MIT-WPU

Communication Systems (ECE2007A)

 Module 2
Angle Modulation and Radio Receivers
 Topics covered
• Concept of Angle Modulation
• Mathematical analysis of FM and PM
• Frequency spectrum
• NBFM and WBFM
• FM generation: Direct and Indirect methods
• Stereophonic FM broadcasting
• Commercial Standards
 Topics covered
• TRF receiver
• Superheterodyne Receiver for AM & FM
• AM detectors
• Performance characteristic of AM Receiver
• FM receiver block diagram
• FM stereo receiver
• FM detectors.
 Concept of Angle Modulation

• There are three parameters of a carrier that may

carry information:
– Amplitude
– Frequency
– Phase
• Frequency and Phase modulation are closely
related and grouped together as angle
modulation
 Frequency Modulation
• Let the message signal be given by
𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑚 = 𝑉𝑚 sin ω𝑚 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑚
• And carrier signal by
𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑐
• Where 𝑉𝑚 & 𝑉𝑐 are maximum amplitude of modulating signal & carrier
signal respectively(Volts)
ω𝑚 & ω𝑐 are angular velocity of modulating signal & carrier signal
respectively (rad/s)
𝜙𝑚 & 𝜙𝑐 are phase angle of modulating signal & carrier signal
respectively (rad)
• If any one of these parameters is varied in accordance with modulating
signal then the resulting is called as modulated signal.
• When 𝑉𝑐 is varied in accordance with m(t), it results in amplitude
modulation
• Alternatively if ω𝑐 is varied in accordance with m(t), it results in frequency
modulation
• And if 𝜙𝑐 is varied in accordance with m(t), it results in phase modulation
 What is frequency modulation?
• When the frequency of carrier wave is changed in
accordance with the message signal, the process is
called frequency modulation.
• In FM the carrier amplitude remain constant the carrier
frequency varies.
• By the definition of frequency modulation, the amount
by which the carrier frequency is varied from its
unmodulated value, called the frequency deviation, is
made proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of
the modulating voltage.
• The rate at which this frequency variation takes place is
equal to modulating frequency.
5.8
 Mathematical Representation of FM
• The instantaneous frequency f of the frequency
modulated wave is given by
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 𝑉𝑚 sin ω𝑚 𝑡
• Where 𝑓𝑐 is unmodulated carrier frequency (Hz)
𝑘𝑓 is proportionality constant (Hz/V)
𝑉𝑚 sin ω𝑚 𝑡 is instantaneous modulating voltage
• The maximum deviation in above equation will occur
when sine wave will have its maximum value of ±1 .
Hence the instantaneous frequency f is given by
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑐 ± 𝑘𝑓 𝑉𝑚
• So that the max deviation δ𝑓 will be given by
δ𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓 𝑉𝑚
 Mathematical Representation of FM
• The instantaneous amplitude of the FM signal will be given by a
formula of the form
𝑣𝐹𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 sin 𝑓 ω𝑐 , ω𝑚 = 𝑉𝑐 sin θ
• Where 𝑓 ω𝑐 , ω𝑚 is function representing an angle θ.
• The function θ can be represented mathematically as integration
of angular velocity ω and
ω=ω𝑐 + 2π𝑘𝑓 𝑉𝑚 sin ω𝑚 𝑡
• In order to find θ from ω
• θ = ‫׬‬ω 𝑑𝑡 = ‫ ׬‬ω𝑐 + 2π𝑘𝑓 𝑉𝑚 sin ω𝑚 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2π𝑘𝑓 𝑉𝑚 cos ω𝑚 𝑡
• θ = ω𝑐 𝑡 +
ω𝑚
δ𝑓
• θ = ω𝑐 𝑡 + cos ω𝑚 𝑡
𝑓𝑚
• Hence the instantaneous value of the FM voltage is given by
δ𝑓
• 𝑣𝐹𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 + cos ω𝑚 𝑡
𝑓𝑚
 FM modulation index

δ𝑓
𝑣𝐹𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 + cos ω𝑚 𝑡
𝑓𝑚
• Hence FM modulation index is equal to the ratio of the
frequency deviation to the modulating frequency.
• Thus the formula for the modulation index for FM is simply
given by
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑚𝑓 =
𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
δ𝑓
𝑚𝑓 =
𝑓𝑚

