M. Alkhoori Spring 2024

âϕ (without the θ dependence). An inverse relation for Eq. (2.11) exists as
    
âx  sin θ cos ϕ cos θ cos ϕ − sin ϕ  âr 
    
    
â  =  sin θ sin ϕ cos θ sin ϕ cos ϕ   âθ  , (2.12)
 
 y 
    
    
âz cos θ − sin θ 0 âϕ

2.4 Normal and Tangential Components of a Vector

Given a surface with unit normal ân , the vector component normal to that surface, denoted by A⊥ , is

A⊥ = (A • ân )ân , (2.13)

whereas the the vector component tangential to that surface, denoted by A∥ , is

A∥ = A − (A • ân )ân . (2.14)

z
Example 1 Given f (x, y, z) = x2 y + , express f (x, y, z) in spherical coordinates [i.e., obtain f (r, θ, ϕ)].
x
Ans:

f (r, θ, ϕ) = r3 sin3 θ sin ϕ cos2 ϕ + cot θ sec ϕ.

Example 2: Given A = yâx , express A in (a) cylindrical coordinates and in (b) spherical coordinates.

Ans: (a)

A = yâx = ρ sin ϕ(cos ϕ âρ − sin ϕ âϕ ) = ρ sin ϕ cos ϕ âρ − ρ sin2 ϕ âϕ .

(b)

A = yâx = r sin θ sin ϕ(sin θ cos ϕ âr + cos θ cos ϕ âθ − sin ϕ âϕ )

= r sin2 θ sin ϕ cos ϕ âr + r sin θ cos θ sin ϕ cos ϕ âθ − r sin θ sin2 ϕ âϕ .
Example 3: Given A = A0 âr , where A0 is a constant, determine A • âx .

Ans: A • âx = A0 âr • âx . From

    
âx  sin θ cos ϕ cos θ cos ϕ − sin ϕ  âr 
    
    
â  =  sin θ sin ϕ cos θ sin ϕ cos ϕ   âθ  ,
 
 y 
    
    
âz cos θ − sin θ 0 âϕ

we see that âx = sin θ cos ϕ âr + cos θ cos ϕ âθ − sin ϕ âϕ . Thus,

âr • âx = (sin θ cos ϕ âr + cos θ cos ϕ âθ − sin ϕ âϕ ) • âr = sin θ cos ϕ.

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ELEC 325 Hamad M. Alkhoori Spring 2024

Therefore, A • âx = A0 sin θ cos ϕ.

Example 4: Given E = −5âρ + 10âϕ + 3âz and F = âρ + 2âϕ − 6âz , determine: (a) |E × F|, and (b) the

scalar component of E parallel to the y axis when ρ = 5, ϕ = π/2, and z = 3 [i.e., E • ây at (5, π/2, 3)].

Ans: (a)

âρ âϕ âz

E × F = −5 10 3 = −66 âρ − 27 âϕ − 20 âz .

1 2 −6

Thus, |E × F| = 74.

(b)

E • ây = (−5âρ + 10âϕ + 3âz ) • ây .

Using     
âx  cos ϕ − sin ϕ 0  âρ 
    
    
â  =  sin ϕ cos ϕ 0 âϕ  ,
 
 y 
    
    
âz 0 0 1 âz

we write ây = sin ϕ âρ + cos ϕâϕ . Thus,

E • ây = (−5âρ + 10âϕ + 3âz ) • ây = (−5âρ + 10âϕ + 3âz ) • (sin ϕ âρ + cos ϕâϕ ) = −5 sin ϕ + 10 cos ϕ.

But this expression needs to be evaluated at ρ = 5, ϕ = π/2, and z = 3. Substituting these, we get

E • ây {ρ = 5, ϕ = π/2, z = 3} = −5.

Example 5: Given H = ρz cos ϕ âρ + e−2 sin ϕ2 âϕ + ρ2 âz , determine (a) H • âx , (b) the vector component of

H normal to the surface ρ = 1 [i.e., (H • âρ )âρ when ρ = 1], and (c) the vector component of H tangential

to the plane z = 0.

