MIT-WPU

Communication Systems (ECE2007A)

Course Objectives
 1. Knowledge:
(i) The need of modulation.
 (ii) Concept of analog communication systems and digital communication system with
pulse modulation.
 (iii) Noise, noise parameters and random processes.
 2. Skills:
 (i) Hands on to explore the generation and reception of different analog and
digital pulse modulation techniques.
 3. Attitude:
 (i) To explain and demonstrate the methods of generation and reception of different
analog and digital communication systems.
Syllabus
1. Amplitude Modulation: Elements of communication system,
need of modulation, baseband and carrier communication,
Amplitude Modulation (AM), modulation index, spectrum of AM
wave, power, transmission efficiency and bandwidth, generation of
AM and its variants such as DSB-SC, SSB, ISB, VSB, RF wave
propagation. [7 hrs]
2. Angle Modulation and Radio Receivers: Concept of angle
modulation, mathematical analysis of FM and PM, frequency
spectrum, NBFM and WBFM, FM generation methods, TRF
receiver, superheterodyne receiver for AM and FM, performance
characteristics of receiver, AM and FM detectors, FM stereo
receiver. [8 hrs]
Syllabus
 3. Noise and Random Processes:
 Sources of noise, types of noise, noise figure, noise factor, noise resistance,
noise temperature, bandwidth, SNR, Friis’s formula, noise calculations.
 Introduction to random process, Stationary processes, Mean, Correlation &
Covariance functions, Ergodic processes, Transmission of a random process
through a LTI filter, Power spectral density, Gaussian process. [8 hrs]
 4. Digitization of Analog Signal: Sampling Theorem, sampling
techniques, analog pulse modulation methods: PAM, PWM and PPM,
Digital Communication system block diagram, Digital pulse modulation
methods: PCM, Non-uniform Quantization and Companding, Differential
Pulse Code Modulation, Delta Modulation, Adaptive Delta Modulation. [7
hrs]
Laboratory work
1. Generation, detection and spectral analysis of AM.
2. Generation, detection and spectral analysis of DSB-SC.
3. Generation, detection and spectral analysis of SSB.
4. Generation, detection and spectral analysis of FM.
5. Measurement of performance characteristics of Receiver: Sensitivity, Selectivity,
Fidelity.
6. Verification of Sampling Theorem and sampling techniques.
7. Study of linear PCM and Companded PCM system.
8. Study of Delta Modulation Technique.
9. Study of Adaptive Delta Modulation Technique.
10. PBL - Software/Hardware
Assessment
 CCA Mid-Term Active Assignment PBL Total
Exam Learning M3 & M4
M1 & M2 M3
15 5 10 20 50
(30%) (10%) (20%) (40%) (100%)

LCA: File Mid-Term End-Term Total

Practical Practical
Exam Exam
15 15 20 50
(30%) (30%) (40%) (100%)
Books
 Text Books:
1. B.P. Lathi, Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems. Oxford
University Press, 3rd Edition.
2. Simon Haykin, Communication Systems, John Wiley & Sons, 4th Edition
Reference Books:
1. Taub, Herbert, and Donald L. Schilling. Principles of communication systems.
McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 3rd Edition.
2. Kennedy George, Brendan Davis, Electronic communication systems. Tata
McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., 4th Edition.
Amplitude Modulation
History
Evolution of
Electronic
Communication
System
Evolution of electronic communication system

https://youtu.be/oxTUC5I22L
U

https://www.youtube.com/wa
tch?v=cBskroqaKkI

11
Importance of communication systems

Significance of Human Communication:

 Communication is the process of exchanging information.

 Main barriers are language and distance.

 Contemporary society’s emphasis is now the accumulation, packaging, and

exchange of information.
Significance of Human Communication:

Methods of communication:
1. Face to face
2. Signals
3. Written word (letters)
4. Electrical innovations:
 Telegraph
 Telephone
 Radio
 Television
 Internet (computer)
Block diagram of communications System

Figure 1-1: A general model of all communication systems.

Communication Systems

 Basic components:
 Transmitter
 Channel or medium
 Receiver

 Noise degrades or interferes with transmitted

information.
Communication Systems

Figure 1-2: A general model of all communication systems.

 Input transducer
• Transducer: Converts one form of energy into another form
(physical to electrical)
• Message/Baseband/Modulating/Information signal: LF (fm)
• Audio, Video, Data (triple-play services)

17
 Transmitter
The transmitter is a collection of electronic components and circuits that
converts the electrical signal into a signal suitable for transmission over a
given medium.
Transmitters are made up of
• Oscillators
• Amplifiers
• Tuned circuits and filters
• Modulators
• Frequency mixers
• frequency synthesizers
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Communication media or channel

19
Communication Systems
Communication Channel
 The communication channel is the medium by which the electronic signal is
sent from one place to another.
Electrical Conductors
Types Simplest form
Coaxial cable, twisted pair cable

of Optical Media
Light pipe that carries message on a light wave
Media Used in Long distance calls and all Internet Communications.
Free Space or Radio or Wireless
Makes use of Electromagnetic Spectrum
Intelligence signals are converted into EM waves(Electro Magnetic Waves).
Used in Cellular Communication,WiFi,WiMaxetc.

Other types of Media

InSONAR(SOundNavigationAndRanging), Water is used as the medium.
 Noise

Noise is random, undesirable electronic energy that enters the

communication system via the communicating medium and interferes
with the transmitted message.

• The measure of noise is usually expressed in terms of the signal to

noise (S/N or SNR)
• SNR is Signal power divided by the noise power.
• High SNR is preferred for better performance

21
Communication Systems
Receivers
 A receiver is a collection of electronic components and circuits that accepts the
transmitted message from the channel and converts it back into a form
understandable by humans.
 Receivers contain
 Amplifiers
 Oscillators
 Mixers
 Tuned circuits and filters
 A demodulator or detector that recovers the original intelligence signal from the
modulated carrier.
 The output is original signal.
 i.e. Voice signal sent to speaker, Video signal is fed to an LCD screen for display, or
binary data received by a computer later printed or displayed on monitor.
 Transceivers
A transceiver is an electronic unit that incorporates circuits that
both send and receive signals.
Examples
• Telephones
• Fax machines
• Handheld radios
• Cell phones
• Computer modems

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 Output Transducer
It converts electrical signal into physical waveform.