• And the instantaneous value of FM voltage is

𝑣𝐹𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑚𝑓 cos ω𝑚 𝑡
 Numerical on FM
1. A 50 MHz carrier signal with a voltage of 5 V is frequency modulated by a
sinewave of 5 kHz with a voltage of 2.5 V. the proportionality constant for FM
is 5 kHz/V with the compression for the FM signal. Derive the instantaneous
voltage of frequency modulated signal.
2. In an FM system, when the audio frequency (AF) is 500 Hz, and the AF voltage
is 2.4 V, the deviation is 4.8 kHz. If the AF voltage is now increased to 7.2 V,
what is the new deviation? If the AF voltage is further raised to 10 V while the
AF is dropped to 200 Hz, what is the deviation? Find the modulation index in
each case.
3. Find the carrier and modulating frequencies, the modulation index, and the
maximum deviation of the FM represented by the voltage equation 𝑣 =
12 sin(6 × 108 𝑡 + 5 cos 1250𝑡). What power this FM wave dissipate in a 10
Ω resistor?
4. An FM signal is simultaneously modulated by two modulating signals having
frequencies 𝑓𝑚1 = 1000 𝐻𝑧 and 𝑓𝑚2 = 2000 𝐻𝑧 and the corresponding
amplitudes as 𝑉𝑚1 = 2 𝑉 and 𝑉𝑚2 = 2 𝑉. The proportionality constant for
the FM system is given by 𝑘𝑓 = 1 𝑘𝐻𝑧/𝑉. Calculate the deviation and
modulation index for each of the modulating signals.
5. There are two FM systems that are fed with the modulating signals in the
following way:
a) FM1: 𝑓𝑚1 = 1000 𝐻𝑧, 𝑉𝑚1 = 2.4 𝑉, δ𝑓1 = 9.6 𝑘𝐻𝑧.
b) FM1: 𝑓𝑚2 = 2000 𝐻𝑧, 𝑉𝑚2 = 2.4 𝑉, δ𝑓2 = 19.2 𝑘𝐻𝑧.
Calculate the proportionality constant and the modulation index in each case.
 Numerical on FM
1. A 50 MHz carrier signal with a voltage of 5 V is frequency modulated by
a sinewave of 5 kHz with a voltage of 2.5 V. the proportionality constant
for FM is 5 kHz/V with the compression for the FM signal. Derive the
instantaneous voltage of frequency modulated signal.
Given
𝑉𝑐 = 5 𝑉
𝑓𝑐 = 50 𝑀𝐻𝑧
𝑘𝑓 = 5 𝑘𝐻𝑧/𝑉
𝑓𝑚 = 5 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑉𝑚 = 2.5 𝑉
δ𝑓
𝑣𝐹𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 + cos ω𝑚 𝑡
𝑓𝑚
δ𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓 × 𝑉𝑚
𝐻𝑧
δ𝑓 = 5000 × 2.5 𝑉 = 12500 𝐻𝑧
𝑉
6
12500 𝐻𝑧
𝑣𝐹𝑀 = 5 sin 2π × 50 × 10 𝑡 + cos 2π × 5 × 103 𝑡
5000 𝐻𝑧
𝑣𝐹𝑀 = 5 sin 100π × 106 𝑡 + 2.5 cos 10π × 103 𝑡
 Numerical on FM
2. In an FM system, when the audio frequency (AF) is 500 Hz, and the AF
voltage is 2.4 V, the deviation is 4.8 kHz. If the AF voltage is now
increased to 7.2 V, what is the new deviation? If the AF voltage is
further raised to 10 V while the AF is dropped to 200 Hz, what is the
deviation? Find the modulation index in each case.
Given
𝑓𝑚1 = 500 𝐻𝑧
𝑉𝑚1 = 2.4 𝑉
δ𝑓1 = 4.8 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑉𝑚2 = 7.2 𝑉
𝑉𝑚3 = 10 𝑉
𝑓𝑚3 = 200 𝐻𝑧
Case 1
δ𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓 × 𝑉𝑚
δ𝑓1 4800 𝐻𝑧
𝑘𝑓 = = = 2 𝑘𝐻𝑧/𝑉
𝑉𝑚1 2.4 𝑉
Modulation Index
δ𝑓1 4800 𝐻𝑧
𝑚𝑓1 = = = 9.6
𝑓𝑚1 500 𝐻𝑧
 Numerical on FM
Case 2 : 𝑓𝑚2 = 500 𝐻𝑧 & 𝑉𝑚2 = 7.2 𝑉
δ𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓 × 𝑉𝑚
δ𝑓2 = 2 𝑘𝐻𝑧Τ𝑉 × 7.2 𝑉 = 14.4 𝑘𝐻𝑧
Modulation Index
δ𝑓2 14400 𝐻𝑧
𝑚𝑓2 = = = 28.8
𝑓𝑚2 500 𝐻𝑧
Case 3: 𝑓𝑚3 = 200 𝐻𝑧 & 𝑉𝑚3 = 10 𝑉
δ𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓 × 𝑉𝑚
δ𝑓3 = 2 𝑘𝐻𝑧Τ𝑉 × 10 𝑉 = 20 𝑘𝐻𝑧
Modulation Index
δ𝑓3 20000 𝐻𝑧
𝑚𝑓3 = = = 100
𝑓𝑚3 200 𝐻𝑧
 Numerical on FM
3. Find the carrier and modulating frequencies, the modulation index, and the
maximum deviation of the FM represented by the voltage equation 𝑣 =
12 sin(6 × 108 𝑡 + 5 cos 1250𝑡). What power this FM wave dissipate in a 10 Ω
resistor?
Given
𝑣 = 12 sin(6 × 108 𝑡 + 5 cos 1250𝑡)
6 × 108
𝑓𝑐 = = 95.5 𝑀𝐻𝑧
2π
1250
𝑓𝑚 = = 199 𝐻𝑧
2π
Modulation Index
𝑚𝑓 = 5
Maximum Deviation
δ𝑓
𝑚𝑓 =
𝑓𝑚
OR
δ𝑓 = 𝑚𝑓 × 𝑓𝑚 = 5 × 199 = 995 𝐻𝑧
Power dissipated in 10 Ω resistor
2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 (12Τ 2)2
𝑃= = = 7.2 𝑊
𝑅 10
 Numerical on FM
4. An FM signal is simultaneously modulated by two modulating signals having
frequencies 𝑓𝑚1 = 1000 𝐻𝑧 and 𝑓𝑚2 = 2000 𝐻𝑧 and the corresponding
amplitudes as 𝑉𝑚1 = 2 𝑉 and 𝑉𝑚2 = 2 𝑉. The proportionality constant for
the FM system is given by 𝑘𝑓 = 1 𝑘𝐻𝑧/𝑉. Calculate the deviation and
modulation index for each of the modulating signals.
Given
𝑓𝑚1 = 1000 𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑚2 = 2000 𝐻𝑧
𝑉𝑚1 = 2 𝑉
𝑉𝑚2 = 2 𝑉
𝑘𝑓 = 1 𝑘𝐻𝑧/𝑉
δ𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓 × 𝑉𝑚
δ𝑓1 = 1 𝑘𝐻𝑧Τ𝑉 × 2 𝑉 = 2 𝑘𝐻𝑧
δ𝑓2 = 1 𝑘𝐻𝑧Τ𝑉 × 2 𝑉 = 2 𝑘𝐻𝑧
Modulation Index
δ𝑓1 2 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑚𝑓1 = = =2
𝑓𝑚1 1 𝑘𝐻𝑧
δ𝑓2 2 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑚𝑓2 = = =1
𝑓𝑚2 2 𝑘𝐻𝑧
 Numerical on FM
5. There are two FM systems that are fed with the modulating signals in
the following way:
a) FM1: 𝑓𝑚1 = 1000 𝐻𝑧, 𝑉𝑚1 = 2.4 𝑉, δ𝑓1 = 9.6 𝑘𝐻𝑧.
b) FM1: 𝑓𝑚2 = 2000 𝐻𝑧, 𝑉𝑚2 = 2.4 𝑉, δ𝑓2 = 19.2 𝑘𝐻𝑧.
Calculate the proportionality constant and the modulation index in each case.
Solution:
a) 𝑓𝑚1 = 1000 𝐻𝑧, 𝑉𝑚1 = 2.4 𝑉 and δ𝑓1 = 9.6 𝑘𝐻𝑧
δ𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓 × 𝑉𝑚
δ𝑓1 9.6 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑘𝑓1 = = = 4 𝑘𝐻𝑧/𝑉
𝑉𝑚1 2.4 𝑉
δ𝑓1 9.6 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑚𝑓1 = = = 9.6
𝑓𝑚1 1 𝑘𝐻𝑧
b) 𝑓𝑚2 = 2000 𝐻𝑧, 𝑉𝑚1 = 2.4 𝑉 and δ𝑓1 = 19.2 𝑘𝐻𝑧
δ𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓 × 𝑉𝑚
δ𝑓2 19.2 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑘𝑓2 = = = 8 𝑘𝐻𝑧/𝑉
𝑉𝑚2 2.4 𝑉
δ𝑓2 19.2 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑚𝑓2 = = = 9.6
𝑓𝑚2 2 𝑘𝐻𝑧
 Phase Modulation
• When the phase of carrier wave is changed in
accordance with the message signal, The process
is called phase modulation.
• In PM the carrier amplitude remain constant the
carrier phase varies
• Phase modulation is the system in which the
amplitude of the modulated carrier is kept
constant, while its phase and rate of phase change
are varied by the modulating signal.
• By the definition of PM the phase deviation is
made proportional to the instantaneous amplitude
of the modulating voltage.
• The rate at which this phase variation takes place is
equal to modulating frequency.
 Mathematical Representation of PM
• The instantaneous phase 𝝓 of the PM wave is given
by
𝝓=𝝓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑝 𝑉𝑚 cos ω𝑚 𝑡
• Where 𝝓𝑐 is unmodulated carrier phase (rad)
𝑘𝑝 is proportionality constant (rad/V)
𝑉𝑚 cos ω𝑚 𝑡 is the phase shifted version of
instantaneous modulating voltage.
