MIT-WPU

Communication Systems
 Module-III
NOISE and Random Processes
• Noise and Random Processes:
• Sources of noise, types of noise, noise figure,
noise factor, noise resistance, noise temperature,
bandwidth, SNR, Friis’s formula, noise
calculations.
• Introduction to random process, Stationary
processes, Mean, Correlation & Covariance
functions, Ergodic processes, Transmission of a
random process through a LTI filter, Power
spectral density, Gaussian process.
 Topics covered
• Sources of noise
• Types of noise
• Noise figure
• Noise factor
• Noise resistance
• Noise temperature
• Bandwidth
• SNR
• Friss’s Formula
• Noise Calculations
• Behavior of baseband systems
• AM system in presence of noise
 Introduction
• Noise may be defined, in electrical terms, as any
unwanted introduction of energy tending to interfere
with the proper reception and reproduction of
transmitted signals.
• Noise is a general term which is used to describe an
unwanted signal which affects a wanted signal. These
unwanted signals arise from a variety of sources
which may be considered in one of two main
categories:-
• Interference, usually from a human source (man
made)
• Naturally occurring random noise
 Introduction (Cont’d)
• Many disturbances of an electrical nature produce noise in
receivers, modifying the signal in an unwanted manner.
• For example
• Noise may produce hiss in the loudspeaker output.
• Noise may distract the television receiver in the form of “snow”
or “confetti” (coloured snow) becomes superimposed on the
picture.
• Effects of noise on receiver
• Noise can limit the range of system, for a given transmitted
power.
• It affects the sensitivity of receivers, by placing a limit on the
weakest signals that can be amplified.
• It may result in reduction in the bandwidth.
• In pulse communications systems, noise may produce
unwanted pulses or perhaps cancel out the wanted ones.
• It may cause serious mathematical errors.
 Classification of Noise
• There are numerous ways of classifying noise.
• It may be subdivided according to
– type,
– source,
– effect, or relation to the receiver,
– depending on circumstances.
• It is most convenient here to divide noise into two broad
groups:
– noise whose sources are external to the receiver, and
– noise created within the receiver itself (Internal Noise).
 Classification of Noise(Cont’d)
• External noise is difficult to treat quantitatively, and there is
often little that can be done about it, short of moving the system
to another location.
• Note how radio telescopes are always located away from
industry, whose processes create so much electrical noise.
• International satellite earth stations are also located in noise-
free valleys, where possible.
• Internal noise is both more quantifiable and capable of being
reduced by appropriate receiver design.
• Because noise has such a limiting effect, and also because it is
often possible to reduce its effects through intelligent circuit use
and design, it is most important for all those connected with
communications to be well informed about noise and its effects.
 EXTERNAL NOISE
The various forms of noise created outside the receiver
come under the heading of external noise and include
atmospheric, extraterrestrial and industrial noise.
1. Atmospheric Noise:
• Atmospheric noise is radio noise caused by natural
atmospheric processes, primarily lightning discharges in
thunderstorms.
• They represent atmospheric noise, generally called static
noise.
• Most of these sounds are the result of spurious radio
waves which induce voltage in the antenna.
• It originates in the form of amplitude-modulated
impulses.
• It consists of components distributed over a wide range of
frequencies.
 EXTERNAL NOISE (Cont’d)
• The static is likely to be more sever but less frequent if the
storm is local.
• Field strength is inversely proportional to frequency, so
that this noise will interfere more with the reception of
radio than that of television.
• Such noise consists of impulses, which have harmonics
whose amplitude falls off with increase in the harmonics.
• The usual increase in it’s level takes place at night.
• Atmospheric noise becomes less sever at frequencies
above about 30 MHz because of two separate factors.
1. The higher frequencies are limited to line-of-sight
propagation i.e. less than 80 Km or so.
2. The nature of the mechanism generating this noise is such
that very little of it is created in the VHF range and above.
 EXTERNAL NOISE (Cont’d)
2. Extraterrestrial Noise:
• There are almost as many types of space noise as there are
sources.
• A division into two subgroups will be described here