24
Classification of electronic communication
system
Electronic Communication System

Unidirectional/ Nature of Channel/Medium

Technique of
Bidirectional information transmission
Communication Signal

Wired Wireless

Simplex Analog Digital Baseband Communication

Half Transmission using
System Full
Duplex Modulation
Duplex
Simplex Communication
 The simplest method of electronic communication is referred to as simplex.
 This type of communication is one-way. Examples are:
 Radio
 TV broadcasting
 Beeper (personal receiver)
 Remote Control
Two Way Communication- Half Duplex
 The form of two-way communication in which only one party transmits at a time
is known as half duplex. Examples are:
 Police, military, etc. radio transmissions

 Citizen band (CB)

 Family radio

 Amateur radio
Two Way Communication- Full Duplex
 Most electronic communication is two-way and is referred to as duplex.
 When people can talk and listen simultaneously, it is called full duplex. The
telephone is an example of this type of communication.
Based on Nature of Information Signal
Analog Communication
Analog Signals
 An analog signal is a smoothly and continuously varying voltage or current.
Examples are:
 Sine wave

 Voice

 Video (TV)

Figure 1.3: Analog signals (a) Sine wave “tone.” (b) Voice. (c) Video (TV) signal.
Digital Communication
Digital Signals
 Digital signals change in steps or in discrete increments.
 Most digital signals use binary or two-state codes. Examples are:
 Telegraph (Morse code)

 Continuous wave (CW) code

 Serial binary code (used in computers)

Figure 1.4: Digital signals (a) Telegraph (Morse code). (b) Continuous-wave (CW) code. (c) Serial binary code.
Based on the technique of transmission
 Based on the technique used for the signal transmission, we can categories the
electronic communication system as under:
1. Baseband transmission system
The Baseband signal (original information signals) are directly transmitted.
Example: Telephone network, Computer data transmission over the coaxial cable in
computer network.
Limitations:
 Can not be used for Radio transmission
 Can not travel long distance
Therefore, for the radio communication of baseband signals, a technique called
modulation is used
2. Communication system using modulation (Broadband Transmission)
What is Modulation?

 Baseband to Broadband Transmission.

 Modulation is the process of having a baseband voice, video, or digital signal

modify another, higher-frequency signal, the carrier.

 In the modulation process, a parameter of the carrier wave (such as amplitude,

frequency or phase) is varied in accordance with the modulating signal.

Modulation

Figure 1.5: Modulation at the transmitter.

Baseband And Carrier Communication
 The term baseband is used to designate the band of frequencies
of the signal delivered by the source or transducer.
 e. g. In telephony baseband is the audio band of 0 to 3.5 KHz. In
TV the baseband is video band occupying 0 to 3.5 MHz .
 In baseband communication message signals are directly
transmitted without any modification.
 Baseband signals are suitable for transmission over a pair of
wires, Coaxial cable, optical fiber but can not be transmitted
over radio link.
DC 2019-20
 Baseband signals have overlapping bands, the would interfere
severely if sharing common channel.
 Thus baseband communication leave much of the channel spectrum
unused.
 So non-overlapping band
 Also long haul communication require modulation.
 Local telephone communication, short haul PCM and long distance
PCM over optical fiber are examples of baseband communication

DC 2019-20
 The communication that uses modulation to shift the frequency
spectrum of a signal is known as carrier communication.
 In this mode one of the basic parameter (Amplitude, Frequency or
Phase) of a sinusoidal carrier of high frequency is varied in
proportion to the baseband signal. This result in AM, FM or PM.
 Modulation is used to transmit analog as well as digital baseband
signal.

DC 2019-20
NEED of MODULATION
1.Reduction In Heights of Antenna:
Practicality of Antenna height is:
h=λ/4,for efficient transmission.
For f=30Hz h=2500km

f=3KHz h=25km

f=3MHz h=25m

λ—is the wavelength, λ = c/f ,where f is the frequency of the signal to be transmitted
and c is the velocity of light ( 3×108 m/s)
https://www.everythingrf.com/rf-calculators/frequency-to-wavelength
2. Avoid mixing of signals

Avoid mixing of signals

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2. Avoid mixing of signals

1. If the baseband sound signals are transmitted without using the modulation by more
than one transmitter ,then all the signals will be in the same frequency range i.e.0 to
20 kHZ.

2. Therefore all the signals get mixed together and a receiver cannot separate them from
each other.

3. So if each baseband sound signal is used to modulate a different carrier then they will
occupy different slots in the frequency domain

4. Thus modulation is necessary to avoid mixing of signals.

 3.Increases the range of communication

1. The frequency of baseband signal is low, and the low frequency signals cannot travel a
long distance when they are transmitted. They get heavily attenuated.

2. The attenuation reduces with increase in frequency of the transmitted signals and they
travel longer distance.

3. The modulation process increases the frequency of the signal to be transmitted .

Hence modulation increases the range of communication
 4.Improves quality of reception
1. Quality of a signal is based on presence of noise.
2. Noise reduction techniques will improve the quality of a received signal.
3. With Frequency Modulation(FM),and the digital communication techniques like PCM,
the effect of noise is reduced to a great extent.
This improves quality of reception.

Signal-to-
Noise Ratio
(SNR)
Bit error rate
(BER)
 5.Makes multiplexing possible

1. Multiplexing is the process in which two or more signals can be transmitted over the same
communication channel simultaneously .

2. This is possible only with modulation. The multiplexing allows the same channel to be
used by many signals.

3. Therefore many TV channels can use the same frequency range ,without getting mixed
with each other .OR different frequency signals can be transmitted at the same time.
AMPLITUDE MODULATION

 “Amplitude modulation (AM) is the process of changing the amplitude of a high frequency
carrier signal in proportion with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal”.

 In AM the instantaneous amplitude of the sinusoidal high frequency carrier is changed in

proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal. This is the principle of
AM.

 AM is used in the applications such as radio transmission ,TV transmission etc.

DSBFC- Double Sideband Full Carrier

 Most commonly used is AM

double-sideband full carrier
(DSBFC), or sometimes called
conventional AM or AM.
AMPLITUDE MODULATION

Modulating signal (sine wave) and modulated carrier

 Modulation Index and Percentage of Modulation
 Modulation Index/Coefficient – It is the ratio between the amplitudes of the modulating signal and carrier,
expressed by the equation:

𝑉𝑚
𝑚= (it should be between 0 to 1)----(1)
𝑉𝑐

 Multiplying the modulation index by 100 gives the percentage of modulation.