• The maximum deviation in above equation is given
by
𝝓 = 𝝓𝑐 ± 𝑘𝑝 𝑉𝑚
• So that the max deviation δ𝑝 will be given by
δ𝑝 = 𝑘𝑝 𝑉𝑚
 Mathematical Representation of PM
• The instantaneous amplitude of the PM signal will be given
by a formula of the form
𝑣𝑃𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑓 𝝓𝑐 , 𝝓𝑚 = 𝑉𝑐 sin θ
• Where𝑓 𝝓𝑐 , 𝝓𝑚 is function representing an angle θ.
• The function θ can be represented mathematically follows
θ=ω𝑐 𝑡 + 𝝓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑝 𝑉𝑚 cos ω𝑚 𝑡
• Hence the instantaneous value of the FM voltage is given by
• 𝑣𝑃𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 + 𝝓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑝 𝑉𝑚 cos ω𝑚 𝑡
• The modulation index for PM , 𝑚𝑝 , is defined as
𝑚𝑝 = 𝜹𝑝 = 𝑘𝑝 𝑉𝑚
• 𝑣𝑃𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 + 𝝓𝑐 + 𝑚𝑝 cos ω𝑚 𝑡
 Numerical on PM
1. A 50 MHz carrier signal is phase modulated by a sinusoidal signal of frequency 𝑓𝑚 =
10 𝑘𝐻𝑧 and modulating voltage 𝑉𝑚 = 5 𝑉. The phase deviation is 25 radiation. Write
the expression for PM wave.
2. In PM system, when the Audio Frequency (AF) is 500 Hz, and the AF voltage is 2.4 V, the
deviation is 4.8 kHz. If the AF voltage is now increased to 7.2 V, what is the new
deviation? If the AF voltage is further raised to 10 V while the AF is dropped to 200 Hz,
what is the deviation? Find the modulation index in each case.
3. Find the carrier and modulating frequencies, the modulation index, and the maximum
deviation of the PM represented by the voltage equation 𝑣 =
12 sin(6 × 108 𝑡 + 5 cos 1250𝑡).
4. A PM signal is simultaneously modulated by two modulating signals having frequencies
𝑓𝑚1 = 1000 𝐻𝑧 and 𝑓𝑚2 = 2000 𝐻𝑧 and the corresponding amplitudes as 𝑉𝑚1 = 2 𝑉
and 𝑉𝑚2 = 2 𝑉. The proportionality constant for the FM system is given by 𝑘𝑝 =
2 𝑘𝐻𝑧/𝑉. Find out the phase deviation and modulation indices values.
5. A carrier signal of 25 MHz and voltage of 5 V is angle modulated by a modulating signal
of 5 kHz and voltage of 5 V. In one case the frequency deviation is 5 kHz and in another
case, the phase deviation is 5 radians. Write the expression for FM and PM signals.
6. A 25 MHz carrier is modulated by a 400 Hz audio sinewave. If the carrier voltage is 4 V
and the maximum frequency deviation is 10 kHz and phase deviation is 25 radians, write
the equation of these modulated wave for (a) FM and (b)PM. If modulating frequency is
now changed to 2 kHz, all else remaining constant, write a new equation for (c) FM, (d)
PM.
 Numerical on PM
1. A 50 MHz carrier signal is phase modulated by a
sinusoidal signal of frequency 𝑓𝑚 = 10 𝑘𝐻𝑧 and
carrier voltage 𝑉𝐶 = 5 𝑉. The phase deviation is
25 radiation. Write the expression for PM wave.
Given
𝑓𝑐 = 50 𝑀𝐻𝑧
δ𝑃 = 25 𝑅𝑎𝑑
𝑓𝑚 = 10 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑉𝑐 = 5 𝑉
𝑣𝑃𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 + 𝝓𝑐 + 𝑚𝑝 cos ω𝑚 𝑡
𝑣𝑃𝑀
= 5 sin 2π × 50 × 106 𝑡 + 25 cos 2π × 10 × 103 𝑡
 Numerical on PM
2. In PM system, when the Audio Frequency (AF) is 500 Hz, and the AF
voltage is 2.4 V, the deviation is 4.8 kHz. If the AF voltage is now
increased to 7.2 V, what is the new deviation? If the AF voltage is
further raised to 10 V while the AF is dropped to 200 Hz, what is the
deviation? Find the modulation index in each case.
Given
𝑓𝑚1 = 500 𝐻𝑧
𝑉𝑚1 = 2.4 𝑉
δ𝑃1 = 4.8 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑉𝑚2 = 7.2 𝑉
𝑉𝑚3 = 10 𝑉
𝑓𝑚3 = 200 𝐻𝑧
Case 1
δ𝑝 = 𝑘𝑝 × 𝑉𝑚
δ𝑝1 4800 𝐻𝑧
𝑘𝑝 = = = 2 𝑘𝐻𝑧/𝑉
𝑉𝑚1 2.4 𝑉
Modulation Index
𝑚𝑝1 = δ𝑝1 = 4.8
 Numerical on PM
Case 2 : 𝑓𝑚2 = 500 𝐻𝑧 & 𝑉𝑚2 = 7.2 𝑉
δ𝑝 = 𝑘𝑝 × 𝑉𝑚
δ𝑝2 = 2 𝑘𝐻𝑧Τ𝑉 × 7.2 𝑉 = 14.4 𝑘𝐻𝑧
Modulation Index
𝑚𝑝2 = δ𝑝2 = 14.4 𝑘𝐻𝑧
Case 3: 𝑓𝑚3 = 200 𝐻𝑧 & 𝑉𝑚3 = 10 𝑉
δ𝑝 = 𝑘𝑝 × 𝑉𝑚
δ𝑝3 = 2 𝑘𝐻𝑧Τ𝑉 × 10 𝑉 = 20 𝑘𝐻𝑧
Modulation Index
𝑚𝑓3 = δ𝑝3 = 20 𝑘𝐻𝑧
 Numerical on PM
3. Find the carrier and modulating frequencies, the
modulation index, and the maximum deviation of
the PM represented by the voltage equation 𝑣 =
12 sin(6 × 108 𝑡 + 5 cos 1250𝑡).
Given
𝑣 = 12 sin(6 × 108 𝑡 + 5 cos 1250𝑡)
6 × 108
𝑓𝑐 = = 95.5 𝑀𝐻𝑧
2π
1250
𝑓𝑚 = = 199 𝐻𝑧
2π
Modulation Index
𝑚𝑝 = 5
Maximum Deviation
𝑚𝑝 = δ𝑝 = 5
 Numerical on PM
4. A PM signal is simultaneously modulated by two modulating signals
having frequencies 𝑓𝑚1 = 1000 𝐻𝑧 and 𝑓𝑚2 = 2000 𝐻𝑧 and the
corresponding amplitudes as 𝑉𝑚1 = 2 𝑉 and 𝑉𝑚2 = 2 𝑉 . The
proportionality constant is given by 𝑘𝑝 = 2 𝑘𝐻𝑧/𝑉. Find out the phase
deviation and modulation indices values.
Given
𝑓𝑚1 = 1000 𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑚2 = 2000 𝐻𝑧
𝑉𝑚1 = 2 𝑉
𝑉𝑚2 = 2 𝑉
𝑘𝑝 = 2 𝑘𝐻𝑧/𝑉
δ𝑝 = 𝑘𝑝 × 𝑉𝑚
δ𝑝1 = 2 𝑘𝐻𝑧Τ𝑉 × 2 𝑉 = 4 𝑘𝐻𝑧
δ𝑝2 = 2 𝑘𝐻𝑧Τ𝑉 × 2 𝑉 = 4 𝑘𝐻𝑧
Modulation Index
𝑚𝑝1 = δ𝑝1 = 4 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑚𝑝2 = δ𝑝2 = 4 𝑘𝐻𝑧
 Numerical on PM
5. A carrier signal of 25 MHz and voltage of 5 V is angle modulated by a modulating signal
of 5 kHz and voltage of 5 V. In one case the frequency deviation is 5 kHz and in another
case, the phase deviation is 5 radians. Write the expression for FM and PM signals.
Given
𝑓𝑐 = 25 𝑀𝐻𝑧
𝑉𝑐 = 5 𝑉
𝑓𝑚 = 5 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑉𝑚 = 5 𝑉
δ𝑓 = 5 𝑘𝐻𝑧
δ𝑝 = 5 𝑅𝑎𝑑
Modulation Index
δ𝑓 5
𝑚𝑓 = = =1
𝑓𝑚 5
𝑚𝑝 = δ 𝑝 = 5
FM signal will be
δ𝑓
𝑣𝐹𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 + cos ω𝑚 𝑡
𝑓𝑚
𝑣𝐹𝑀 = 5 sin 2π × 25 × 106 𝑡 + 1 × cos 2π × 5 × 103 𝑡
PM signal will be
𝑣𝑃𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 + 𝝓𝑐 + 𝑚𝑝 cos ω𝑚 𝑡
𝑣𝑃𝑀 = 5 sin 2π × 25 × 106 𝑡 + 5 cos 2π × 5 × 103 𝑡
 Numerical on PM
6. A 25 MHz carrier is modulated by a 400 Hz audio sinewave. If the
carrier voltage is 4 V and the maximum frequency deviation is 10 kHz
and phase deviation is 25 radians, write the equation of these
modulated wave for (a) FM and (b)PM. If modulating frequency is now
changed to 2 kHz, all else remaining constant, write a new equation for
(c) FM, (d) PM.
Given
𝑓𝑐 = 25 𝑀𝐻𝑧
𝑉𝑐 = 4 𝑉
𝑓𝑚1 = 400 𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑚2 = 2 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑉𝑚 = 5 𝑉
δ𝑓 = 10 𝑘𝐻𝑧
δ𝑝 = 25 𝑅𝑎𝑑
Modulation Index
δ𝑓 10000
𝑚𝑓1 = = = 25
𝑓𝑚1 400
𝑚𝑝 = δ𝑝 = 25
 Numerical on PM
a) FM signal will be
δ𝑓
𝑣𝐹𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 + cos ω𝑚 𝑡
𝑓𝑚
𝑣𝐹𝑀 = 4 sin 2π × 25 × 106 𝑡 + 25 cos 2π × 400𝑡
b) PM signal will be
𝑣𝑃𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 + 𝝓𝑐 + 𝑚𝑝 cos ω𝑚 𝑡
𝑣𝑃𝑀 = 4 sin 2π × 25 × 106 𝑡 + 25 cos 2π × 400𝑡
 Numerical on PM
δ𝑓 10000
𝑚𝑓2 = = =5
𝑓𝑚2 2000
𝑚𝑝 = δ𝑝 = 25