Ans:

(a)
ϕ
H • âx = (ρz cos ϕ âρ + e−2 sin âϕ + ρ2 âz ) • âx .
2

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ELEC 325 Hamad M. Alkhoori Spring 2024

Using     
âx  cos ϕ − sin ϕ 0  âρ 
    
    
â  =  sin ϕ cos ϕ 0 âϕ  ,
 
 y 
    
    
âz 0 0 1 âz

we write âx = cos ϕ âρ − sin ϕâϕ . Thus,

ϕ
H • âx = ρz cos2 ϕ − e−2 sin sin ϕ
2

(b)

H⊥ = (H • âρ )âρ = ρz cos ϕ âρ .

But this has to be evaluated at ρ = 1. Hence, H⊥ = z cos ϕ âρ .

ρ=1

(c)
ϕ
H∥ = H − H⊥ = H − (H • âz )âz = ρz cos ϕ âρ + e−2 sin âϕ .
2

But this has to be evaluated at z = 0. Hence, H∥ = e−2 sin ϕ2 âϕ .

z=0

Example 6: Given D = r sin ϕâr − 1r sin θ cos ϕâθ + r2 âϕ , determine (a) the vector component of D tangential

to the surface r = 10, and (b) the vector component normal to the surface θ = π/3.

Ans:

(a)
1
D∥ = D − D⊥ = D − (D • âr )âr = − sin θ cos ϕâθ + r2 âϕ
r

But this has to be evaluated at r = 10. Hence, D∥ = −0.1 sin θ cos ϕâθ + 100âϕ .
r=10

(b)
1
D⊥ = (D • âθ )âθ = − sin θ cos ϕâθ .
r
√
3
But this has to be evaluated at θ = π/3. Hence, D ⊥ =− cos ϕâθ .
θ=π/3 2r
Example 7: Express the position vector r = x âx + y ây + z âz in (a) cylindrical coordinates, and in (b)

spherical coordinates.

Ans: (a) In cylindrical coordinates,

r = ρ cos ϕ âx + ρ sin ϕ ây + z âz = ρ(cos ϕ âx + sin ϕ ây ) + z âz = ρ âρ + z âz .

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ELEC 325 Hamad M. Alkhoori Spring 2024

(b) In spherical coordinates,

r = r sin θ cos ϕ âx + r sin θ sin ϕ ây + r cos θ âz = r(sin θ cos ϕ âx + sin θ sin ϕ ây + cos θ âz ) = r âr .

Suggested Problems for Chapter 2

ˆ Section 2.4: Example 2.2 and Practice Exercise 2.2.

ˆ Section 2.5: Practice Exercises 2.3 and 2.4.

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Chapter 3

Vector Calculus

3.1 Differential Length, Surface, and Volume

• Differential length:

In Cartesian coordinates,

r = xâx + yây + zâz . (3.1)

Since âx , ây , and âz are constant, the differential position vector dr can be written as

dr = dxâx + dyây + dzâz . (3.2)

Here, we call dr → dl the differential length element instead of the differential position vector. Therefore,

the differential length element in Cartesian coordinates is

dl = dxâx + dyây + dzâz . (3.3)

In cylindrical coordinates,

r = ρ âρ + z âz . (3.4)

Then, the differential length element becomes

dl = d(ρ âρ ) + d(z âz ) = dρ âρ + ρdâρ + z âz = dρ âρ + ρdϕ âϕ + z âz , (3.5)

where
dâρ
dâρ = dϕ = dϕ âϕ . (3.6)
dϕ

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ELEC 325 Hamad M. Alkhoori Spring 2024

In spherical coordinates,

r = r âr . (3.7)

Then, the differential length element becomes

dl = d(r âr ) = dr âr + r dâr = drâr + rdθâθ + r sin θdϕâϕ , (3.8)

where
∂âr ∂âr
dâr = dθ + dϕ = dθ âθ + sin θ âϕ . (3.9)
∂θ ∂ϕ

• Differential surface:

The differential surface for an element can be written generally as

dS = dSân , (3.10)

where dS is the area of the surface element, and ân is a unit vector normal to the element.

Figure 3.1: Area elements.

In Fig. 3.1, the following differential surface elements in Cartesian coordinates are defined:

dS = dydzâx 



x=constant 



dS = dxdzây  . (3.11)
y=constant 




dS = dxdyâz 

z=constant

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ELEC 325 Hamad M. Alkhoori Spring 2024

Figure 3.2: Area elements.

In Fig. 3.2, the following differential surface elements in cylindrical coordinates are defined:

dS = ρdϕdzâρ 


ρ=constant 




dS = dρdzâϕ  . (3.12)
ϕ=constant 





dS = ρdρdϕâ 
z
z=constant

Figure 3.3: Area elements.