𝑉𝑚 = 𝑚𝑉𝑐

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑚 =
2
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − =
2 2

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
Hence 𝑚= =
𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
Modulation Index and Percentage of Modulation
𝑚 = 0.5
Vm = 1 V
Vc = 2V

𝑚=1
Vm = 1 V
Vc = 1V

𝑚 = 1.5
Vm = 1.5 V
Vc = 1
52
Amplitude modulation depth
AM Modulator circuit
 Modulator circuit consists of three parts,
 1. Generator part: two generators generate modulating signal and carrier signal
respectively,
 2. Linear Adder circuit: An OPAMP acts as a linear adder circuit, and
 3. A class C tuned amplifier.
 The two signals modulating signal and carrier signal are connected to the linear
adder circuit.
 Here the two signals get linearly added (instantaneous values of both the signals
are added).
 Then this linearly added signal is applied as an input to the class C tuned
amplifier. Here CE class C amplifier is used at the collector of the class C
amplifier a LC tank circuit is connected and the flywheel effect of the tuned
circuit is used to generate the desired AM signal.
Let the carrier voltage and modulating voltage vc and vm respectively
vc = Vc sin ωc t (1)
vm = Vm sin ωm t (2)
Amplitude of AM wave is:
A = Vc + vm
A = Vc + Vm sin ωm t
Vm
A = Vc 1 + sin ωm t
Vc
A = Vc 1 + m sin ωm t (3)
Vm
Where m is modulation index and m =
Vc
Hence the instantaneous voltage of the resulting amplitude modulated wave is
v = A sin ωc t
Replacing the value of A from equation (3)
v = Vc 1 + m sin ωm t sin ωc t (4)
Frequency Spectrum of AM wave
Let the carrier voltage and modulating voltage 𝑣𝑐 and 𝑣𝑚 respectively are
𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡-----------(2)
𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑚 = 𝑉𝑚 sin ω𝑚 𝑡-------(3)
Phase angle is ignored (i.e. assumed to be 0)
𝑉𝑚
As we know 𝑚=
𝑉𝑐
Amplitude of modulated voltage is given by
𝐴 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑣𝑚
𝐴 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑚 sin ω𝑚 𝑡
𝐴 = 𝑉𝑐 1 + 𝑚 sin ω𝑚 𝑡 -------(4)
The instantaneous voltage of the resulting amplitude modulated wave is
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑣 = 𝐴 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 1 + 𝑚 sin ω𝑚 𝑡 sin ω𝑐 𝑡
 The instantaneous voltage of the resulting amplitude modulated wave is
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑣 = 𝐴 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 1 + 𝑚 sin ω𝑚 𝑡 sin ω𝑐 𝑡----(5)
 It can be expanded by trigonometrical relation
1
sin 𝑋 sin 𝑌 = cos 𝑋 − 𝑌 − cos 𝑋 + 𝑌 Gives
2
𝑚𝑉
𝑐 𝑐 𝑚𝑉
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 + cos ω𝑐 − ω𝑚 𝑡 − cos ω𝑐 + ω𝑚 𝑡---(6)
2 2
 The above equation consists of following three terms
1st - term: Unmodulated carrier
2nd – term: Lower sideband (LSB) at frequency (fc-fm)
3rd – term: Upper sideband (USB) at frequency (fc+ fm)
 So bandwidth required by AM is twice of the frequency of modulated signal
𝐵𝑊 = 𝑈𝑆𝐵 − 𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 − 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 = 2𝑓𝑚
The spectrum of these signals is shown. This is described as the signal in the
frequency domain, as opposed to the signal in the time domain

Lower Carrier Upper

Amplitude (V) side side
frequency frequency

Angular c - m c  c + m
Frequency
Bandwidth
= 2 * m
59
Power Relations in AM (Sine)wave
 As we have seen carrier component of the modulated wave has the same
amplitude as the unmodulated carrier.
 The modulated wave contains extra energy in the two sideband components.
 So modulated wave contains more power than the carrier had, before modulation
took place.

 So total power Pt =Pc + PLSB + PUSB

i.e. Pt = V²car /R + V²LSB /R + V²USB /R -----(7)
Where R is antenna resistance and voltage is rms voltage
 𝑉²𝑐𝑎𝑟 (𝑉𝑐 / √2)² 𝑉𝑐 ²
𝑃𝑐 = = =
𝑅 𝑅 2𝑅 VPK = VRMS x 1.414
Similarly

𝑉²𝐿𝑆𝐵 𝑉²𝑈𝑆𝐵 [ (𝑚𝑉𝑐 /2)/ √2]²

𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 = = =
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

𝑚²𝑉𝑐2 𝑚² 𝑉𝑐2
= =
8𝑅 4 2𝑅
Therefore

𝑉𝑐 ² 𝑚² 𝑉𝑐2 𝑚² 𝑉𝑐2
𝑃𝑡 = + +
2𝑅 4 2𝑅 4 2𝑅
𝑚² 𝑚²
= Pc + Pc + P
4 4 c

𝑚²
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 (1 + )----(8)
2
Maximum power in the Am wave Pt = 1.5 Pc for m=1
 m in terms of Pt

𝑚²
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 (1 + )
2

𝑃
𝒎 = 𝟐[( 𝑡 ) − 𝟏] -----(9)
𝑃𝑐

 Transmission efficiency in AM wave

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

(𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 +𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 )
=
𝑃𝑡

𝒎²
𝜼= [ ] ----(10)
(𝒎² + 𝟐)
Current Relation in the AM Wave

 Let 𝐼𝑐 be unmodulated current and 𝐼𝑡 the total, or modulated current of

an AM transmitter, both being rms values. If R is the resistance in which
these currents flow then
2 2
𝑃𝑡 𝐼𝑡 𝑅 𝐼𝑡 𝑚2
= 2 = =1+
𝑃𝑐 𝐼𝑐 𝑅 𝐼𝑐 2
𝐼𝑡 𝑚2
= 1+
𝐼𝑐 2

𝑚2
𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼𝑐 1+
2
m = √2[(It /Ic)²- 1]
m = √2[(Vt /Vc)²- 1]
 Modulation by Several Sine Waves
 In practice, Modulation of a carrier by several sine wave simultaneously is the
rule.
 Let 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 ,etc., be the simultaneous modulation voltages. Then the total
modulating voltage 𝑉𝑡 will be equal to the square root of the sum of the
squares of the individual voltages; that is,
𝑉𝑡 = 𝑉12 + 𝑉22 + 𝑉32 + ⋯
 Dividing both side by 𝑉𝑐 , we get
𝑉𝑡 𝑉12 𝑉22 𝑉32
= 2+ 2+ 2+⋯
𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑐
 That is,