c) FM signal will be
δ𝑓
𝑣𝐹𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 + cos ω𝑚 𝑡
𝑓𝑚
𝑣𝐹𝑀 = 4 sin 2π × 25 × 106 𝑡 + 5 cos 2π × 2 × 103 𝑡
d) PM signal will be
𝑣𝑃𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 + 𝝓𝑐 + 𝑚𝑝 cos ω𝑚 𝑡
𝑣𝑃𝑀 = 4 sin 2π × 25 × 106 𝑡 + 25 cos 2π × 400𝑡
 Comparison of FM and PM
Sr. No. FM PM
1. Frequency deviation is proportional to Phase deviation is proportional to
modulating voltage modulating voltage
2. Noise immunity is better than AM and Noise immunity is better than AM but
PM worse than FM
3. FM is widely used in Radio PM is only used if some mobile
Broadcasting systems
4. It is possible to receive FM on PM It is possible to receive PM on FM
receiver receiver
5. Signal to noise ratio is better than that Signal to noise ratio is inferior to that
of PM of FM
6. Modulation index is proportional to Modulation index is proportional to
modulating voltage as well as the modulating voltage
modulating frequency
 Comparison of FM and PM
• The similarity is that FM is a form of PM
• The modulation index in FM is directly proportional
to amplitude of modulating signal and inversely
proportional to frequency of modulating signal
• Whereas the modulation index in PM is directly
proportional to amplitude of modulating signal only.
• Hence under constant modulating frequency both
frequency and phase deviation are only dependent
on modulating voltage
• Except for the way of defining modulation index,
there is no difference between FM & PM.
 Advantages
1. Amplitude of the frequency modulated wave remains
unaffected.

2. Large decrease in noise, hence increase in S/N ratio.

3. Noise may reduce by increasing deviation.

4. Frequency allocation allows for a guard band which reduces

adjacent channel interference.

5. Operate In Very high frequency (VHF).

 Disadvantages

1. FM wave can’t cover large area.

2. Transmitting & receiving equipments for FM

are complex & costly.

3. A much wider channel, typically 200 kHz, is

needed for FM.
 Applications:

FM Radio
FM radio uses a modulation index, m > 1, and this is called
wideband FM. As its name suggests the bandwidth is much larger
than AM.

In national radio broadcasts using FM, the frequency deviation of

the carrier  fc , is chosen to be 75kHz, and the information
baseband is the high fidelity range 20Hz to 15kHz.
BW of FM radio=2(75 k+15 k)
=180 kHz
Television Sound:
In terrestrial TV broadcasts, the video information is
transmitted using AM . However the sound information is
transmitted using FM, in order to reduce possible interference
between the video and sound signals. In this case, the maximum
deviation of the carrier,  fc , is chosen to be 50kHz, and the
information baseband is again the high fidelity range 20Hz to 15kHz.
Therefore the bandwidth required for TV Sound is:BW Of TV
Sound=2(50k+15k) =130khz
Television Sound:
In terrestrial TV broadcasts, the video information is
transmitted using AM . However the sound information is
transmitted using FM, in order to reduce possible interference
between the video and sound signals. In this case, the maximum
deviation of the carrier,  fc , is chosen to be 50kHz, and the
information baseband is again the high fidelity range 20Hz to 15kHz.
Therefore the bandwidth required for TV Sound is:BW Of TV
Sound=2(50k+15k) =130khz
Satellite TV.
Some satellite TV transmissions broadcast an analog video
signal using FM. This helps to obtain an acceptable signal at the
receiving station In this case, the maximum deviation of the carrier
 fc , is chosen to be about 10 MHz, with a video baseband of
around 5MHz. Therefore the bandwidth required for Satellite TV is:
BW of satellite TV =2(10+5)
=30Mhz
 Frequency Spectrum of the FM wave
• It was possible to tell at a glance that frequencies were
present in the AM modulated wave equation.
• Unfortunately it is very complex in FM wave.
• The instantaneous voltage expression of FM signal may be
expanded by Bessel function as follows
𝑣𝑓𝑚
= 𝑉𝑐 ൛𝐽0 𝑚𝑓 sin ω𝑐 𝑡
+ 𝐽1 𝑚𝑓 sin ω𝑐 + ω𝑚 − sin ω𝑐 − ω𝑚
+ 𝐽2 𝑚𝑓 sin ω𝑐 + 2ω𝑚 − sin ω𝑐 − 2ω𝑚
+ 𝐽3 𝑚𝑓 sin ω𝑐 + 3ω𝑚 − sin ω𝑐 − 3ω𝑚
+ 𝐽4 𝑚𝑓 sin ω𝑐 + 4ω𝑚 − sin ω𝑐 − 4ω𝑚 … ൟ
• This shows that the output consists of a carrier and an
apparently infinite number of pairs of sidebands each
preceded by 𝐽 coefficients.
• The solution is
2 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2 2 𝑦=0
𝑚𝑓 + 𝑚𝑓 + 𝑚𝑓 − 𝑛
𝑑𝑚𝑓2 𝑑𝑚𝑓
2 4 6
𝑚𝑓 𝑛 1 𝑚𝑓 Τ2 𝑚𝑓 Τ2 𝑚𝑓 Τ2
𝐽𝑛 𝑚𝑓 = − + − +⋯
2 𝑛! 1! 𝑛 + 1 ! 2! 𝑛 + 2 ! 3! 𝑛 + 3 !
 Frequency Spectrum of the FM wave
1. FM has an infinite number of sidebands
2. The 𝐽 coefficient eventually decreases in value as n increases
3. The modulation index determines how many sideband components
have significant amplitudes.
4. The sidebands at equal distances from 𝑓𝑐 have equal amplitudes.
(symmetrical)
5. Negative sign of 𝐽 indicated 180⁰ phase change.
6. As 𝑚𝑓 increases, the value of 𝐽 coefficient also increases.
7. In FM the total transmitted power always remains constant, but with
increased depth of modulation the required BW is increased.
8. The theoretical BW required in FM is infinite.
9. In FM the amplitude of the carrier component does not remain
constant.
10. It is possible for the carrier component of the FM wave to disappear
completely.
11. For certain values of β (or mf), J0(β) is zero specially 2.41, 5.53, 8.65,
11.8 and so on called Eigen values.
Frequency Spectrum of the FM wave
The spectra of various values of β (mf) are
shown in above fig ,in each case the spectral
lines are spaced by fm
BFM =2 n fm Hz
• The n is highest order of side frequency for which the amplitude is
significant
• The order of side frequency is greater than( β + 1) and the
amplitude is 5% less
• Hence ,
BFM = 2 n fm = 2 ( β +1) fm Hz