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ELEC 325 Hamad M. Alkhoori Spring 2024

In Fig. 3.3, the following differential surface elements in spherical coordinates are defined:

dS = r2 sin θdθdϕâr 


r=constant





dS = r sin θdrdϕâθ  . (3.13)
θ=constant 




dS = rdrdθâϕ


ϕ=constant

• Differential volume:

The differential volume elements in Cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical coordinates are given, respec-

tively, by

dV = dxdydz, (3.14)

dV = ρdρdϕdz, (3.15)

and

dV = r2 sin θdrdθdϕ. (3.16)

3.2 Integral Calculus

3.2.1 Line Integrals

A line integral is an integral whose domain is a curve in space. There are two types of line integrals: scalar

line integrals and vector line integrals.

• Scalar line integrals:

The scalar line integral of a vector A is given by

Z
A • dl, (3.17)
L

where L is the domain of integration. Note that only the tangential component of A contributes to this

integral; see Fig. 3.4. If L represents a closed path, the line integral becomes

I
A • dl. (3.18)
L

Such an integral is interpreted as the circulation of A around L.

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ELEC 325 Hamad M. Alkhoori Spring 2024

Figure 3.4: Line integral

A • dl, where A = x2 âx − xzây − y 2 âz and L is the boundary (in the counter-
H
Example 1: Calculate L

clockwise direction) of the plane z = 0, x ∈ [−1, 1], and y ∈ [−1, 1].

Ans: I Z Z Z Z
A dl = • A dl +
• A dl +
• A dl + • A • dl
L 1 2 3 4
Z Z1
A • dl = A • dyây {x = 1, z = 0} = 0
1
−1
Z Z−1
A • dl = A • dxâx {y = 1, z = 0} = −2/3
2
1
Z Z−1
A • dl = A • dyây {x = −1, z = 0} = 0
3
1
Z Z1
A • dl = A • dxâx {y = −1, z = 0} = 2/3
4
−1
I
⇒ A • dl = 0.
L
A • dl, where A = z cos ϕâρ + ρ sin2 ϕâϕ and L is a circle of radius a (in the
H
Example 2: Calculate L

counter-clockwise direction) lying on the z = 0 plane.

Ans:
I Z2π Z2π
A dl = • A ρdϕ âϕ {ρ = a, z = 0} = a
• 2
sin2 ϕdϕ = πa2 .
L
0 0
• Vector line integrals:

The vector line integral of a vector A is given by

Z
A dl, (3.19)
L

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ELEC 325 Hamad M. Alkhoori Spring 2024

where L is the domain of integration. For these integrals, we always need to make sure that the vector A is

expressed in Cartesian bases âx , ây , and âz .

Z1 Z2π Z2π
Example 3: Evaluate (a) âx dx ,(b) âρ dϕ, and (c) cos ϕ âρ dϕ.
0 0 0
Ans:

(a)
Z1 Z1
âx dx = âx dx = âx .
0 0

(b)
Z2π Z2π Z2π Z2π
âρ dϕ = (cos ϕ âx + sin ϕ ây ) dϕ = âx cos ϕ dϕ + ây sin ϕ dϕ = 0.
0 0 0 0

(c)

Z2π Z2π Z2π Z2π

2 2
cos ϕ âρ dϕ = (cos ϕ âx + sin ϕ cos ϕ ây ) dϕ = âx cos ϕ dϕ + ây sin ϕ cos ϕ dϕ = πâx .
0 0 0 0

3.2.2 Surface Integrals

A surface integral is an integral whose domain is a surface in space. There are two types of surface integrals:

scalar surface integrals and vector surface integrals.

• Scalar surface integrals:

The scalar surface integral of a vector A is given by

Z
A • dS, (3.20)
S

where S is the domain of integration. Note that only the normal component of A contributes to this integral;

see Fig. 3.5. If S represents a closed surface, the surface integral becomes

I
A • dS. (3.21)
S

Such an integral is interpreted as the flux of A from S and is given the symbol Ψ.

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ELEC 325 Hamad M. Alkhoori Spring 2024

Figure 3.5: Surface integral

A • dS, where A = 10e−2z (ρâρ + âz ), and S is the cylinder ρ = 1, 0 ≤ z ≤ 1.