𝑚𝑡 = 𝑚12 + 𝑚22 + 𝑚32 + ⋯

 Modulation by Several Sine Waves
 We know that the total AM power is given by
𝑚2
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 1 +
2
𝑃𝑐 𝑚2
= 𝑃𝑐 + = 𝑃𝑐 + 𝑃𝑆𝐵
2
𝑃𝑐 𝑚2
 Where 𝑃𝑆𝐵 is total sideband power and 𝑃𝑆𝐵 =
2
 If several sine waves simultaneously modulate the carrier, the carrier power
will be unaffected, but the total sideband power will now be the sum of
individual sideband powers.
𝑃𝑐 𝑚𝑡2 𝑃𝑐 𝑚12 𝑃𝑐 𝑚22 𝑃𝑐 𝑚32
= + + +…
2 2 2 2
 Hence 𝑚𝑡2 = 𝑚12 + 𝑚22 + 𝑚32 +…
 For more than one waves we can write Pt = Pc (1+ mt ² /2)
Amplitude Modulation
Advantages and disadvantages of AM

Advantages:
 AM transmitter are less complex .
 AM receivers are simple, detection is easy.
 AM receivers are cost efficient. Hence even a common person can afford to buy it.
 AM waves can travel a longer distance.
 Low bandwidth.
Disadvantages:
The AM signal is also called as “Double Sideband Full Carrier (DSBFC)”signal. The three
main disadvantages are :
1. Power wastage takes place.
2. AM needs larger bandwidth.
3. AM wave gets affected due to noise.

Applications:
1.Radio broadcasting.
2. Picture transmission in a TV system.
Example
4. For a conventional AM modulator with a carrier freq of fc = 100 kHz
and the maximum modulating signal frequency of fm(max) = 5 kHz,
determine:
a) Freq limits for the upper and lower sidebands.
b) Bandwidth.
c) Upper and lower side frequencies produced when the modulating
signal is a single-freq 3-kHz tone.
d) Draw the output freq spectrum.
Examples
5. A 400 watt carrier is modulated to a depth of 75 percent. Calculate the
total power in the modulated wave.
Ans: 512.5 W
6. A broadcast radio transmitter radiates 10 kW when the modulation
percent is 60. How much of this is carrier power?
Ans: 8.47 kW

72
Examples
7. The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 8 A when only the carrier is sent,
but it increases to 8.93 A when the carrier is modulated by a single sine wave. Find
the percentage modulation. Determine the antenna current when the percent of
modulation changes to 0.8.
Ans: m= 70.1% It = 9.19 A
8. A certain transmitter radiates 9 kW with the carrier unmodulated, and 10.125
kW when the carrier is sinusoidally modulated. Calculate the modulation index,
percent of modulation. If another sine wave, corresponds to 40% modulation, is
transmitted simultaneously, determine the total radiated power.
Ans: m=0.50, Pt = 10.84kW

73
9. A carrier signal of 1100 kHz is simultaneously modulated with 350 Hz,
850Hz, and 1 kHz audio sine waves. What are frequencies present in the
output.

10. A 320 watts carrier of 1280kHz frequency is simultaneously modulated

by two voice signals with modulation percentage of 60 and 65 respectively.
What will be the total sideband power radiated?
Ans: PSB = 125.17 watts

74
11. A carrier signal with 14 V amplitude and frequency of 10 MHz is applied to AM
modulator with 60% modulation. The modulating signal frequency is 1000Hz.
Write down the equation of the above wave and sketch the waveform in frequency
domain.
Ans: equation v = Vc (1+ m sin wm t) sin wc t
fLSB = fc - fm
fUSB = fc + fm
VC = given
VUSB = VLSB = mVc/2
Draw a spectrum

75
12. Determine the η and percentage of total power carried by the sidebands
of the AM wave for tone modulation when
1) μ =0.3 2) μ =0.5 3) μ =0.7

Ans: η = μ²/ (μ²+2)

for μ =0.3 η = 0.043
hence only almost 4.3% of power in sidebands
Similarly for μ =0.5 η = 0.1111
and for μ =0.7 η = 0.1967

76
AM signal is expressed by e=(Ec+em)cos2π fct
Where Ec=peak amplitude of 10 volt of carrier signal with frequency fc =1
MHz and em=modulating signal.
If modulating signal contains 500Hz at 7 volts amplitude and 3kHz at 5
volts amplitude. Determine the total power transmitted and effective
modulation index.
13. AM signal is expressed by e=(Ec+em)cos2π fct
Where Ec=peak amplitude of 10 volt of carrier signal with frequency fc =1
MHz and em=modulating signal.
If modulating signal contains 500Hz at 7 volts amplitude and 3kHz at 5
volts amplitude. Determine the total power transmitted and effective
modulation index. (DEC 2010) 8 marks
Ans: effective modulation index=0.8602
Pt=68.5/R watt.

78
14. The tuned circuit of the oscillator in a simple AM Tx employs a 50µH
coil and 1nF capacitor. If the oscillator output is modulated by audio
frequencies up to 10kHz, what is the range occupied by the sidebands?
Ans: 701.7kHz to 721.7kHz
15. A standard AM transmission, sinusoidally modulated to depth of 40%,
produces a sideband frequencies of 6.824 and 6.854 MHz. The amplitude
of each sideband frequency is 50 V. Determine the amplitude and
frequency of the carrier.
Ans: fc=6.839MHz, Vc=250V

79
16. A 45 V(rms) carrier is amplitude modulated by a 30 V(rms) sine wave.
Determine
i) The max and min values of the peak to peak voltage of modulated wave.
ii) The amplitude of the side frequency and
iii) Modulation index. (Dec 2010)
Ans: Vc=63.64 V, Vm=42.43V
i) Max value of modulated wave=2(Vc+Vm) =212.14V
Min value of modulated wave=2(Vc-Vm) =42.42V
ii) Amp of side frequency = mVc/2 =21.215V
iii) m=Vm/Vc =0.6667
80
 Double Sideband Suppresses Carrier (DSBSC) Technique
 The instantaneous voltage of the resulting amplitude modulated wave is
𝑚𝑉𝑐 𝑚𝑉𝑐
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 + cos ω𝑐 − ω𝑚 𝑡 − cos ω𝑐 + ω𝑚 𝑡
2 2
 The above equation consists of following three terms
1st - term: Unmodulated carrier
2nd – term: Lower sideband (LSB) at frequency (fc-fm)
3rd – term: Upper sideband (USB) at frequency (fc+ fm)
 Baseband signal is available only in LSB or USB
 First term can be suppressed without any loss of information.
 Double Sideband Suppresses Carrier (DSBSC) Technique
𝑚2
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 1 +
2
𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃𝑡 𝑚2 Power in carrier signal
1+ 2
If m=1 then
𝑃
𝑃𝑐 = 𝑡
12
1+
2
2
𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃𝑡 × {(2/3)= 66.66% }
3
Note:
1. The 2/3 (or 66.66%) power is wasted in unmodulated
carrier and it can be suppressed (power saving).
2. 100 - 66.66= 33.34 will be actually required power to transmit
baseband signal using LSB and USB
3. BW = 2fm (similar to AM (or DSBFC))
 Double Sideband Suppresses Carrier (DSBSC) Technique
𝑣𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 = 𝑣𝐴𝑀 − 𝑉𝑐 sin 𝑤𝑐 𝑡 (instantaneous voltage)
𝑚𝑉𝑐
= 𝑉𝑐 sin 𝑤𝑐 𝑡 + cos( 𝑤𝑐 - 𝑤𝑚 ) t -
2
𝑚𝑉𝑐
cos( 𝑤𝑐 + 𝑤𝑚 ) t −𝑉𝑐 sin 𝑤𝑐 𝑡
2