I. Solar Noise:
• The sun radiates so many things our way that we should not
be too surprised to find that noise is noticeable one of them,
again there are two types.
• Under normal “quite” conditions, there is a constant noise
radiation from the sun, simply because it is a large body at a
very high temperature (over 6000⁰C on the surface).
• The sun is constantly changing star which undergoes cycles of
peak activity from which electrical disturbances erupt such as
corona flare and sunspots. This produces magnitude greater
than that received during periods of quite sun.
 EXTERNAL NOISE (Cont’d)
II. Cosmic Noise:
• Since distance stars are also suns and have high
temperatures, they radiate RF noise in the same
manner as our sun.
• The noise received is called thermal (or black-
body) noise and is distributed fairly uniformly
over the entire sky. We also receive noise from
the centre of our own galaxy, from other galaxies
and from other virtual point sources such as
“quasars” and “pulsars”. This galactic noise is very
intense.
 EXTERNAL NOISE (Cont’d)
3. Industrial Noise:
• Between the frequencies of 1 to 600 MHz (in urban, suburban
and other industrial areas) the intensity of noise made by
human easily outstrips that created by any other source,
internal or external to the receiver.
• Sources such as automobile and aircraft ignition, electric
motors and switching equipment, leakage from high voltage
lines and a multitude of heavy electric machines are all
included.
• Fluorescent lights are another powerful source of such noise
and therefore should not be used where sensitive receiver
reception or testing is being conducted.
• The noise is produced by the arc discharge present in all these
operations, and under these circumstances it is not surprising
that this noise should be most intense in industrial and densely
populated areas.
 INTERNAL NOISE
• Noise created by any active or passive devices
found in receivers come under the heading of
internal noise.
• Such noise is generally random, impossible to
treat on an individual voltage basis, but easy to
observe and describe statistically.
• It is randomly distributed over the entire radio
spectrum there is as much of it at one frequency
as at any other.
• Random noise power is proportional to the
bandwidth over which it is measured.
 INTERNAL NOISE (Cont’d)
1. Thermal Agitation Noise:
• The noise generated in a resistance or the resistive
component is random and is referred to as thermal,
agitation, white or Johnson noise.
• It is due to the rapid and random motion of the molecules
(atoms and electrons) inside the component itself.
• In thermodynamics, kinetic theory shows that the
temperature of a particle is a way of expressing its internal
kinetic energy.
• Thus “temperature” of a body is the statistical root mean
square (rms) value of the velocity of motion of the particles
in the body.
• The kinetic energy of these particles becomes
approximately zero at the temperature 0 K (-273⁰C).
 INTERNAL NOISE (Cont’d)
Thermal Agitation Noise:
• It becomes apparent that the noise generated by a
resistor is proportional to its absolute temperature,
in addition to being proportional to the bandwidth
over which the noise is to be measured.
• Therefore
𝑃𝑛 ∝ 𝑇∆𝑓 = 𝑘𝑇∆𝑓
Where 𝑘 = 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 1.38 × 10;23 J/K
𝑇 = 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝐾 = 273 + ⁰C
∆𝑓 = 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡
𝑃𝑛 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟
 INTERNAL NOISE (Cont’d)
Thermal Agitation Noise:
• A random voltage across the resistor definitely exists and may be both
measured and calculated.
• Using previous equation the equivalent circuit of a resistor as a noise generator
may be drawn as in figure below.
• From this the resistor’s equivalent noise voltage Vn can be calculated. Assume
that RL is noiseless and is receiving the maximum noise power generated by R;
under these condition of maximum power transfer, RL must be equal to R.
• Then
𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑉𝑛 2 2 𝑉𝑛2
𝑃𝑛 = = = =
𝑅𝐿 𝑅 𝑅 4𝑅
2
𝑉𝑛 = 4𝑅𝑃𝑛 = 4𝑅𝑘𝑇∆𝑓
𝑉𝑛 = 4𝑘𝑇∆𝑓𝑅
• It is seen that the square of the rms noise voltage associated with a resistor is
proportional to the absolute temperature of the resistor, the value of its
resistance ,and the bandwidth over which the noise is measured.
 Numerical on INTERNAL NOISE (Cont’d)
1. If the resistor is operating at 27C and the
bandwidth of interest is 2 MHz, then what is the
maximum noise power output of a resistor?
Given
T=27 C
∆𝑓 = 2 𝑀𝐻𝑧
𝑃𝑛 = 𝑘𝑇∆𝑓 = 1.38 × 10;23 × 300 × 2 × 106