H
Example 4: Determine S

Ans: I Z Z Z
A • dS = A • dS + A • dS + A • dS
S 1 2 3
Z Z1 Z2π
A • dS = A • ρdρdϕ âz = 10πe−2
1 z=1
0 0
Z Z1 Z2π
A • dS = A • ρdϕdz âρ = 10π(1 − e−2 )
2 ρ=1
0 0
Z Z1 Z2π
A • dS = A • ρdρdϕ (−âz ) = −10π
3 z=0
0 0
I
⇒ A • dS = 0.
S
• Vector surface integrals:

The vector surface integral of a vector A is given by

Z
A dS, (3.22)
S

where S is the domain of integration. Again, for these integrals, we always need to make sure that the vector

A is expressed in Cartesian bases âx , ây , and âz .

3.2.3 Volume Integrals

The volume integral is an integral whose domain is a volume in space. The volume integral of a vector A is

given by
Z
A dV, (3.23)
V

where V is the domain of integration.

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ELEC 325 Hamad M. Alkhoori Spring 2024

R
Example 5: Determine V
A dV , where A = z(ρâρ + âz ), and V is the cylinder {ρ ∈ [0, 1], z ∈ [0, 1]}.

Ans:

Z Z1 Z2πZ1 Z1 Z2πZ1
π
A dV = z(ρâρ + âz ) ρdρdϕdz = 0 + âz zρdρdϕdz = âz .
V 2
0 0 0 0 0 0

3.3 Differential Calculus

3.3.1 The Gradient

In single-variable calculus, the total derivative for a scalar field V (x) is given by

dV (x)
dV (x) = dx. (3.24)
dx

In three-variable calculus, the total derivative for a scalar field V (r) * is given by

∂V ∂V ∂V
dV (r) = dx + dy + dz, (3.25)
∂x ∂y ∂z

which can be written as

dV (r) = ∇V • dl = |∇V ||dl| cos θ. (3.26)

The gradient of a scalar field is a vector field whose magnitude is the highest rate of change of the scalar

field, and whose direction points to the highest rate of increase (or decrease) of the scalar field. In Cartesian

coordinates, the gradient of a scalar field V (r) has the form

∂V ∂V ∂V
∇V = âx + ây + âz . (3.27)
∂x ∂y ∂z

In cylindrical coordinates, it has the form

∂V 1 ∂V ∂V
∇V = âρ + âϕ + âz . (3.28)
∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z

In spherical coordinates, it has the form

∂V 1 ∂V 1 ∂V
∇V = âr + âθ + âϕ . (3.29)
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
* V (r) ≡ V (x, y, z)

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ELEC 325 Hamad M. Alkhoori Spring 2024

Theorem: Given a surface described by f (x, y, z) = 0, the unit normal to the surface is given by

∇f
ân = . (3.30)
|∇f |

Example 6: Determine the unit normal to the surfaces (a) x = a, (b) ρ = a, and (c) r = a.

Ans: (a) ân = âx , (b) ân = âρ , and (c) ân = âr .

3.3.2 The Divergence

The divergence of a vector field A is represented by ∇ • A. Divergence means how much the vector field A

spreads out (diverge) from a given point. Mathematically, the divergence can be described by
H
S
A • dS
∇ • A = lim . (3.31)
∆v→0 ∆v

Equation (3.31) indicates that the divergence of a vector field A at a point P is the outward flux per unit

volume as the volume shrinks about the point P . Divergence can be positive (P is a source), negative (P is

a sink), or zero.

In Cartesian coordinates, the divergence of a vector field A has the form

∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az

∇•A= + + . (3.32)
∂x ∂y ∂z

In cylindrical coordinates, it has the form

1 ∂ 1 ∂Aϕ ∂Az
∇•A= (ρAρ ) + + . (3.33)
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z

In spherical coordinates, it has the form

1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 1 ∂Aϕ
∇•A= (r Ar ) + (Aθ sin θ) + . (3.34)
r2 ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ

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ELEC 325 Hamad M. Alkhoori Spring 2024

The divergence theorem: The divergence theorem states that the total outward flux of a vector field A

through a closed surface S is equal to the volume integral of the divergence of A. Mathematically,

I Z
A • dS = ∇ • A dV. (3.35)
S V

∇ • A dV when A = 10e−2z (ρâρ + âz ), S is the cylinder ρ = 1, 0 ≤ z ≤ 1,

H R
Example 7: Verify S
A • dS = V

and V is the region enclosed by the cylinder.