𝑚𝑉𝑐 𝑚𝑉𝑐
= cos( 𝑤𝑐 - 𝑤𝑚 ) t - cos( 𝑤𝑐 + 𝑤𝑚 ) t
2 2
Important points:
1. Still AM is widely used than DSBSC.
2. Significant power saving in case of DSBSC does not come without price.
3. DSBSC technique accordingly adds complexity at the receiving end to recover the
baseband.
4. Thus depending on applications, we can use either AM or DSBSC.
5. Broadcasting: AM is widely used (Receivers are simple)
6. Point-to-point communication: DSBSC (cost can be bearable)
Time Domain Representation of the DSBSC Wave

84
Frequency spectrum of the DSBSC Wave
 Amplitude of the DSBSC signal is:
𝐴 = 𝑣𝑚 = 𝑚𝑉𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑚 𝑡
Instantaneous voltage is :
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑣𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 = 𝐴 sin 𝑤𝑐 𝑡
𝑣𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 = A sin 𝑤𝑐 𝑡
= 𝑚𝑉𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑚 𝑡 sin 𝑤𝑐 𝑡
𝑚𝑉𝑐 𝑚𝑉𝑐
= cos( 𝑤𝑐 - 𝑤𝑚 ) t - cos( 𝑤𝑐 + 𝑤𝑚 )t
2 2
 The above equation consists of following two terms:
1st - term: Lower sideband (LSB)
2nd – term: Upper sideband (USB)
 BDSBSC = 2 fm (similar to AM)

85
Power Relations in the DSBSC Wave
 𝑃𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 = 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 + 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵
𝑚𝑉𝑐/2 2
𝑉2𝑆𝐵 2 𝑚2𝑉2𝑐 𝑚2𝑉2𝑐 𝑚2
𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 = = = = = 𝑃𝑐
𝑅 𝑅 8𝑅 4 ×2 𝑅 4
𝑚2 𝑚2
𝑃𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 = 𝑃𝑐 +𝑃𝑐
4 4
𝑚2
= 𝑃𝑐 ( )
2
Note:
1. When m = 1
 Pt = 1.5 Pc (AM)
 Pt = 0.5 Pc (DSBSC)

86
Limitations of DSBSC
 Suppressing the carrier in the basic AM yields DSBSC
 Power saving is achieved in DSBSC
 But the bandwith requirement of DSBSC is same as that of basic AM
version i.e. 2fm
 To improve the bandwidth required to transmit AM signal next variant of
AM is introduced as SSB.
Amplitude Modulation (DSB) cont…

88
 Amplitude Modulation (DSB) cont…

Spectrum

Spectrum of the DSB-SC signal m(t)cos10,000t

1
cos  cos   cos(   )  cos(   )
2

89
 Amplitude Modulation (DSB) cont…

Spectrum

Spectrum of the DSB-SC signal m(t)cos10,000t

90
 Amplitude Modulation (DSB) cont…

Spectrum

Spectrum of the DSB-SC signal m(t)cos10,000t

91
Amplitude Modulation (DSB) cont…
 A modulating signal m(t) is given by
i) m(t) = cos 100t
ii) m(t) = cos 100t + 2 cos 300t.
a) In each case, sketch the spectrum of m(t) and AM if carrier is 2 cos 1000t.
b) Sketch DSBSC signal spectrum for carrier of 2 cos 1000t.
c) Sketch the USB spectrum if LSB is suppressed along with carrier.

92
Single Sideband suppressed carrier (SSBSC/SSB)

 LSB & USB carry same information

 Hence saving of BW can be achieved by suppressing one of the sideband
 This led to the variant of AM called as Single sideband suppressed carrier
(SSBSC) or simply called as SSB
Single Sideband suppressed carrier (SSBSC/SSB)
 The DSBSC signal is given by
𝑚𝑉𝑐 𝑚𝑉𝑐
𝑉𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 = cos ω𝑐 − ω𝑚 𝑡 − cos ω𝑐 + ω𝑚 𝑡
2 2
 If LSB is chosen for transmission in case of SSB then
𝑚𝑉𝑐
𝑉𝑆𝑆𝐵 = cos ω𝑐 − ω𝑚 𝑡
2
 Alternatively if USB is chosen then
𝑚𝑉𝑐
𝑉𝑆𝑆𝐵 = − cos ω𝑐 + ω𝑚 𝑡
2
 The BW required for SSB is
𝐵𝑊𝑆𝑆𝐵 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 − 𝑓𝑚 = 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 = 𝑓𝑚
Frequency spectrum of SSB
Time Domain Representation of the SSB Wave
Power Relations in the SSB Wave
2 2
𝑉𝐿𝑆𝐵 𝑉𝑈𝑆𝐵
 𝑃𝑆𝑆𝐵 = =
𝑅 𝑅
𝑚 𝑉𝑐 2 2
2
𝑉𝑆𝐵 2 𝑚2 𝑉𝑐2
 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 = = =
𝑅 𝑅 8𝑅
𝑚2 𝑉𝑐2
 𝑃𝑆𝑆𝐵 =
4 2𝑅
𝑚2
 𝑃𝑆𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃𝑐
4
 If m=1
 𝑃𝑡 = 1.5𝑃𝑐 (AM)
 𝑃𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 = 0.5𝑃𝑐 (DSBSC)
 𝑃𝑆𝑆𝐵 = 0.25𝑃𝑐 (SSB)
Advantages of Bandwidth saving
 AM broadcasting : 540 to 1650 KHz
 RF bandwidth= (1640-540)KHz =1110 KHz
 Number of AM stations = RF Bandwidth/BW per station
 Bandwidth per station (fm = 5 KHz)
 AM:- 2fm = 10 KHz
 SSB :- fm = 5 KHz
 Number of stations
AM (or DSBFC) or DSBSC = (1110/10) =111
SSB = (1110/5) = 222
98
Numericals on SSB
1. A SSB transmitter radiates 0.5KW when the modulation percentage is 60%.
How much of carrier power (in KW) is required if we want to transmit the
same message by an AM transmitter?
2. Calculate the percentage power saving when the carrier and one of the
sidebands are suppressed in an AM wave modulated to a depth of (a) 100%
and (b) 50%.
Limitations of SSB
 Practical difficulty in suppressing the unwanted sideband
 Even some portion of the wanted sideband gets eliminated during the process.
 This happens because the first wanted and unwanted component lie very close to each
at the carrier frequency fc .
 This difficulty can be avoided by allowing a vestige/trace/fraction of unwanted
sideband along with the wanted sideband.
Vestigial Sideband (VSB) Modulation
 Limitation of SSB: Practical difficulty in suppressing the unwanted sideband
frequency components.
 Observed in practice: It also eliminate some portion of the wanted sideband.
 Reason: Video signal (0-5 MHz)
 Solution: To allow a vestige or fraction of unwanted sideband along with the wanted
sideband.
 Modulation: VSBSC
 Used: TV signal transmission