𝑃𝑛 = 0.0828 × 10;12 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
 Numerical on INTERNAL NOISE (Cont’d)
2. An amplifier operating over the frequency range from
18 to 20 MHz has a 10 KΩ input resistor. What is the
rms noise voltage at the input of this amplifier if the
ambient temperature is 27C?
Given
𝑇 = 27 𝐶
∆𝑓 = 20 − 18 = 2 𝑀𝐻𝑧
R = 10 𝐾Ω
𝑉𝑛 = 4𝑘𝑇∆𝑓𝑅
𝑉𝑛
= 4 × 1.38 × 10;23 × (27 + 273) × 2 × 106 × 10 × 103
𝑉𝑛 = 18.2 μ𝑉
 Numerical on INTERNAL NOISE (Cont’d)
3. Determine the output noise power of any resistor at
room temperature for a bandwidth of 10 MHz . What is
the corresponding noise voltage given that R=500 Ω
Given
𝑇 = 17 𝐶
∆𝑓 = 10 𝑀𝐻𝑧
R = 500 Ω
Noise Power,
𝑃𝑛 = 𝑘𝑇∆𝑓 = 1.38 × 10;23 × 290 × 10 × 106
= 4 × 10;14 𝑊
Noise voltage,
𝑉𝑛 = 4𝑘𝑇∆𝑓𝑅
𝑉𝑛 = 4 × 1.38 × 10;23 × 290 × 10 × 106 × 500
𝑉𝑛 = 8. 94 × 10;6 𝑉
 Shot Noise
1. Shot noise found in all amplifying devices and
virtually all active devices.
2. Shot noise is always associated with direct
current flow.
3. It is caused by the random variations in the arrival
of electrons (or holes) at the output electrode of an
amplifying devices and appears as a randomly varying
noise current superimposed on the output.
4. Shot noise in electronic devices consists of random
fluctuations of the electric current in many electrical
conductors, due to the current being carried by
discrete charges (electrons) whose number per unit
time fluctuates.
 4. Shot noise behaves in a similar manner to thermal
noise, apart from the fact that it has a different source.
6. for diode
in = √2eip δ f
Where in = rms shot noise current
e=charge of electron=1.6x10-19 c
ip = direct diode current
δ f = BW of system
7. The most convenient method for dealing with shot
noise is to find the value or formula for an equivalent
input noise resistor. This will make easy to add shot
noise to thermal noise.
8. since the magnitude of the average signal
increases more rapidly than that of the shot
noise (its relative strength decreases with
increasing signal), shot noise is often only a
problem with small currents or light
intensities.
 INTERNAL NOISE (Cont’d)
Transit-Time Noise:
• If the time taken by electron to travel from the emitter to
the collector of a transistor becomes significant to the
period of the signal being amplified, i.e., at frequencies in
the upper VHF range and beyond, the so called transit time
effect takes place, and the noise input admittance of the
transistor increases.
• The minute currents induced in the input of the device by
random fluctuations in the output current become of the
great importance at such frequencies and create random
noise(frequency distortion).
• Once this high-frequency noise make its presence felt, it
goes on increasing with frequency at a rate that soon
approaches 6 dB per octave, and this random noise then
quickly predominate over the other form.
 NOISE CALCULATIONS
Addition of Noise due to Several Sources:
• Let’s assume there are two sources of thermal agitation noise
generators in series
𝑉𝑛1 = 4𝑘𝑇 △ 𝑓𝑅1 and
𝑉𝑛2 = 4𝑘𝑇 △ 𝑓𝑅2
• The sum of two such rms voltages in series is given by the
square root of the sum of their squares, so that we have
2 2
𝑉𝑛,𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑉𝑛1 + 𝑉𝑛2 = 4𝑘𝑇 △ 𝑓𝑅1 + 4𝑘𝑇 △ 𝑓𝑅2
𝑉𝑛,𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 4𝑘𝑇 △ 𝑓(𝑅1 +𝑅2 ) = 4𝑘𝑇 △ 𝑓𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡
• Where 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑅1 +𝑅2 + ⋯
• In order to find the total noise voltage caused by several
sources of thermal noise in series, the resistances are added
and the noise voltage is calculated using this total resistance.
 Numerical on Noise due to several thermal noise
sources
1. Calculate the noise voltage at the input of a television RF
amplifier, using a device that has a 200 Ω equivalent noise
resistance and a 300 Ω input resistor. The bandwidth of the
amplifier is 6 MHz, and the temperature is 17 𝐶.
Given
𝑇 = 17 𝐶
∆𝑓 = 6 𝑀𝐻𝑧
𝑅1 = 200 Ω
𝑅2 = 300 Ω
𝑉𝑛,𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 4𝑘𝑇 △ 𝑓(𝑅1 +𝑅2 ) = 4𝑘𝑇 △ 𝑓𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑅1 +𝑅2
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 200+300=500 Ω
𝑉𝑛,𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 4 × 1.38 × 10;23 × 290 × 6 × 106 × 500
𝑉𝑛,𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 6.93 μ𝑉
 NOISE CALCULATIONS (Cont’d)
Addition of Noise due to Several Amplifiers in cascade:
• The situation that occurs in receivers is illustrated in figure. It shows
number of amplifying stages in cascade, each having a resistance at its
input and output.
• The first such stage is very often an RF amplifier, while the second is