Substituting β = 𝜹𝒇 / fm

BFM = 2(𝜹𝒇 + fm) Hz……….. Carson’s Rule

Carson’s rule is an approximation and gives transmission bandwidth
that are slightly narrower than the bandwidths determined using
the Bessel table
 Numerical on Frequency Spectrum of FM
1. What is the bandwidth required for an FM
signal in which the modulating frequency is 2
kHz and the maximum deviation is 10 kHz?
2. If the modulating signal has a frequency of 300
Hz and modulation index is 3, find out the
maximum deviation associated and the FM
signal.
3. An FM signal has a bandwidth of 20 kHz for a
modulating signal of 3 kHz. Find the modulation
index for this case.
 Numerical on Frequency Spectrum of FM
1. What is the bandwidth required for an FM signal in which the modulating
frequency is 2 kHz and the maximum deviation is 10 kHz?
Given
𝑓𝑚 = 2 𝑘𝐻𝑧
δ𝑓 = 10 𝑘𝐻𝑧
δ𝑓 10000
𝑚𝑓 = = =5
𝑓𝑚 2000
For 𝑚𝑓 = 5 from the table it is seen that this unction has J8 that means 8
coefficients and hence spectrum has 16 sidebands.
The 8th pair of sidebands is the furthest from the carrier.
This gives
∆= 𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓𝑚 × ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑏𝑎𝑛 × 2
∆= 𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓𝑚 × 8 × 2 = 32 𝑘𝐻𝑧
OR
By Carson’s Rule
BFM = 2(𝜹𝒇 + fm)
= 2(10KHz+2KHz) = 24 KHz
Also we can calculate BW as
BFM = 2 n fm = 2 ( β +1) fm
= 2(5+1)2KHz = 24KHz
 Numerical on Frequency Spectrum of FM
2. If the modulating signal has a frequency of 300
Hz and modulation index is 3, find out the
maximum deviation associated with the FM
signal.
Given
𝑓𝑚 = 300 𝐻𝑧
𝑚𝑓 = 3
δ𝑓
𝑚𝑓 =
𝑓𝑚
δ𝑓 = 𝑚𝑓 × 𝑓𝑚 = 0.9 𝑘𝐻𝑧
 Numerical on Frequency Spectrum of FM
3. An FM signal has a bandwidth of 20 kHz for a modulating signal of 3 kHz.
Find the modulation index for this case.
Given
𝑓𝑚 = 3 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝐵𝑊 = 20 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓𝑚 × ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑏𝑎𝑛 × 2
𝐵𝑊
Highest needed sideband=
2 × 𝑓𝑚
20000
= = 3.33
2×3000

𝑚𝑓 = n-1 = 3.33 – 1 = 2.33

or
By Carson’s Rule
BFM = 2(𝜹𝒇 + fm)
20KHz = 2(δf + 3KHz)
δf = 7KHz
δ𝑓
𝑚𝑓 = = 7KHz/3KHz = 2.33
𝑓𝑚
 Classification of FM wave
• Depending on the bandwidth occupied by the FM for practical
transmission, FM is classified into narrowband and wideband FM.
• BW is directly proportional to modulation index.
• WBFM is defined as that in which modulation index exceeds unity.
• The modulation index in NBFM is near unity.
• NBFM is used in FM mobile communication like Police ambulance,
taxicabs, radio-controlled appliances, short range VHF ship-to shore
service etc.
• Whereas WBFM is used for entertainment.
• Example when maximum frequency deviation in WBFM is 75KHz and
modulating frequency range is 30Hz to 15KHz, the maximum modulation index
range from 5 to 2500.
• On the other hand in NBFM maximum modulating frequency is usually 3kHz,
and the maximum deviation is typically 5kHz.
Parameter WBFM NBFM
Modulation Index Greater than Unity Less than Unity
Frequency Deviation 75 kHz 5 kHz
Modulation 30 Hz to 15 kHz 3 kHz
Frequency
Spectrum Infinite no of sideband and Two sideband and carrier
carrier
Bandwidth 2(𝛿𝑓 + fm) 2𝑓𝑚
Noise More suppressed Less suppressed
Application Entertainment and Mobile communication
broadcasting
 Numerical on WBFM and NBFM
1. A speech signal having a maximum frequency
component of 3.3 kHz needs to be transmitted
in police communication application using FM.
The deviation allowed is only 5 kHz. Whether it
is a NBFM WBFM? Justify your answer.
2. The bandwidth of FM signal is about 80 kHZ for
a modulating signal of frequency of 5 kHz. What
is the maximum deviation for modulation?
 Numerical on WBFM and NBFM
1. A speech signal having a maximum frequency
component of 3.3 kHz needs to be transmitted
in police communication application using FM.
The deviation allowed is only 5 kHz. Whether it
is a NBFM WBFM? Justify your answer.
Given
𝑓𝑚 = 3.3 𝑘𝐻𝑧
δ𝑓 = 5 𝑘𝐻𝑧
δ𝑓 5
𝑚𝑓 = = = 1.51
𝑓𝑚 3.3
Since 𝑚𝑓 is around unity here, this may be treated
as NBFM.
 Numerical on WBFM and NBFM
2. The bandwidth of FM signal is about 80 kHz for a
modulating signal of frequency of 5 kHz. What is the
maximum deviation for modulation?
Given
𝐵𝑊 = 80 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑚 = 5 𝑘𝐻𝑧
∆= 𝐵𝑊 = 2 (β +1) fm
𝐵𝑊
(β +1)=
2 × 𝑓𝑚
80
Highest needed sideband= =8
2×5
β (𝑚𝑓 ) = 7
δ𝑓 = 𝑚𝑓 × 𝑓𝑚
δ𝑓 = 7 × 80 𝑘𝐻𝑧 = 560 𝑘𝐻𝑧
 Commercial FM spectrum
• The FM landscape looks like this

25KHz guardband
carrier

FM station A FM station B FM station C

150 KHz

200 KHz
MIT/ETC/SE/CT/NBJ
 Noise and Frequency Modulation
• FM is much more immune to noise than AM and PM.
• The reason can be understood by examining the effect of noise on a carrier.
• Carrier and noise signal will mix and interfere with the reception of wanted
signal.
• If considered vectorially it is seen that the noise vector is superimposed on
the carrier, rotating about it with a relative angular velocity ω𝑛 − ω𝑐 . This is
shown in fig of Vector effect of noise on carrier.
• The maximum amplitude deviation will be 𝑉𝑛 , whereas the maximum phase
deviation will be θ = sin−1 𝑉𝑛 Τ𝑉𝑐 .
• An AM receiver will not be affected by the phase
change.
• The FM receiver will not be bothered by the
amplitude change, which can be removed with
an amplitude modulator.
• Change in Noise and modulating frequency do
not affect the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) in AM
• The S/N ratio goes on reducing with frequency.
 Noise and Frequency Modulation
• The triangular noise distribution for FM is called the noise triangle and is as shown in
figure.
• The corresponding AM distribution is a rectangle.
• 𝑚 = 1 is the maximum possible modulation index for AM
• Whereas in FM there is no such limit on modulation index but the maximum frequency
deviation is limited in FM (Typically to 75 kHz).
• Thus even at the highest audio frequency of 15 kHz, the modulation index in FM is
permitted to be as high as 5.
• Signal to noise ratio in FM is proportional to square of depth of modulation.
• So when m=5 there will be a 25:1 (14 dB) improvement for FM.
• No such improvement is possible in AM.
• FM will be 4.75dB better than PM for noise.
 Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
The noise triangle showed that noise has a greater effect on the higher
modulating frequency than on the lower ones. Thus , if the higher frequencies
were artificially boosted at the transmitter and correspondingly cut at the
receiver, an improvement in noise immunity could be expected, thereby
increasing the signal-to-noise ratio. This boosting of the higher modulating
frequencies, in accordance with a prearranged curve, is termed pre-emphasis,
and the compensation at receiver is called de-emphasis.
Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
 Comparison of FM and AM