101
 𝑚𝑉𝑐 𝑚𝑉𝑐
 𝑣𝑉𝑆𝐵 = F ( cos( 𝑤𝑐 - 𝑤𝑚 )t) - cos( 𝑤𝑐 + 𝑤𝑚 )t
2 2
𝑚𝑉𝑐 𝑚𝑉𝑐
 𝑣𝑉𝑆𝐵 = cos( 𝑤𝑐 - 𝑤𝑚 )t + F(- cos( 𝑤𝑐 + 𝑤𝑚 )t)
2 2
𝑚2 𝑚2
 𝑃𝑉𝑆𝐵 = 𝐹( 𝑃𝑐 )+ 𝑃𝑐
4 4
 BVSB = fm + fv

 F represents the fraction.

 Note: Power and Bandwidth of VSB are slightly more than SSB, but less DSB.

102
Generation of Amplitude Modulated Signals
 The AM signal can be generated using following methods
 Using Analog Multiplier
 Using a Nonlinear Resistance Device
 Generation of Amplitude Modulated Signals
Using Analog Multiplier
 AM can be generated with the help of an analog multiplier and a summer connected to it.
 The output of analog multiplier is
 𝑉 ′ = 𝑣𝑐 𝑣𝑚 = 𝑉𝑚 sin ω𝑚 𝑡 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡
𝑚𝑉𝑐 𝑚𝑉𝑐
 𝑉′ = cos ω𝑐 − ω𝑚 𝑡 − cos ω𝑐 + ω𝑚 𝑡
2 2
 𝑉𝐴𝑀 = 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑐 + 𝑣𝑚 𝑣𝑐
𝑚𝑉𝑐 𝑚𝑉𝑐
 𝑉𝐴𝑀 = 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 + cos ω𝑐 − ω𝑚 𝑡 − cos ω𝑐 + ω𝑚 𝑡
2 2
Generation of Amplitude Modulated Signals
Using Nonlinear Resistance Device
 The relationship between voltage and current in a linear resistance is given by
𝑖 = 𝑏𝑣
Where b is proportionality constant and conductance
 Figure shows the characteristics of the nonlinear resistance
 Current now becomes proportional not only to voltage but also to the square ,
cube and higher powers of voltage
𝑖 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑣 + 𝑐𝑣 2 + 𝑑𝑣 3 + ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑠
 In such equations only the square term is large enough to be taken into
consideration for most applications, so
 𝑖 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑣 + 𝑐𝑣 2
 Where a represents DC component
 b is conductance and
 c is coefficient of nonlinearity
Generation of Amplitude Modulated Signals
Using Nonlinear Resistance Device
 The devices like Diodes, Transistors, FETs can be biased with suitable
voltage to constrain them to exhibit the negative resistance property.
 The output current is given by
 𝑖 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑣𝑚 + 𝑣𝑐 + 𝑐 𝑣𝑚 + 𝑣𝑐 2
2
 𝑖 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑣𝑚 + 𝑣𝑐 + 𝑐 𝑣𝑚 + 𝑣𝑐2 + 2𝑣𝑚 𝑣𝑐
 Substituting for 𝑣𝑚 = 𝑉𝑚 sin ω𝑚 𝑡 and 𝑣𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 we get
 𝑖 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑉𝑚 sin ω𝑚 𝑡 + 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑐 (𝑉𝑚2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ω𝑚 𝑡 +
 𝑐𝑉𝑚2
𝑖= 𝑎 + 𝑐𝑉𝑚2 2+ 𝑐𝑉𝑐2 2 + 𝑏𝑉𝑚 sin ω𝑚 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 − cos 2ω𝑚 𝑡 +
2
 The required AM component can be selected by tuning the circuit that
resonates at the carrier frequency with BW equal to twice the message BW

 𝑖 = 𝑏𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑐 cos ω𝑐 − ω𝑚 𝑡 − 𝑐𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑐 cos ω𝑐 + ω𝑚 𝑡

 If R is the load resistance, then the amplitude modulated voltage is given by

 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑅𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑐 cos ω𝑐 − ω𝑚 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑅𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑐 cos ω𝑐 + ω𝑚 𝑡