mixer.
• It may appear logical to combine all the noise resistances at the input,
calculate their noise voltage, multiply it by gain of the first stage and
add this voltage to the one generated at the input of the second stage.
The process might then be continued and the noise voltage at the
output due to all the intervening noise sources, would be found.
• The result is useless because the argument assumed that it is important
to find the total output noise voltage, whereas the important thing is to
find the equivalent input noise voltage.
• It is better to find an equivalent noise resistance for the whole receiver.
• This greatly simplifies subsequent calculation of the lowest input signal
which this receiver may amplify without drowning it with noise.
 NOISE CALCULATIONS (Cont’d)
Addition of Noise due to Several Amplifiers in
cascade:
 NOISE CALCULATIONS (Cont’d)
Addition of Noise due to Several Amplifiers in
cascade:
• Consider a two stage amplifier. The gain of the first stage is A1 and that of
the second is A2.
• The rms noise voltage at the output due to R3 is
𝑉𝑛3 = 4𝑘𝑇 △ 𝑓𝑅3
• The same noise voltage would be present at the output if there were no
R3, instead R’3 was present at the input of stage 2 such that
′ ′
𝑉𝑛3 4𝑘𝑇 △ 𝑓𝑅3
𝑉𝑛3 = 4𝑘𝑇𝑓𝑅3 = =
𝐴2 𝐴2
𝑅3
• Where 𝑅3′ =
𝐴22
• Now the noise resistance actually present at the input of stage 2 is R2, so
the equivalent resistance at the input of the second stage, due to the
second stage and the output resistance, is
′ = 𝑅 + 𝑅′ = 𝑅 + 𝑅3
• 𝑅𝑒𝑞 2 3 2 𝐴22
 NOISE CALCULATIONS (Cont’d)
Addition of Noise due to Several Amplifiers in
cascade:
• Similarly a resistance 𝑅2′ may be placed at the input of the
first stage to replace 𝑅𝑒𝑞 ′ , both naturally producing the
same noise voltage at same noise voltage at the output.
Hence we have
′
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅2 :𝑅3 𝐴22 𝑅2 𝑅3
• 𝑅2′ = = = + 2 2
𝐴21 𝐴21 𝐴21 𝐴1 𝐴2
• The noise resistance actually present at the input of the
first stage is R1, so that the equivalent noise resistance of
the whole cascade amplifier, at the input of the first stage,
will be
𝑅2 𝑅3
• 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2′ = 𝑅1 + 2 + 2 2
𝐴1 𝐴1 𝐴2
• It is possible to extend this equation to apply to an n-stage
cascaded amplifier.
 Numerical on Noise due to several Amplifiers in
cascade
1. The first stage of two stage amplifier has a voltage gain of 10, a 600 Ω input
resistor, a 1600 Ω equivalent noise resistance and a 27 kΩ output resistor. For
the second stage, the values are 25, 81 kΩ, 10 kΩ and 1 MΩ, respectively.
Calculate the equivalent input noise resistance of this two stage amplifier.
Given
𝐴1 = 10
𝑅𝑖𝑛1 = 600 Ω
𝑅𝑛1 = 1600 Ω
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡1 = 27 𝑘Ω
𝐴2 = 25
𝑅𝑖𝑛2 = 81 𝑘Ω
𝑅𝑛2 = 10 𝑘Ω
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡2 = 1 𝑀Ω
𝑅1 = 600 + 1600 = 2200 Ω
27 × 81
𝑅2 = 27 𝑝𝑎𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 81 + 10 = + 10 = 30.2 𝑘Ω
27 + 81
𝑅3 = 1 𝑀Ω
𝑅2 𝑅3 30.2 𝑘Ω 1 𝑀Ω
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 2 + 2 2 = 2200 Ω + + 2 2
𝐴1 𝐴1 𝐴2 102 10 25
 NOISE CALCULATIONS (Cont’d)
Noise in Reactive Circuits
• Consider figure which shows a parallel tuned circuit.
• The series resistance of the coil, which is the noise source here, is shown
as a resistor in series with a noise generator and the coil.
• It is required to determine the noise voltage across the capacitor, i.e., at
the input to the amplifier.
 NOISE CALCULATIONS (Cont’d)
Noise in Reactive Circuits
• The noise current in the circuit will be
𝑣
• 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑛 where 𝑍 = 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑗(𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )
𝑍
𝑣𝑛
• Thus 𝑖𝑛 = at resonance.
𝑅𝑠
• The magnitude of the voltage appearing across the capacitor, due to 𝑣𝑛
will be
𝑣𝑛 𝑋𝐶 𝑣𝑛 𝑄𝑅𝑠
• 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑛 𝑋𝐶 = = = 𝑄𝑣𝑛
𝑅𝑠 𝑅𝑠
• Since 𝑋𝐶 = 𝑄𝑅𝑠 at resonance.
• Where Q is called the magnification factor.
• We have
• 𝑣 2 = 𝑄 2 𝑣𝑛2 = 𝑄 2 4𝑘𝑇 △ 𝑓𝑅𝑠 = 4𝑘𝑇 △ 𝑓 𝑄 2 𝑅𝑠 = 4𝑘𝑇 △ 𝑓𝑅𝑝
• Where 𝑣 is the noise voltage across a tuned circuit due to its internal
resistance, and 𝑅𝑝 is the equivalent parallel impedance of the tuned
circuit at resonance.
• The equivalent parallel impedance of a tuned circuit is its equivalent
resistance for noise.
 Numerical on Noise in Reactive Circuits
1. Consider a reactive circuit having impedance of 20
Ω at the resonance. Find the noise voltage across
the circuit when operating temperature is 27 ⁰C
and the bandwidth is 4 MHz.
Given
△ 𝑓 = 4 𝑀𝐻𝑧
𝑇 = 27 ⁰C
𝑅𝑃 = 20 Ω
𝑉𝑛 = 4𝑘𝑇 △ 𝑓𝑅𝑝