Sr. No. FM AM
1. FM receivers are immune to noise AM receivers are not immune to noise
2. It is possible to decrease noise by This feature is absent in AM
increasing deviation
3. Bandwidth is higher and depends on Bandwidth is lower compared to FM
modulation index but independent on modulation index
4. FM transmission and reception AM transmission and reception
equipment are more complex equipment are less complex
5. Require Pre-emphasis and De- Does not require any Pre-emphasis and
emphasis circuits at transmitter and De-emphasis circuits
receiver respectively
 Stereophonic FM Multiplex System
SCA (Subsidiary Communications Authorization) signal
 Generation of Frequency Modulation
• The generation of FM can be done by the ways
• Direct Method
• Indirect Method
• Direct Method: The most common are
• Reactance modulator
• Varactor Diode
 Basic Reactance modulator
𝑅𝑣
𝑣𝑔 = 𝑖𝑏 𝑅 =
𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶
The FET drain current is
𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝑣
𝑖 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑣𝑔 =
𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶
Therefore the impedance seen at the terminals A-A is
𝑣 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝑣 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶 1 𝑗𝑋𝐶
𝑧= =𝑣÷ = = 1−
𝑖 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶 𝑔𝑚 𝑅 𝑔𝑚 𝑅
If 𝑋𝐶 ≫ 𝑅 in above equation, then the equation becomes
𝑋𝐶
𝑧 = −𝑗
𝑔𝑚 𝑅
This impedance is quite clearly capacitive reactance, and hence
𝑋𝐶 1 1
𝑋𝑒𝑞 = = =
𝑔𝑚 𝑅 2π𝑓𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 2π𝑓𝐶𝑒𝑞
Under such conditions the input impedance of the device is a pure
reactance and is given by
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶
 Basic Reactance modulator
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶
We can conclude from above equation that
1. This capacitance depends on the trans-conductance and can therefore be varied
with bias voltage.
2. The capacitance can be adjusted to any value , by varying the components R and C.
3. The expression has the correct dimension of capacitance.
4. The gate-to-drain impedance must be much larger than the gate-to-source
impedance, otherwise z would have had a resistive component.
• Let 𝑋𝐶 = 𝑛𝑅 then
1
𝑋𝐶 = = 𝑛𝑅
ω𝐶
1 1
𝐶= =
ω𝑛𝑅 2π𝑓𝑛𝑅
𝑔𝑚 𝑅
Then 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 =
2π𝑓𝑛𝑅
𝑔𝑚
𝐶𝑒𝑞 =
2π𝑓𝑛
 Types of Reactance modulator

Name 𝑍𝑔𝑑 𝑍𝑔𝑠 Condition Reactance Frequency

RC capacitive C R 𝑋𝐶 R 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶
RC inductive R C R 𝑋𝐶 𝑅𝐶
𝐿𝑒𝑞 =
𝑔𝑚
RL inductive L R 𝑋𝐿 R 𝐿
𝐿𝑒𝑞 =
𝑔𝑚 𝑅
RL capacitive R L R 𝑋𝐿 𝑔𝑚 𝐿
𝐶𝑒𝑞 =
𝑅
 Numerical on Reactance Modulator
1. Determine the value of the capacitive reactance obtainable from a
reactance FET whose 𝑔𝑚 is 12 mS. Assume that the gate to source
resistance one-ninth of the reactance of the gate to drain capacitor and
the frequency is 5 MHz.
2. The mutual conductance of an FET varies linearly with gate voltage
between the limit of 0 and 9 mS. The FET is used as the capacitive
reactance modulator with 𝑋𝑐𝑔𝑑 = 8𝑅𝑔𝑠 . And is placed across an
oscillator circuit which is tuned to 50 MHz by a 50-pF fixed capacitor.
What will be the total frequency variation when the trans-conductance
of the FET is varied from 0 to maximum by the modulating voltage.
3. It is required to provide a maximum deviation of 75 kHZ for the 88-MHz
carrier frequency of a VHP FM transmitter. A FET is used as a capacitive
reactance modulator and linear portion of its 𝑔𝑚 − 𝑣𝑔𝑠 curve lies from
320 μS (at which 𝑣𝑔𝑠 = −2 𝑉) to 830 μS (at which 𝑣𝑔𝑠 = −0.5 𝑉).
Assuming that 𝑅𝑔𝑠 is one-tenth of 𝑋𝑐𝑔𝑑 , Calculate
a) The rms value of the required modulating voltage
b) The value of the fixed capacitance and inductance of the oscillator tuned
circuit across which the reactance modulator is connected.
 Numerical on Reactance Modulator
1. Determine the value of the capacitive reactance
obtainable from a reactance FET whose 𝑔𝑚 is 12 mS.
Assume that the gate to source resistance one-ninth of
the reactance of the gate to drain capacitor and the
frequency is 5 MHz.
Given
𝑔𝑚 = 20 𝑚𝑆
1
𝑅𝑔𝑠 = 𝑋
9 𝑔𝑑
𝑓 = 5 𝑀𝐻𝑧
𝑔𝑚
𝐶𝑒𝑞 =
2π𝑓𝑛
𝑔𝑚 1
2π𝑓𝐶𝑒𝑞 = =
𝑛 𝑋𝐶𝑒𝑞
𝑛 9
𝑋𝐶𝑒𝑞 = = −3
= 750 
𝑔𝑚 12 × 10
 Numerical on Reactance Modulator
2. The mutual conductance of an FET varies linearly with gate voltage between the limit of 0 and 9 mS. The
FET is used as the capacitive reactance modulator with 𝑋𝑐𝑔𝑑 = 8𝑅𝑔𝑠 . And is placed across an oscillator
circuit which is tuned to 50 MHz by a 50-pF fixed capacitor. What will be the total frequency variation
when the trans-conductance of the FET is varied from 0 to maximum by the modulating voltage.
Given
𝑔𝑚 = 0 − 9 𝑚𝑆
𝑋𝑐𝑔𝑑 = 8𝑅𝑔𝑠
𝑓 = 50 𝑀𝐻𝑧
C = 50 𝑝𝐹
𝐶𝑛 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝐸𝑇
𝐶𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝐸𝑇
𝑓𝑛 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑓𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑓 = 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑔𝑚
𝐶𝑒𝑞 =
2π𝑓𝑛
1
𝑓=
2π 𝐿𝐶
Now for 𝐶𝑛 = 0
And
𝑔𝑚 9 × 10−3
𝐶𝑥 = = 6
= 3.58 × 10−3 = 3.58 𝑝𝐹
2π𝑓𝑛 2π × 50 × 10 × 8
1
𝑓𝑥 2π 𝐿𝐶 (𝐶 + 𝐶𝑥 ) 𝐶𝑥
= = = 1+
𝑓𝑛 1 𝐶 𝐶
2π 𝐿(𝐶 + 𝐶𝑥 )
 Numerical on Reactance Modulator
𝑓𝑥 𝐶𝑥 3.58
= 1+ = 1+
𝑓𝑛 𝐶 50
𝑓𝑥
= 1.0352
𝑓𝑛
Now
𝑓𝑥 𝑓 + 
=
𝑓𝑛 𝑓 − 
𝑓+
1.0352 =
𝑓−
𝑓 +  = 1.0352𝑓 − 1.0352
 = 0.865 𝑀𝐻𝑧
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 2 = 2 × 0.865 𝑀𝐻𝑧
= 1.73 𝑀𝐻𝑧
 Numerical on Reactance Modulator
3. It is required to provide a maximum deviation of 75 kHZ for the 88-MHz carrier frequency of a VHP FM
transmitter. A FET is used as a capacitive reactance modulator and linear portion of its 𝑔𝑚 − 𝑣𝑔𝑠 curve
lies from 320 μS (at which 𝑣𝑔𝑠 = −2 𝑉) to 830 μS (at which 𝑣𝑔𝑠 = −0.5 𝑉). Assuming that 𝑅𝑔𝑠 is one-
tenth of 𝑋𝑐𝑔𝑑 , Calculate
a) The rms value of the required modulating voltage
b) The value of the fixed capacitance and inductance of the oscillator tuned circuit across which the reactance
modulator is connected.

Given
 = 75 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑓 = 88 𝑀𝐻𝑧
𝑔𝑚 = 320 − 830 𝑆
1
𝑅𝑔𝑠 = 𝑋𝑐𝑔𝑑
10
a) 𝑉𝑚 peak to peak = 2 − 0.5 = 1.5 𝑉
1.5
𝑉𝑚,𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 0.53𝑉
2 2
𝑔𝑚,𝑚𝑖𝑛 830 × 10−6
𝐶𝑛 = = 6
= 0.058 × 10−12 = 0.058 𝑝𝐹
2π𝑓𝑛 2π × 88 × 10 × 10
𝑔𝑚,𝑚𝑎𝑥 320 × 10−6
𝐶𝑥 = = 6
= 0.15 × 10−12 = 0.15 𝑝𝐹
2π𝑓𝑛 2π × 88 × 10 × 10
Now

1
𝑓𝑥 2π 𝐿(𝐶 + 𝐶𝑛 ) (𝐶 + 𝐶𝑥 )
= =
𝑓𝑛 1 (𝐶 + 𝐶𝑛 )
2π 𝐿(𝐶 + 𝐶𝑥 )
 Numerical on Reactance Modulator
2
𝑓𝑥 (𝐶 + 𝐶𝑥 )
=
𝑓𝑛 (𝐶 + 𝐶𝑛 )
𝑓𝑥 2 (𝐶 + 𝐶𝑥 )
2 − 1 = −1
𝑓𝑛 (𝐶 + 𝐶𝑛 )
𝑓𝑥 2 − 𝑓𝑛 2 (𝐶 + 𝐶𝑥 ) − (𝐶 + 𝐶𝑛 ) (𝐶𝑥 − 𝐶𝑛 )
2 = =
𝑓𝑛 (𝐶 + 𝐶𝑛 ) (𝐶 + 𝐶𝑛 )
(𝑓𝑥 + 𝑓𝑛 )(𝑓𝑥 − 𝑓𝑛 ) (𝐶𝑥 − 𝐶𝑛 )
2 =
𝑓𝑛 (𝐶 + 𝐶𝑛 )
𝑓 𝑓+
We know that 𝑓𝑥 = hence
𝑛 𝑓−
(𝑓 +  + 𝑓 − )(𝑓 +  − 𝑓 + ) (𝐶𝑥 − 𝐶𝑛 )
2 =
𝑓𝑛 (𝐶 + 𝐶𝑛 )
(2𝑓)(2 ) 4𝑓 4𝑓 (𝐶𝑥 − 𝐶𝑛 )
2 = 2 ≅ 2 =
𝑓𝑛 𝑓𝑛 𝑓 (𝐶 + 𝐶𝑛 )
𝑓 2 (𝐶𝑥 − 𝐶𝑛 )
𝐶= − 𝐶𝑛
4𝑓

(88 × 106 )2 (0.15 × 10−12 − 0.058 × 10−12 ) −12 = 27 𝑝𝐹

𝐶= − 0.058 × 10
4 × 88 × 106 × 75 × 103
 Numerical on Reactance Modulator
1
We know that 𝑓 =
2π 𝐿𝐶
1
𝐿= 2 2
4π 𝑓 𝐶
1
𝐿= 2
4π (88 × 106 )2 27 × 10−12