𝑚𝑉𝑐 𝑚𝑉𝑐
 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑐 ′ cos ω𝑐 − ω𝑚 𝑡 + 𝑐 ′ cos ω𝑐 + ω𝑚 𝑡
2 2
 Where 𝑐 ′ = 2𝑐𝑅𝑉𝑐 .
Generation of DSBSC Signals
 The DSBSC signal can be generated using following methods
 Using Analog multiplier
 Using balanced modulator
Generation of DSBSC Signals using Analog Multiplier
 DSBSC signal can be generated with the help of analog multiplier as
shown in figure
 The output of analog multiplier is given by
 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑐 𝑣𝑚 = 𝑉𝑚 sin ω𝑚 𝑡 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡
𝑚𝑉𝑐 𝑚𝑉𝑐
𝑣= cos ω𝑐 − ω𝑚 𝑡 − cos ω𝑐 + ω𝑚 𝑡
2 2
 Generation of DSBSC Signals using Balanced Modulator
 Balanced modulator can be constructed using the non-linear devices like diode and transistors.
 A balanced modulator may be defined as a circuit in which two non-linear devices are connected in
a balanced mode to produce a DSB-SC signal .
 The balanced modulator using the diodes is shown in figure below
 The diode use the non-linear resistance property for generating modulated signal.
• Both the diodes receive the carrier voltage in
phase; whereas the modulating voltage
appears 180⁰ out of phase at the input of
diodes.
• The modulated output currents of the two
diodes, are combined in the center-tapped
primary of the output transformer
• The input voltage will be (𝑣𝑐 + 𝑣𝑚 ) at the
input diode D1 and (𝑣𝑐 − 𝑣𝑚 )at the input of
diode D2.
 If the circuit is said to be symmetrical, the proportionality constants will be the
same for current through D1 and D2 both.
 Hence the two diode output current will be
 𝑖𝑑1 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑣𝑐 + 𝑣𝑚 + 𝑐 𝑣𝑐 + 𝑣𝑚 2
 𝑖𝑑1 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑣𝑐 + 𝑏𝑣𝑚 + 𝑐𝑣𝑐2 + 𝑐𝑣𝑚2
+ 2𝑐𝑣𝑚 𝑣𝑐
 𝑖𝑑2 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑣𝑐 − 𝑣𝑚 + 𝑐 𝑣𝑐 − 𝑣𝑚 2
 𝑖𝑑1 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑣𝑐 − 𝑏𝑣𝑚 + 𝑐𝑣𝑐2 + 𝑐𝑣𝑚2 − 2𝑐𝑣 𝑣
𝑚 𝑐
 The current through the primary of the output transformer is given by
 𝑖1 = 𝑖𝑑2 − 𝑖𝑑1 = 2𝑏𝑣𝑚 + 4𝑐𝑣𝑚 𝑣𝑐
 Substituting for 𝑣𝑚 and 𝑣𝑐 and simplifying we get
𝑚𝑉𝑐
 𝑖1 = 2b𝑉𝑚 sin ω𝑚 𝑡 + 4𝑐 cos
ω𝑐 − ω𝑚 𝑡
2
𝑚𝑉𝑐
−4𝑐 cos ω𝑐 + ω𝑚 𝑡
2
 The output voltage 𝑣0 is proportional to this primary current. Let the constant
of proportionality be α then
 𝑣0 = α𝑖1
𝑚𝑉𝑐
 𝑣0 = 2αb𝑉𝑚 sin ω𝑚 𝑡 + 4α𝑐 cos ω𝑐 − ω𝑚 𝑡
2
𝑚𝑉𝑐
−4α𝑐 cos ω𝑐 + ω𝑚 𝑡
2
𝑚𝑉𝑐
 Let 𝑃 = 2αb𝑉𝑚 and 𝑄 = 2α𝑐 . Then
2
 𝑣0 = P𝑉𝑚 sin ω𝑚 𝑡 + 2𝑄 cos ω𝑐 − ω𝑚 𝑡
−2𝑄 cos ω𝑐 + ω𝑚 𝑡
 This equation shows that the carrier has been canceled out, leaving only the
two sidebands and the modulating frequencies. The tuning of the output
transformer will remove the modulating frequencies from the output.
 𝑣0 = 2𝑄 cos ω𝑐 − ω𝑚 𝑡 − 2𝑄 cos ω𝑐 + ω𝑚 𝑡
Generation of SSB Signals

 The SSB signal can be generated using following

methods
 Using Analog Multiplier
 Using the Filter Method
 Using the Phase shift Method
 Using the Third Method
 Generation of SSB Signals using Analog Multiplier
 The output of the analog multiplier is given by
 𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑐 𝑣𝑚 = 𝑉𝑚 sin ω𝑚 𝑡 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡
𝑚𝑉𝑐 𝑚𝑉𝑐
 𝑣1 = cos ω𝑐 − ω𝑚 𝑡 − cos ω𝑐 + ω𝑚 𝑡
2 2
 Thus at the output of analog multiplier we have the DSBSC signal. This signal is
passed through a bandpass filter which will attenuate one sideband.
 If the lower sideband is passed and upper is attenuated
𝑚𝑉𝑐
𝑣= cos ω𝑐 − ω𝑚 𝑡
2
 Alternatively if upper sideband is passed and lower is attenuated
𝑚𝑉𝑐
 𝑣=− cos ω𝑐 + ω𝑚 𝑡
2
 This result is generation of SSB

Ref: Electronic Communication System, George

Kennedy, 5e, Pg. No. 56
 Generation of SSB Signals using Filter Method
 The balanced modulator generates DSBSC signal and the sideband
suppression filter suppresses the unwanted sideband and allows
wanted sideband.
 The output of balanced modulator is (Eq. 3.86)
 𝑣1 = 2α𝑐𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑐 cos ω𝑐 − ω𝑚 − cos ω𝑐 + ω𝑚
 The sideband suppression filter is basically a bandpass filter whose
output is represented as
 𝑣 = 2α𝑐𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑐 cos ω𝑐 − ω𝑚 or
 𝑣 = −2α𝑐𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑐 cos ω𝑐 + ω𝑚
Ref: Electronic Communication System, George
Kennedy, 5e, Pg. No. 57
SSBSC Generation

http://hamradioindia.com/HRI-THEOR/General/SSB1.htm
Filter Method:-
Advantages:
- Unwanted sideband is removed or heavily attenuated by a filter.

- The filter BPF with sharp cut-off edges, bandwidth is sufficiently flat and wide.

- Simplicity
Disadvantages:
- Due to inability of the system to generate SSB at high radio frequencies, the
frequency upconversion is necessary.

- Two expensive filters are to be used one for each sidebands.

- Low audio frequencies can not be used as the filter becomes bulky.
 Generation of SSB Signals using Phase Shift Method
 The phase shift method avoids filters and some of there inherent
disadvantages.
 Instead it makes use of two balanced modulators and two phase shift networks
• M1 receives 90⁰ phase shifted
carrier and in phase message
signal
• M2 is fed with 90⁰ phase shifted
message and in phase carrier
signal.
• Both modulator produce two
sidebands
• In phase upper sideband and out
of phase lower sideband

Ref: Electronic Communication System,

George Kennedy, 5e, Pg. No. 58
 Let message signal be and carrier signal is given by
 𝑣𝑚 = 𝑉𝑚 sin ω𝑚 𝑡 and
 𝑣𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 respectively
 Then 90⁰ out of phase signals will be given by 𝑉𝑚 cos ω𝑚 𝑡 and 𝑉𝑐 cos ω𝑐 𝑡 respectively
 The output of balanced modulator M1 is given by
 𝑣1 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑚 𝑡 cos ω𝑐 𝑡
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑐
 𝑣1 = sin ω𝑐 + ω𝑚 𝑡 + sin ω𝑐 − ω𝑚 𝑡
2
 The output of balanced modulator M2 is given by
 𝑣2 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑐 cos ω𝑚 𝑡 sin ω𝑐 𝑡
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑐
 𝑣2 = sin ω𝑐 + ω𝑚 𝑡 − sin ω𝑐 − ω𝑚 𝑡
2
 The output of adder is
 𝑣 = 𝑣1 ± 𝑣2
 In one case
 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 + ω𝑚 𝑡
 And in other case
 𝑣 = −𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 − ω𝑚 𝑡
Advantages of Phase Shift Method
 It can generate SSB at any frequency so the frequency up converter stage is not
required.
 It can use the low audio frequencies as modulating signal which is not possible in
Filter method.
 It is easy to switch from one sideband to other.