𝑉𝑛 = 4 × 1.38 × 10;23 × 300 × 4 × 106 × 20

𝑉𝑛 = 1.15 × 10;6 𝑉
 NOISE FIGURE
Signal-to-Noise Ratio:
• The calculation of the equivalent noise resistance of an amplifier, receiver
or device may have two purposes.
– The first purpose is comparison of two kinds of equipment in evaluating their
performance.
– The second is comparison of noise and signal at the same point to ensure that
the noise is not excessive.
• When it is difficult to obtain the equivalent noise resistance, the signal-to-
noise ratio (S/N) is very often used.
• It is defined as the ratio of signal power to noise power at the same point.
Therefore
𝑆 𝑃𝑠 𝑉𝑠2 𝑅 𝑉𝑠2 𝑉𝑠 2
• = = = =
𝑁 𝑃𝑛 𝑉𝑛2 𝑅 𝑉𝑛2 𝑉𝑛
𝑆 𝑆
• Signal-to-noise ratio in dB is = 10 log10
𝑁 𝑑𝐵 𝑁
• This equation is a simplification that applies whenever the resistance
across which the noise is developed is the same as the resistance across
which signal is developed.
• An effort is naturally made to keep the signal-to-noise ratio as high as
practicable under a given set of conditions.
 SNR
1. Signal-to-noise ratio is defined as the power
ratio between a signal (meaningful information)
and the background noise (unwanted signal):

where P is average power.

2. An alternative definition of SNR is as the
reciprocal of the coefficient of variation, i.e., the
ratio of mean to standard deviation of a signal or
measurement:
4. Both signal and noise power must be measured
at the same or equivalent points in a system, and
within the same system bandwidth.
5. If the signal and the noise are measured across
the same impedance, then the SNR can be
obtained by calculating the square of the
amplitude ratio:

where A is root mean square (RMS) amplitude

(for example, RMS voltage).
5. Because many signals have a very wide
dynamic range, SNRs are often expressed
using the logarithmic decibel scale. In
decibels, the SNR is defined as

which may equivalently be written using

amplitude ratios as
 SNR of a Tandem Connection
1. Consider a tandem connection of repeaters as in fig