H
Ans: We found that S
A • dS = 0. Now,

1 ∂ 1 ∂Aϕ ∂Az 1 ∂ ∂
∇•A= (ρAρ ) + + = (ρ10e−2z ρ) + (10e−2z ) = 0.
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z ρ ∂ρ ∂z

Thus,
Z Z1 Z2πZ1
∇ • A dV = 0 ρdρdϕdz = 0.
V
0 0 0

3.3.3 The Curl

The curl of a vector field A is represented by ∇ × A. Mathematically, the curl can be described by
H
L
A • dl
∇ × A = lim ân . (3.36)
∆s→0 ∆s

Equation (3.36) indicates that the curl of a vector field A at a point P is the circulation of A per unit area

as the area shrinks to zero. The magnitude of the curl is a measure of how much the vector field A rotates

about the point P , and its direction is normal to the area and is determined from the right-hand rule.

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ELEC 325 Hamad M. Alkhoori Spring 2024

In Cartesian coordinates, the curl of a vector field A has the form

     
∂Az ∂Ay ∂Ax ∂Az ∂Ay ∂Ax
∇×A= − âx + − ây + − âz . (3.37)
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y

In cylindrical coordinates, it has the form

     
1 ∂Az ∂Aϕ ∂Aρ ∂Az 1 ∂(ρAϕ ) ∂Aρ
∇×A= − âρ + − âϕ + − âz . (3.38)
ρ ∂ϕ ∂z ∂z ∂ρ ρ ∂ρ ∂ϕ

In spherical coordinates, it has the form

     
1 ∂(Aϕ sin θ) ∂Aθ 1 1 ∂Ar ∂(rAϕ ) 1 ∂(rAθ ) ∂Ar
∇×A= − âr + − âθ + − âϕ . (3.39)
r sin θ ∂θ ∂ϕ r sin θ ∂ϕ ∂r r ∂r ∂θ

Stokes’s theorem: Stokes’s theorem states that the circulation of a vector field A around a closed path L

is equal to the surface integral of ∇ × A over an open surface S bounded by L. Mathematically,

I Z
A • dl = (∇ × A) • dS. (3.40)
L S

(∇ × A) • dS when A = x2 âx − xzây − y 2 âz , L is the boundary (in the

H R
Example 8: Verify L
A • dl = S

counter-clockwise direction) of the plane z = 0, x ∈ [−1, 1], and y ∈ [−1, 1], and S is the surface enclosed by

L.

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ELEC 325 Hamad M. Alkhoori Spring 2024

H
Ans: We found that L
A • dl = 0. Now,
     
∂Az ∂Ay ∂Ax ∂Az ∂Ay ∂Ax
∇×A= − âx + − ây + − âz
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
∂(−y 2 ) ∂(−xz)
 2
∂(−y 2 ) ∂(−xz) ∂x2
    
∂x
= − âx + − ây + − âz = (x − 2y)âx − zâz .
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y

Thus,
Z Z1 Z1 Z1 Z1
(∇ × A) • dS = [(x − 2y)âx − zâz ] • dxdy âz =− z dxdy = 0.
S z=0 z=0
−1 −1 −1 −1

3.3.4 Laplacian

The Laplacian (∇2 ) can operate on a scalar field V or on a vector field A. For a scalar field, the Laplacian

is

∇2 V = ∇ • ∇V, (3.41)

whereas for a vector field

∇2 A = ∇(∇ • A) − ∇ × ∇ × A. (3.42)

3.3.5 Classification of Vector Fields

Solenoidal (Divergenceless) Fields

A vector field is solenoidal if

∇ • A = 0. (3.43)

In general,

∇ • (∇ × F) = 0. (3.44)

Hence, a solenoidal field A can be expressed in terms of another vector field F by

A = ∇ × F. (3.45)

Irrotational (Conservative) Fields

A vector field is irrotational if

∇ × A = 0. (3.46)

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ELEC 325 Hamad M. Alkhoori Spring 2024

In general,

∇ × (∇V ) = 0. (3.47)

Hence, an irrotational field A can be expressed in terms of another scalar field V by

A = ∇V. (3.48)

Suggested Problems for Chapter 3

ˆ Section 3.3: Example 3.3 and Practice Exercises 3.3.

ˆ Section 3.6: Example 3.6 and Practice Exercises 3.6 and 3.7.

ˆ Section 3.7: Example 3.8.

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