Disadvantages
 90 degree phase shift network for m(t) is critical.
 This network has to provide a correct phase shift of 90 degree at all modulating
frequencies which is practically difficult to achieve.
Generation of SSB Signals using Third Method

Ref: Electronic Communication System, George

Kennedy, 5e, Pg. No. 59
Generation of SSB Signals using Third Method
 It is difficult to apply phase shift to wide frequency range modulating
signal.
 Hence Third Method of SSB generation is developed by Weaver.
 Figure shows the block diagram of third method. The later part of this is
identical to that of phase shift method.
 Instead of trying to phase shift the whole range of audio frequencies, this
method combines them with an audio frequency ω0 fixed at middle of
audio frequency band
 Phase shift is applied to this frequency only
 The low pass filter’s cut-off is ω0 .
 The output of M1 is
 𝑣1 = 2 cos ω0 𝑡 sin ω𝑚 𝑡 = sin ω𝑚 + ω0 𝑡 + sin ω𝑚 − ω0 𝑡
 The output of M2 is
 𝑣2 = 2 sin ω0 𝑡 sin ω𝑚 𝑡 = cos ω𝑚 − ω0 𝑡 − cos ω𝑚 + ω0 𝑡
 The output of low pass filter F1 is
 𝑣3 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ω𝑚 − ω0 𝑡
 The output of LPF F2
 𝑣4 = cos ω𝑚 − ω0 𝑡
 The output of M3 is
 𝑣5 = 2 cos ω𝑐 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ω𝑚 − ω0 𝑡
= sin ω𝑐 + ω𝑚 − ω0 𝑡 − sin ω𝑐 − ω𝑚 − ω0 𝑡

 The output of M4 is
 𝑣6 = 2 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ω𝑚 − ω0 𝑡
= sin ω𝑐 + ω𝑚 − ω0 𝑡 + sin ω𝑐 − ω𝑚 − ω0 𝑡
 The output of the adder is
 𝑣 = 𝑣5 + 𝑣6 = 2 sin ω𝑐 + ω𝑚 − ω0 𝑡
 In the other case
 𝑣 = 𝑣5 − 𝑣6 = 2 sin ω𝑐 − ω𝑚 − ω0 𝑡
Third Method
Advantages:-
 As audio carrier is constant frequency, the design of phase shift network for constant
frequency is very simple.

 Up conversion process is not required as high frequency carrier can be used.

 Low frequencies can be transmitted.

Disadvantages:-
• Most complex method because of use of 4 Balanced modulators.

•Cost of entire system is more

126
 Independent Sideband Transmission
 It is an AM single sideband mode which is used with
some AM radio transmissions. This is used in some
kinds of AM stereo (sometimes known as the Kahn
system).
 ISB is a compromise between DSB and SSB, the
other is VSB.
 ISB transmission uses 2 sideband which are
independent to each other.
 It essentially consists of 2 SSB channels added to
form 2 sidebands around the reduced carrier.
 Each sideband is quite independent of the other.
 It can simultaneously convey totally different
transmission.

127
128
RF wave propagation
 RF wave propagation
 EM waves are used for long distance communication.
 Propagation of EM waves depends on:
• Properties or Characteristics (frequency)
• Environment
• Waves travel in straight line, except where the earth and its atmosphere alter their
path.
 Types:
• Ground (Surface) waves
• Sky waves
• Space waves

130
 RF wave propagation
 Ground (Surface) waves
• It is a method of radio frequency
propagation that uses the area
between the surface of the earth
& an ionosphere for
transmission.
• Propagate in the LF & MF range
of EM Spectrum
• Used to provide local radio
communication coverage.

131
 RF wave propagation
 Sky waves:
• Radio wave propagation via ionosphere.
• Used for the propagation of EM waves
with a frequency range of 3 – 30MHz
• Make use of the ionosphere due to the
presence of charged ions in the region of
about 60 to 300 km from the earth
surface
• These ions provide a reflecting medium
to the radio or communication waves
within a particular frequency range

132
Space Waves
 They travel in ( more or less) straight lines.
 However, since they depend on line-of-sight conditions, space waves are limited in
their propagation by the curvature of the earth, except in very unusual circumstances.
 Thus they propagate very much like EM waves in free space.

133
AM Transmitter
 Two methods:
1. AM transmitters: High powers (complex and high
efficiency)
2. Laboratory AM generator : Low power (simple and
low efficiency).
Low Level Modulation (LLM):
High Level Modulation (HLM):

134
Comparison between HLM and LLM

135
AM Transmitter
 Figure shows a typical block diagram of an AM transmitter.

136
Commercial AM broadcast standards
 Bands:
 Longwave (LW)
 Mediumwave (MW)
 Shortwave (SW)
 Tuning range: 540 – 1600 KHz (MW)
 Baseband: 20 Hz to 5 KHz
 Bandwidth of station: 10 KHz
 Transmit power : Region wise

137
138
139
Comparison of AM Techniques
Parameter DSBFC DSBSC SSB ISB VSB

BW 2fm 2fm fm fm1+fm2 fm<BW<2fm

Power High Medium Less moderate SSB<P< DSBFC

η Minimum Moderate Maximum Moderate moderate

Carrier No Yes Yes Partially No

suppression
Sideband No No One SB One per One SB
suppression completely channel partially
Rx Complexity Simple Complex Complex Complex simple

Application Radio Commn Pt. to Pt. Mobile Telephony TV

commn
140
References
1. Dr. Sanjay Sharma, Communication Systems (Analog and Digital), S. K.
Kataria and sons
2. George Kennedy, Electronic Communication Systems. McGraw-Hill, 5th
Edition
3. https://www.toppr.com/guides/physics/communication-
systems/propagation-of-electromagnetic-waves/