Amplifier 2 Amplifier m
Ps Amplifier 1 (G) Ps (G) Ps ---- (G) Ps

Pn1 Pn1+Pn2 Pn1+Pn2+……+Pnm

2. Such a connection is used in analog telephone system.

3. If a loss over a cable between the two repeaters is L, then we select power
gain of the amplifier G such that
L x G =1
4. Due to this if input power is Ps then output
power of amplifier will remain Ps and will remain
same at receiving end.
5. let , noise power of successive link be Pn1, Pn2,
...Pnm. This noise power is additive. It adds
successively. Hence noise power at mth link will
be Pn1+Pn2+…..+Pnm.
6. If all the links are identical, then
Pn1=Pn2=….=Pnm Then the total power at the
end of mth link will be mxPn
7. The output SNR in tandem connection will
be,
SNRoutput = 10 log10 (Ps/mPn)
= 10 log10 (Ps/Pn) - 10 log10 (m)
= SNRany one link dB – m dB
 Definition of Noise Factor and Noise Figure
• For comparison of receivers or amplifiers working at different impedance levels the use
of equivalent noise resistance is misleading.
• Instead of equivalent noise resistance, a quantity known as noise figure or noise factor, is
defined and used.
• The noise factor F is defined as the ratio of the signal-to-noise power supplied to the
input terminals of a receiver or amplifier to the signal-to-noise power supplied to the
output or load resistor.
• When noise factor represented in dB it is called Noise Figure
• Thus
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑆/𝑁
• 𝐹 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑆/𝑁
• In a practical receiver, the output S/N will be lower than the input value, and so the noise
factor will exceed 1.
• The noise factor will be 1 for an ideal receiver, which introduces no noise on its own.

Noise Figure = 10 log [F]

if Rn = noise resistance = 0 then F=1
and so naturally
Noise Figure = 10 log(1) = 0.