𝐿 = 0.121 𝐻
 Varactor Diode Modulator
• A varactor diode is a semiconductor diode whose junction
capacitance varies linearly with the applied voltage when the
diode is reverse-biased.
• Varactor diodes are employed together with a reactance
modulator to provide automatic frequency correction in FM
transmitter.
• This is simplest reactance modulator circuit.
• It is often used for Automatic frequency control and remote
tuning.
 Generation of FM using Indirect Method
• Drawback of Direct method
– The main disadvantage of using direct method is that the
frequency of LC oscillator is not stable.
– Hence can not be used for broadcasting purpose
• To overcome this the FM generator making use of crystal
oscillator is invented and named as Armstrong system after its
inventor.
Armstrong FM system
 Types of Receiver
• Amongst many types of receivers proposed at
different times, only two of them have real
practical or commercial significance
– Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver
– Superheterodyne Receiver
 Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver
• RF Amplifier : Two to three stages of amplifiers are tuned together to
select and amplify incoming frequency and at the same time reject other.
• Detector: Used to demodulate the amplified signal and detects the
baseband audio signal
• Audio and Power Amplifier: Detected audio signal is fed to Loudspeaker
after voltage and power amplification.
• Loudspeaker: Converts Audio signal to sound signal.
 Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver
• Advantages
– Simplicity (simple to design)
– Sensitivity
– Inexpensive
• Limitations
– Instability with high gain achieved at one frequency by
multistage amplifier
– Bandwidth variation over the tuning range
– Unable to achieve sufficient selectivity
𝑓
𝑄=
∆𝑓
Eg. BW = 10 KHz and Frequency range of 535 KHz to
1640 KHz.
Superheterodyne Receiver
 Superheterodyne Receiver
• RF amplifier is tuned to receiving frequency. The RF
stage provides selectivity which selects wanted
frequency and rejects unwanted.
• The incoming signal is combined with Local
Oscillator generated signal which converts signal to
intermediate frequency (normally at lower
frequency).
• Constant frequency is maintained between Local
Oscillator and RF through ganged capacitor tuning.
• IF amplifier provides most of the sensitivity (through
gain) and bandwidth.
• Signal is know amplified and detected to reproduce
original information.
 Superheterodyne Receiver
• RF stage range is: 540 KHz to 1650 KHz (Broad Band,
Standard Commercial AM band)
• Local Oscillator range is: 540 + 455 = 995 𝐾𝐻𝑧
to 1650 + 455 = 2105 𝐾𝐻𝑧
• IF amplifier range is: 455 𝐾𝐻𝑧 ± 3 𝐾𝐻𝑧
(narrow band with 10 KHz BW)
• Example:
• Select an AM station at 640 KHz by tuning RF amplifier to 640
KHz.
• LO will get tuned to 1095 KHz because of ganged tuning
• Hence 1095 KHz gets mixed with 640 KHz and produces
– 1095 KHz LO frequency
– 640 KHz station carrier frequency
– 455 KHz difference frequency
– 1735 KHz sum frequency
• This id now fed to narrow band IF amplifier which selects only
difference signal
 AM Receiver
RF Section & Characteristics
• RF Amplifier is a wideband class A amplifier
• The advantages of RF amplifier are as follows
1. Greater gain i.e. better sensitivity
2. Improved image frequency rejection
3. Improved signal-to-noise ratio
4. Improved rejection of adjacent unwanted signal i.e.
better selectivity
5. Better coupling of the receiver to the antenna (imp at
VHF and above)
6. preventing interference of unwanted frequency signal in
IF signal
7. Prevention of reradiation of the LO through the antenna
of the receiver.
AM Receiver
RF Section
 AM Receiver
RF Section & Characteristics
Characteristics of RF amplifier
• Sensitivity: It is ability to
amplify weak signals. It is
defined in terms of the voltage
that must be applied to the
receiver input terminals to
give a standard output power
at output terminals. For a
professional receiver, the
sensitivity is in terms of signal
power required to produce
minimum acceptable output
signal with minimum
acceptable signal-to-noise
ratio.
 AM Receiver
RF Section & Characteristics
Characteristics of RF amplifier
• Selectivity: It is ability to reject
unwanted signals. Selectivity is
measured at the end of a
sensitivity test with the
conditions the same as that of
selectivity. Now the frequency
of generator is varied to either
side of the tuned frequency.
The ratio of the voltage
required of resonance to the
voltage required when the
generator is tuned to the
receiver’s frequency as shown
in fig.
 AM Receiver
RF Section & Characteristics
Characteristics of RF amplifier
• Image frequency and it’s rejection: The LO frequency is
made higher than the incoming signal frequency. It is made
equal to the signal frequency plus the intermediate
frequency. Thus
𝑓𝑜 = 𝑓𝑠 + 𝑓𝑖
Or 𝑓𝑠 = 𝑓𝑜 − 𝑓𝑖
When 𝑓𝑠 and 𝑓𝑜 are mixed the difference signal is produced
If a frequency 𝑓𝑠𝑖 manages to reach the mixer, such that 𝑓𝑠𝑖 =
𝑓𝑜 + 𝑓𝑖 that is 𝑓𝑠𝑖 = 𝑓𝑠 + 2𝑓𝑖 , then this frequency will also
produce 𝑓𝑖 when mixed with 𝑓𝑜 . This spurious intermediate
frequency is called as Image Frequency which is undesirable.
 AM Receiver RF Section & Characteristics
• Hence the Image frequency is given by
𝑓𝑠𝑖 = 𝑓𝑠 + 2𝑓𝑖
• The rejection of an image frequency by single-tuned circuit, i.e.,
the ratio of the gain at the signal frequency to the gain at the
image frequency, is given by
α = 1 + 𝑄2 ρ2
𝑓𝑠𝑖 𝑓𝑠
ρ= −
𝑓𝑠 𝑓𝑠𝑖
Where Q= loaded Q of tuned circuit.
• There are two tuned circuits in a RF amplifier both tuned at 𝑓𝑠 . The
rejection of each will be calculated by the same formula, and the
total rejection will the product of two.
• Image frequency depends on the front end selectivity of the
receiver and must be achieved before the IF stage, because once
the spurious frequency enters the IF amplifier, it becomes
impossible to remove it from the wanted signal.
 Numerical based on Image frequency
1. In a broadcast superheterodyne receiver having no
RF amplifier, the loaded Q of the antenna coupling
circuit (at the input to the mixer) is 100. If the
intermediate frequency is 455 kHz, calculate (a)
the image frequency and its rejection ratio at 1000
kHz, and (b) the image frequency and rejection
ratio at 25 MHz.
2. In order to make the image frequency rejection of
thr receiver of previous example as good at 25
MHz as it was at 1000 kHz, calculate (a)the loaded
Q which an RF amplifier for this receiver would
have to have and (b)the new intermediate
frequency that would be needed (if there is to be
no RF amplifier).
 Numerical based on Image frequency
1. In a broadcast superheterodyne receiver having no RF amplifier, the
loaded Q of the antenna coupling circuit (at the input to the mixer) is
100. If the intermediate frequency is 455 kHz, calculate (a) the image
frequency and its rejection ratio at 1000 kHz, and (b) the image
frequency and rejection ratio at 25 MHz.
Given
Q=100
IF=455 kHz
(a) 𝑓𝑠 = 1000 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑠𝑖 = 𝑓𝑠 + 2𝑓𝑖
𝑓𝑠𝑖 = 1000 + 2 × 455 = 1910 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑠𝑖 𝑓𝑠
ρ= −
𝑓𝑠 𝑓𝑠𝑖
1910 1000
ρ= − = 1.386
1000 1910
α = 1 + 𝑄2 ρ2
α = 1 + 1002 1.3862 = 138.6
α 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log α = 20 log 138.6 = 42.83 𝑑𝐵
 Numerical based on Image frequency
(b) 𝑓𝑠 = 25 𝑀𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑠𝑖 = 𝑓𝑠 + 2𝑓𝑖
𝑓𝑠𝑖 = 25 + 2 × 0.455 = 25.91 𝑀𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑠𝑖 𝑓𝑠
ρ= −
𝑓𝑠 𝑓𝑠𝑖
25.91 25
ρ= − = 0.715
25 25.91
α = 1 + 𝑄 2 ρ2
α = 1 + 1002 0.7152 = 7.22
α 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log α = 20 log 7.22 = 17.170 𝑑𝐵
 Numerical based on Image frequency
2. In order to make the image frequency rejection of the receiver of
previous example as good at 25 MHz as it was at 1000 kHz, calculate
(a) the loaded Q which an RF amplifier for this receiver would have to
have and (b) the new intermediate frequency that would be needed
(if there is to be no RF amplifier).
Given
Q=100
IF=455 kHz
𝑓𝑠 = 25 𝑀𝐻𝑧
(a) Since the mixer already has a rejection of 7.22, the image rejection of
the RF stage will have to be
′
138.6
α = = 19.2 = 1 + 𝑄′2 0.07152
7.22
2
2
19.2 −1
𝑄′ =
0.07152
′
367.64
𝑄 = = 268.16
0.0715
A well designed receiver would have the same Q for both tuned circuits.
Here this works out to 164 each, that being the geometric mean of 100
and 268.
 Numerical based on Image frequency
(b) If the rejection is to be the same as initially, through a
change in the intermediate frequency, it is apparent that ρ
will have to be the same as in previous example (a), since
the Q is also the same. Thus
𝑓′𝑠𝑖 𝑓′𝑠
ρ= −
𝑓′𝑠 𝑓′𝑠𝑖
1910 1000
138.6 = −
1000 1910
𝑓′𝑠𝑖 1910
= = 1.91
𝑓′𝑠 1000
25 + 2𝑓′𝑖
= 1.91
25
1.91 × 25 − 25
𝑓′𝑖 = = 11.4 𝑀𝐻𝑧
2
 AM Receiver
RF Section & Characteristics
Characteristics of RF amplifier
• Adjacent Channel selectivity (Double Spotting): It caused by
poor front-end selectivity, i.e. inadequate image-frequency
rejection. The front–end of the receiver does not select
different adjacent signals very well, but the IF stage takes care
of eliminating almost all of them. Hence the setting of the
tuned circuit at the input of the mixer is far important.
• Example: Let 14.7 MHz is strong signal for detecting this signal
LO frequency must be tuned to 15.155 MHz.
• Now let the receiver is tuned to 13.79 MHz signal at which LO
must be tuned to 14.245 MHz.
• But the receiver will catch the strong signal at 14.7 MHz.
• Hence the mixer will produce the difference signal at 14.7-
14.245=455 MHz. which is an undesired image frequency that
can be avoided by having an RF input stage.
 AM Receiver
Frequency Changing and Tracking
• The mixer is a non-linear device having two set of inputs and
one set of output terminals.
• Such a non-linear circuit will have several frequencies present
in its output, including the difference between the two input
frequencies which is intermediate frequency to this the output
circuit is tuned.
• The coefficient of nonlinearity of most nonlinear resistances is
very low, hence IF output of the mixer will also be low.
• To prevent this the LO voltage is made quite large, 1Vrms or
more to a mixer whose input voltage might be 100 μV or less.
• The LO varies the bias on the mixer from zero to cut-off, thus
varying the trans-conductance in a nonlinear manner.
• The mixer amplifies the signal with this varying gm, and an IF
output results.
• Mixer is a class C circuit capable of producing the sum,
difference, and original frequencies.
 AM Receiver
Frequency Changing and Tracking
• Conversion Trans-Conductance:
• Like any other amplifying device, a mixer has a
trans-conductance. However, the situation here is
a little more complicated, since the output
frequency is different from the input frequency.
• Conversion trans-conductance is defined as
△ 𝑖𝑝 (𝑎𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦)
𝑔𝑐 =
△ 𝑣𝑔 (𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦)
• 𝑔𝑐 is of the order of 6mS which is lower than the
𝑔𝑚 .
 AM Receiver
Frequency Changing and Tracking
Separately Excited Mixer: used at higher frequencies
 AM Receiver
Frequency Changing and Tracking