• Hence alternative definition of noise figure, which states that F is equal to the S/N of an
ideal system divided by the S/N at the output of the receiver or amplifier under test, both
working at the same temperature over the same bandwidth and fed from the same
source. In addition both must be linear.
 Numerical on Signal to Noise Ratio
1. If a system has system power of 100 mW and 2
W, then what is the SNR?
Given
Signal Power= 100 mW
Noise Power= 2 W
𝑆 𝑃𝑠
𝑆𝑁𝑅 = =
𝑁 𝑃𝑛
100 × 10;3 3
𝑆𝑁𝑅 = = 50 × 10
2 × 10;6
 Calculation of NOISE FIGURE
• Consider the four-terminal network as shown in
figure
 Calculation of NOISE FIGURE (Cont’d)
• The calculation procedure may be divided into
several steps as follows
1. Determine the signal input power 𝑃𝑠𝑖
𝑉𝑠 𝑅𝑡
𝑉𝑠𝑖 =
𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡
2
𝑉𝑠𝑖 2 𝑉𝑠 𝑅𝑡 1 𝑉𝑠2 𝑅𝑡
𝑃𝑠𝑖 = = = 2
𝑅𝑡 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 𝑅𝑡 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡
2. Determine the noise input power 𝑃𝑛𝑖
2 𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑡
𝑉𝑛𝑖= 4𝑘𝑇 △ 𝑓
𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡
2
𝑉𝑛𝑖 𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑡 1 4𝑘𝑇 △ 𝑓𝑅𝑎
𝑃𝑛𝑖 = = 4𝑘𝑇 △ 𝑓 =
𝑅𝑡 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 𝑅𝑡 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡
3. Calculate the input signal-to-noise ratio 𝑆 𝑁𝑖 from the
ratio of 𝑃𝑠𝑖 and 𝑃𝑛𝑖
𝑆 𝑃𝑠𝑖 𝑉𝑠2 𝑅𝑡 4𝑘𝑇 △ 𝑓𝑅𝑎 𝑉𝑠2 𝑅𝑡
= = 2÷ 𝑅 +𝑅
=
𝑁𝑖 𝑃𝑛𝑖 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 𝑎 𝑡 4𝑘𝑇 △ 𝑓𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡
 Calculation of NOISE FIGURE (Cont’d)
4. Determine the signal output power 𝑃𝑠𝑜
2
𝑉𝑆𝑂 𝐴𝑉𝑠𝑖 2
𝑃𝑠𝑜 = =
𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿
2
𝐴𝑉𝑠 𝑅𝑡 1
𝑃𝑠𝑜 =
𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 𝑅𝐿
𝐴2 𝑉𝑠2 𝑅𝑡2
𝑃𝑠𝑜 =
𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 2 𝑅𝐿
5. Let 𝑃𝑛𝑜 be the noise output power to be determined later
6. Calculate the output signal-to-noise ratio 𝑆 𝑁𝑜 from the ratio of 𝑃𝑠𝑜 and 𝑃𝑛𝑜
𝑆 𝑃𝑠𝑜 𝐴2 𝑉𝑠2 𝑅𝑡2
= =
𝑁𝑜 𝑃𝑛𝑜 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 2 𝑅𝐿 𝑃𝑛𝑜
7. Calculate the generalized form of noise figure from step3 and 6
𝑆 𝑁𝑖 𝑉𝑠2 𝑅𝐿 𝐴2 𝑉𝑠2 𝑅𝑡2
𝐹= = ÷
𝑆 𝑁𝑜 4𝑘𝑇 △ 𝑓𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 2 𝑅𝐿 𝑃𝑛𝑜
𝑅𝐿 𝑃𝑛𝑜 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡
𝐹=
4𝑘𝑇 △ 𝑓𝐴2 𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑡
Note that above equation is an intermediate result only. An actual formula for F may now be
obtained by substitution for the output noise power, or from a knowledge of the equivalent
noise resistance, or from measurement.
 Numerical on Noise Figure
1. Consider an ideal amplifier and it has the following
parameters: input signal power=3 × 10;10 W, input noise
power=1 × 10;20 W, Power gain=1 × 108 W. Find the
noise figure.
3 × 10;10 10
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝑁𝑅 = = 3 × 10
1 × 10;20
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 3 × 10;10 × 1 × 108 = 3 × 10;2
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 1 × 10;20 × 1 × 108 = 1 × 10;12
3 × 10;2 10
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝑁𝑅 = = 3 × 10
1 × 10;12
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑆/𝑁 3 × 1010
𝐹= = 10
=1
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑆/𝑁 3 × 10
Noise Figure = 10*log (1) = 0dB
 NOISE FIGURE from Equivalent Noise Resistance
(Cont’d)
• As derived in noise due to cascaded amplifiers, the
equivalent noise resistance of an amplifier or
receiver is the sum of the input terminating
resistance and the equivalent noise resistance of the
first stage, together with the noise resistances of the
previous stages referred to the input.
• We see that all these resistances are added to 𝑅𝑡 ,
giving a lumped resistance which is then said to
concentrate all the “noise making” of the receiver.
• The rest of it is now assume to be noiseless.
• All this applies here, with the minor exception that
these noise resistances must now be added to
parallel combination of 𝑅𝑎 and 𝑅𝑡 .
 NOISE FIGURE from Equivalent Noise Resistance (Cont’d)
• In order to correlate noise figure and equivalent noise
resistance.
′ , which is a noise resistance that
• It is convenient to define 𝑅𝑒𝑞
does not incorporate 𝑅𝑡 and which is given by
′
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅𝑒𝑞 − 𝑅𝑡
• The total equivalent noise resistance for this receiver will now
be
′
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑡
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑒𝑞 +
𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡
• The equivalent noise voltage generated at the input of the
receiver will be
𝑉𝑛𝑖 = 4𝑘𝑇∆𝑓𝑅
• Since the amplifier has an overall voltage gain A and may now
be treated as though it were noiseless, the noise output will be
2
𝑉𝑛𝑜 𝐴𝑉𝑛𝑖 2 𝐴2 4𝑘𝑇∆𝑓𝑅
𝑃𝑛𝑜 = = =
𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿
 NOISE FIGURE from Equivalent Noise Resistance (Cont’d)
• When this is substituted into the general equation of noise figure F, the result is an
expression for the noise figure in terms of the equivalent noise resistance, namely,
𝑅𝐿 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 )
𝐹= 𝑃
4𝑘𝑇∆𝑓𝐴2 𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑡 𝑛𝑜
𝑅𝐿 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 ) 𝐴2 4𝑘𝑇∆𝑓𝑅
𝐹 ==
4𝑘𝑇∆𝑓𝐴2 𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑡 𝑅𝐿
(𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 )
𝐹=𝑅
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑡
′
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑡 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 )
𝐹 = 𝑅𝑒𝑞 +
𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑡
′
𝑅𝑒𝑞 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 )
𝐹 =1+
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑡
• It can be seen from this equation that if the noise is to be a minimum for any given
value of the antenna resistance 𝑅𝑎 , the ratio (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 )/𝑅𝑡 must also be a minimum, so
that 𝑅𝑡 must be much larger than 𝑅𝑎 .
• This is a situation exploited very often in practice.
• Under these mismatched conditions, (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 )/𝑅𝑡 approaches unity, and the formula
for the noise figure reduces to
′
𝑅𝑒𝑞
𝐹 =1+
𝑅𝑎
• Under matched condition (𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅𝑎 ) or when the mismatch is not severe previous
equation must be used instead.
 NOISE TEMPERATURE
• The concept of noise figure, although frequently used, is not always
the most convenient measure of noise, particularly in dealing with
UHF and microwave low-noise antennas, receivers or devices.
• Noise temperature derived from early work in radio astronomy, is
employed extensively for antennas and low-noise microwave
amplifiers.
• This may be seen from re-examining noise power equation as follows
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑘𝑇∆𝑓
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 = 𝑘𝑇1 ∆𝑓 + 𝑘𝑇2 ∆𝑓
𝑘𝑇𝑡 ∆𝑓 = 𝑘𝑇1 ∆𝑓 + 𝑘𝑇2 ∆𝑓
𝑇𝑡 = 𝑇1 + 𝑇2
• Where 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 =two individual noise powers (e.g., received by the
antenna and generated by the antenna, respectively)
• And 𝑃𝑡 is their sum
• 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 =the individual noise temperatures
• 𝑇1 = the total noise temperature
 NOISE TEMPERATURE (Cont’d)
• Another advantage of the use of noise temperature for low noise levels is that it shows a
greater variation for any given noise-level change than the noise figure, so changes are
easier to grasp in their true perspective.
• The equivalent noise resistance introduced in previous section is quite fictitious, but it is
often employed because of its convenience.
• Similarly 𝑇𝑒𝑞 , the equivalent noise temperature, may also be utilized if it proves
convenient.
• In defining the equivalent noise temperature of a receiver or amplifier, it is assumed that
′
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅𝑎 .
• If this is to lead to the correct value of noise output power, then obviously 𝑅𝑒𝑞′ must be
at a temperature other than the standard one at which all the components are assumed
to be.
• It is then possible to use equation for noise figure to equate noise figure and equivalent
noise temperature, as follows:
′
𝑅𝑒𝑞 ′
𝑘𝑇𝑒𝑞 ∆𝑓𝑅𝑒𝑞
𝐹 =1+ =1+
𝑅𝑎 𝑘𝑇0 ∆𝑓𝑅𝑎
𝑇𝑒𝑞
𝐹 =1+
𝑇0
′ = 𝑅 , as postulated in the definition of 𝑇
• Where 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑎 𝑒𝑞
• 𝑇0 = 17:𝐶 = 290 𝐾
• 𝑇𝑒𝑞 = equivalent noise temperature of the amplifier or receiver whose noise figure is F
 Noise figure in Cascade stage (Friis’s
Formula)