Self-Excited Mixer:
 AM Receiver
Frequency Changing and Tracking
• Superheterodyne tracking:
 AM Receiver
Frequency Changing and Tracking
• Superheterodyne tracking:
• To understand the process mathematically let us
consider one example:
1. The receiver is tuned to 550KHz.
2. The LO (Because of mechanical linking) generate a
frequency of 1005KHz (always 455KHz above the station
carrier frequency)
3. The mixer will produce a usable output of 455KHz ±
3KHz; all the other frequencies are rejected.
4. The converted signal is rectified and filtered (detected),
to eliminate the unusable portions, and amplified for
listening purpose.
• Superheterodyne receivers has number of tunable
circuits which are mechanically coupled.
 AM Receiver
Frequency Changing and Tracking
• Any errors that exists in this frequency difference will
result in the incorrect frequency being fed to the IF
amplifier.
• Such errors are called as tracking errors,
• It is not possible all the time to maintain constant
frequency difference between LO and front-end
circuit, which results in tracking error.
• To avoid this one inductor/capacitor (capacitor more
commonly called as padding capacitor/padder) can
be connected in series with ganged capacitor which
will result in three point tracking and shown by solid
line in curve.
 AM Receiver
Frequency Changing and Tracking
 AM Receiver
Frequency Changing and Tracking
• Local Oscillator:
• The signal frequency of the LO depends on the broadcast
signal frequency range(540 to 1650KHz) and IF (455KHz).
• For LO frequency greater than RF this range is 995 to
2105KHz, giving the ratio of max to min as 2.2:1.
• Similarly if LO frequency should be less than RF then this
range is 85 to 1195KHz, with the ratio of 3.2:1.
• Hence while designing the LO the 2.1:1 ratio has low
frequency sweep.
• This is the reason the LO frequency is always made higher
than RF
• The most common types of LO are Armstrong and the
Hartley, the Colpitts, Clapp, or ultra audion oscillator.
 AM Receiver
Intermediate Frequencies and IF Amplifiers
Choice of frequency:
• Following are the major factors influencing the choice of the
intermediate frequency in any particular system
1. If the intermediate frequency is high, poor selectivity and poor
adjacent-channel rejection result unless sharp cutoff filters are
used in the IF stage.
2. A high value of IF increases tracking difficulties.
3. As the IF is lowered, image frequency rejection becomes poorer.
4. A very low IF can make the selectivity too sharp, cutting of the
sidebands.
5. If the IF is very low, the frequency stability of the LO must be
made correspondingly higher because any frequency drift is
now a larger proportion of the low IF than of a high IF.
6. The IF must not fall within the tuning range of the receiver, or
else instability will occur, making it impossible to the frequency
band immediately adjacent to the intermediate frequency.
 AM Receiver
Intermediate Frequencies and IF Amplifiers
Frequencies Used
• As a result of many years experience and the previous
requirements few specific frequencies were standardized
throughout the world. These are as follows:
1. Standard broadcast AM receivers use an IF within the 438 to 465
KHz range, with 455 KHz by far the most popular frequency.
2. AM SSB and other receivers employed for shortwave or VHF
have IF often in the range from 1.6 to 2.3 MHz, or else above 30
MHz.
3. FM receiver using the standard 88 to 108 MHz band have an IF
which is almost always 10.7 MHz.
4. Television receiver in the VHF band and UHF band use an IF with
approximately 36 and 46 MHz two most popular values.
5. Microwave and RADAR receivers operating in the range of 1 to
10 GHz range use IF with 30, 60 and 70 MHz amongst the most
popular.
 AM Receiver
Intermediate Frequencies and IF Amplifiers
Intermediate-frequency
Amplifiers:
• It is a fixed frequency
amplifier which rejects
adjacent unwanted
frequencies.
• It should have a frequency
response steep skirts.
• Hence double-tuned or
stagger-tuned amplifiers are
used.
• Figure shows two stage IF
amplifier which ensures high
gain with maximum power
transfer using tapping coils.
 AM Receiver
Detection and Automatic Gain Control (AGC)
Operation of Diode detector
• Diode is most common device used for AM demodulation.
• In the circuit of below figure C is a small capacitor and R is a large
resistance. This parallel combination acting as load to the diode
rectifier.
• This circuit reproduces the modulating voltage accurately through
the charging and discharging of capacitor C, except for a small
amount of RF ripple.
 AM Receiver
Detection and Automatic Gain Control (AGC)
• Simple diode detector has disadvantage that
output also has a DC component, with a small RF
ripple.
• The unwanted components are removed in
practical detector.
Practical Diode Detector:
 AM Receiver
Detection and Automatic Gain Control (AGC)
Principles of Simple Automatic Gain Control:
• Simple AGC is a system by means of which the overall gain of a
radio receiver is varied automatically with the changing strength
of the received signal to keep the output substantially constant.
• A DC bias voltage, derived from the detector is applied to a
selected number of the RF, IF and mixer stages whose trans-
conductance and gain is dependent on the applied bias voltage.
• Hence modern receivers using AGC enables tuning to stations of
variable signal strength without appreciable change in the volume
of the output signal.
 AM Receiver
Detection and Automatic Gain Control (AGC)
Distortion in Diode Detector:
Two type of distortions may arise in diode detectors
1. Negative peak clipping:
this distortion occurs due to a fact that the modulation index on the output side of the
detector is higher than that on its input side. Hence, at higher depth of modulation of the
transmitted signal, the overmodulation may take place at the output of the detector. The negative
peak clipping will take place as a result of this as shown in figure.
𝐼𝑚
𝑚𝑑 =
𝐼𝑐
𝑉
Where 𝐼𝑚 = 𝑚 and
𝑍𝑚
𝑉𝑐
𝐼𝑐 =
𝑅𝑐
Where 𝑍𝑚 =audio diode load impedance
And 𝑅𝑐 =dc diode load resistance
Hence
𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 Τ𝑍𝑚 𝑅𝑐
𝑚𝑑 = = =𝑚
𝐼𝑐 𝑉𝑐 Τ𝑅𝑐 𝑍𝑚
Since the maximum tolerable modulation index in the diode output is unity the maximum
permissible transmitted modulation index will be
𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑚
𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑑,𝑚𝑎𝑥 =1
𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑐
 AM Receiver
Detection and Automatic Gain Control (AGC)
Distortion in Diode detector:
2. Diagonal Clipping: This type of distortion occurs
when the RC time constant of the load circuit is too
long. Due to this the RC circuit cannot follow the
fast changes in the modulation envelope. The
diagonal clipping is shown in figure.
 AM Receiver
Demodulation of SSB
Product Demodulator
 AM Receiver
Demodulation of SSB
Detection with the Diode Balanced Modulator
 FM Receiver
The FM receiver is a superheterodyne receiver, and the block diagram of
same is shown in figure. This figure shows that FM receiver is more or less
same as that of AM superheterodyne receiver.
The basic differences are as follows:
1. Generally much higher operating frequencies in FM
2. Need for limiting and de-emphesis in FM
3. Totally different methods of demodulation
4. Different methods of obtaining AGC
 FM Receiver
Common circuits―Comparison with AM Receiver
A number of sections of FM receiver are same as that of AM receiver.
Same criteria is applied to select the intermediate frequency here hence
the IF amplifiers are similar
• RF Amplifier: Main purpose of RF amplifier here in FM is to reduce the
noise figure. It is also required to match the input impedance of the
receiver to that of the antenna.
• Oscillator and Mixer: High frequency oscillators like Colpitts and clapp
are used as these are suited to VHF range. Tracking is not normally much
of a problem in FM broadcast receiver. This is because the tuning
frequency range is only 1.25:1, much less than in AM. Separately excited
oscillators are normally used.
• Intermediate frequency and IF amplifiers: The intermediate frequency
and the bandwidth requirement are far higher in FM than in AM
receivers. Typical figure for receiver operating in the 88 to 108 MHz
band are an IF of 10.7 MHz and a bandwidth of 200 KHz.
 FM Receiver
Amplitude Limiting
In order to make full use of the advantages offered by FM, a
demodulator must be preceded by an amplitude limiter, on the
grounds that any amplitude changes in the signal fed to the FM
demodulator are spurious. They must therefore be removed to
avoid distortion.
Operation of the Amplitude
Limiter:
Figure shows the circuit
diagram of Amplitude limiter.
Leak-type gate bias is provided
through parallel Rg and Cg
combination. Where as RD is
voltage limiting resistance and
CN is a neutralizing capacitor
 FM Receiver
Amplitude Limiting
 FM Receiver
Amplitude Limiting
Performance of Amplitude Limiter: It is seen that the range of
input voltages over which the amplitude limiter will operate
satisfactorily is itself limited.
Further Limiting: It is quite possible for the amplitude limiter
to be inadequate to its task, because signal strength
variations may easily take the average signal amplitude
outside the limiting range. As a result further limiting is
required in a practical FM receiver.
Double Limiter: A double limiter consists of two amplitude
limiter in cascade, an that increases the range very
satisfactorily.
Automatic Gain Control (AGC): A suitable alternative to the
second limiter is automatic gain control. This is to ensure that
the signal fed to the limiter is within its limiting range,
regardless of the input signal strength.
 FM Receiver
Basic FM Demodulators
• The function of a frequency-to-amplitude changer, or
FM demodulator, is to change the frequency
deviation of the incoming carrier into an AF
amplitude variation.
• This conversion should be done efficiently and
linearly.
• The detection circuit should be insensitive to
amplitude changes.
• This type of circuits converts the frequency
modulated IF voltage of constant amplitude into a
voltage that is both frequency and amplitude
modulated.
• This later voltage is then applied to a detector.
 FM Receiver
Basic FM Demodulators
Slope Detection: Consider a frequency modulated signal fed
to a tuned circuit whose resonant frequency is to one side of
the centre frequency of the FM signal. The output of this
circuit will have an amplitude that depends on the frequency
deviation of the input signal; that is illustrated in figure
below. This output, voltage is applied to a diode detector
with an RC load of suitable time constant.
 FM Receiver
Basic FM Demodulators
• The slope detector is insufficient and it is linear only along
a very limited frequency range.
• It quite obviously react to all amplitude changes.
• It is relatively difficult to adjust.
Balanced Slope Detector: The balanced slope detector is also
known as the Travis detector, the triple-tuned discriminator,
and the amplitude discriminator.
 FM Receiver
Basic FM Demodulators
Balanced Slope Detector:
• Let fc be the IF to which the primary circuit is tuned, and let (fc +𝜹f) and (fc -𝜹f) be the
resonant frequencies of the upper secondary and lower secondary circuits T’ and T”
respectively.
• When the input frequency is equal to fc, the voltage across T’ (i.e. the input to diode D1)
will have a value somewhat less than the maximum available, since fc is somewhat below
the resonant frequency of T’. Similar condition exists across T”. Hence the voltages
applied to the two diodes will be identical, and thus the output of detector will be zero.
• Now consider the instantaneous frequency to be equal to (fc +𝜹f ), the output of D1 will
be quite large, on the other hand the output of D2 will be small. And opposite will
happen when instantaneous frequency is (fc -𝜹f ).
 FM Receiver
Basic FM Demodulators
Phase Discriminator: This discriminator is also known
as the center-tuned discriminator or the Foster-Seeley
discriminator.
This will provide the same S shaped response curve in
which the primary and secondary windings are both
tuned to the center frequency of the incoming signal.
Advantages are
1. It greatly simplifies the alignment
2. Process yields better linearity than slop detection.
Same diode and load arrangement is used as in the
balanced slop detector.
Foster-Seeley discriminator is derived from the Travis
detector.
 FM Receiver
Basic FM Demodulators
• In this circuit the voltages fed to the diodes vary linearly with the
deviation of the input signal.
• The voltages applied to each diode is the sum of the primary voltage and
the corresponding half-secondary voltage.
• It will also be shown that the primary and secondary voltages are:
• Thus although the individual component voltages will be the same at the
diode inputs at all frequencies the vector sum will differ with the phase
difference between primary and secondary.
– Exactly 90⁰ out of phase when the input frequency is fc
– Less than 90⁰ out of phase when fin is higher than fc
– More than 90⁰ out of phase when fin is below fc
 FM Receiver
Basic FM Demodulators
• The resistance forming the load are made much larger than
the capacitive reactance.
• The circuit composed of C, L3 and C4 is effectively placed
across the primary winding as shown in figure below
• The voltage across L3, VL will then be
𝑉12 𝑍𝐿3
𝑉𝐿 =
𝑍𝐶 + 𝑍𝐶4 + 𝑍𝐿3
𝑗ω𝐿3
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉12
𝑗ω𝐿3 − 𝑗(1Τω𝐶 + 1Τω𝐶4 )
• L3 is an RF choke with a large reactance.
• Whereas C is a coupling capacitor and C4 is
RF bypass capacitor with small values.
• Hence 𝑉𝐿 ≈ 𝑉12 .
 FM Receiver
Basic FM Demodulators
• Current through primary winding is given by
𝑉12
𝐼𝑃 =
𝑗ω𝐿1
• This current causes a secondary voltage induced in
the secondary winding which is equal to
𝑉𝑆 = ±𝑗ω𝑀𝐼𝑃
• Where the sign depends on the direction of winding
• It is simpler here to take the connection giving
negative mutual inductance hence
𝑉12 𝑀
𝑉𝑆 = −𝑗ω𝑀𝐼𝑃 = −𝑗ω𝑀 = 𝑉12
𝑗ω𝐿1 𝐿1
 FM Receiver
Basic FM Demodulators
• The voltage across secondary winding, 𝑉𝑎𝑏 , can
now be calculated with the help of figure shown
below:
𝑍𝐶2 −𝑗𝑋𝐶2 (−𝑉12 𝑀Τ𝐿1 )
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑠 =
𝑍𝐶2 + 𝑍𝐿2 + 𝑅2 𝑅2 + 𝑗(𝑋𝐿2 − 𝑋𝐶2 )
𝑗𝑀 𝑉12 𝑋𝐶2
𝑉𝑎𝑏 =
𝐿1 𝑅2 + 𝑗𝑋2
Where
𝑋2 = 𝑋𝐿2 − 𝑋𝐶2
Which may be positive or
negative or even zero
depending on frequency.
 FM Receiver
Basic FM Demodulators
• The total voltages applied to D1 and D2, 𝑉𝑎𝑜 and 𝑉𝑏𝑜 ,
respectively, may now be calculated. Therefore
𝑉𝑎𝑜 = 𝑉𝑎𝑐 + 𝑉𝐿 = 1Τ2 𝑉𝑎𝑏 + 𝑉12
𝑉𝑏𝑜 = 𝑉𝑏𝑐 + 𝑉𝐿 = −𝑉𝑎𝑐 + 𝑉𝐿 = − 1Τ2 𝑉𝑎𝑏 + 𝑉12
• Hence the voltage across each diode is the sum of primary
voltage and the corresponding half secondary voltage.
• Consider the situation when 𝑓𝑖𝑛 is equal to 𝑓𝑐 . Then 𝑋2 will be
equal to zero so equation becomes
𝑗𝑀 𝑉12 𝑋𝐶2 𝑉12 𝑋𝐶2 ∠90⁰
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = =
𝐿1 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝐿1
• This equation shows that the secondary voltage 𝑉𝑎𝑏 leads the
applied primary voltage by 90⁰.
• Thus 1Τ2 𝑉𝑎𝑏 will lead 𝑉12 by 90⁰, and − 1Τ2 𝑉𝑎𝑏 will lag 𝑉12 by
90⁰ as shown in vector diagram (a). It is seen that since 𝑉𝑎𝑜 =
𝑉𝑏𝑜 , the discriminator output is zero.
 FM Receiver
Basic FM Demodulators
• Now consider the case when 𝑓𝑖𝑛 is greater than
𝑓𝑐 , 𝑋𝐿2 is now greater than 𝑋𝐶2 so that 𝑋2 is
positive hence
𝑗𝑀 𝑉12 𝑋𝐶2
𝑉𝑎𝑏 =
𝐿1 𝑅2 + 𝑗𝑋2
𝑉12 𝑋𝐶2 𝑀∠90⁰
𝑉𝑎𝑏 =
𝐿1 ȁ𝑍2 ]∠𝜃⁰
𝑉12 𝑋𝐶2 𝑀
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = ∠(90 − 𝜃)⁰
𝐿1 ȁ𝑍2 ]
• From this equation it is seen that 𝑉𝑎𝑏 leads 𝑉12 by
less than 90⁰.
 FM Receiver
Basic FM Demodulators
• It is apparent from the vector
diagram that 𝑉𝑎𝑜 is now greater
than 𝑉𝑏𝑜 .
• The discriminator output will be
positive when 𝑓𝑖𝑛 is greater
than 𝑓𝑐 .
• Similarly when the input
frequency is smaller than 𝑓𝑐 , 𝑋2
will be negative and the angle
of the impedance 𝑍2 will also be
negative. Thus 𝑉𝑎𝑏 will lead 𝑉12
by more than 90⁰. This time 𝑉𝑎𝑜
will be smaller than 𝑉𝑏𝑜 . The
vector diagram is shown in
figure.
 FM Receiver
Basic FM Demodulators
• If the frequency response is
plotted for the phase
discriminator, it will follow the
required S shape as shown in
figure
• The phase discriminator is much
easier to align than the balanced
slope detector.
• The linearity of phase
discriminator is also better, as
the circuit relies less on
frequency response and more
on the primary-secondary phase
relation, which is quite linear.
• The only defect is that it does
not provide any amplitude
limiting.
 FM Receiver
Basic FM Demodulators
Ratio Detector: In the foster-Seeley discriminator, change in the magnitude of input
signal will give rise to amplitude changes in the resulting output voltage.
This makes prior limiting necessary.
It is possible to modify the discriminator circuit to provide limiting, so that
amplitude limiter may be dispensed with.
A circuit so modified is called a ratio detector.
• Three important changes have been made here
– One of the diode has been reversed here
– A large capacitor C5 has been placed across what used to be the output
– The output noe is taken from elsewhere.
 FM Receiver
Stereo FM Multiplex Reception