Rs Amplifier 1 Amplifier 2
power gain G1 power gain G2 Output
Vs Noise factor F1 Noise factor F2

Step 1: Noise power due to source Vs will be

Pni = kTδf
amplifier 1 has noise factor F1. hence noise power at the input of amplifier 1 will
be
Total Pni = F1kTδf
Step 2:
as we know any amplifier contributes noise power
Pna = (F – 1) kTδf

Hence due to amplifier 2

Pna = (F2 – 1) kTδf
This will appear at input of amplifier 2.

also noise power at input of amplifier 2 will be

noise power amplified by amplifier 1 and is G1F1
kTδf
 So noise power at the input of amplifier 2 will be
G1F1kTδf +(F2 – 1) kTδf
Step 3:
so noise power at the output of amplifier 2 will be
Pno =G2 x [G1F1kTδf +(F2 – 1) kTδf]
Step 4:
we know
Pno = FGPni
So F = Pno / GPni
put G=G1 G2 then
F = [G2G1F1kTδf + G2 (F2 – 1) kTδf] /
G2G1kTδf

Or F = F1 + ( F2 – 1)/G1
For such n amplifiers in cascade
F = F1 + ( F2 – 1)/G1 + (F3 – 1)/G1G2 +….
This is known as Friis’s formula
 Noise temperature

Noise can be represented by what is known as

Equivalent noise temperature Te

(Te is defined as the temperature at which the noisy

resistor has to be maintained such that by connecting
the resistor to the input of the noiseless version of
system, it produces the same available noise power at
the output of the system as that produced by all the
sources of noise in the actual system)
we have seen noise power due to amplifier
Pna = (F – 1) kTδf
If Te represent equivalent noise temperature
representing noise power, then
Pna = kTeδf
Equate above two equations, we get
Te = (F – 1) T
 Noise Temperature in Cascade stages
• As we know Friis’s formula
F = F1 + ( F2 – 1)/G1 + (F3 – 1)/G1G2 +….

Subtract 1 from both side of above equation

F - 1 = (F1 - 1 ) + ( F2 – 1)/G1 + (F3 – 1)/G1G2
+….
If we multiply and divide by T to both side of above
equation, we can write
Te/T = Te1/T + (Te2/T)/G1 + (Te3/T)/G1G2 +…
So
Te = Te1 + Te2/G1 + Te3/G1G2 +…
 Numerical on Noise Figure
1. The RF amplifier of a receiver has an input resistance of 1000 Ω, and equivalent shot-noise resistance
of 2000 Ω, a gain of 25, and a load resistance of 125 kΩ. Given that the bandwidth is 1 MHz and the
temperature is 20 ⁰C, calculate the equivalent noise voltage at the input to this RF amplifier. If this
receiver is connected to an antenna with an impedance of 75 Ω, calculate the noise factor and noise
figure.
Given
𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 1000 Ω
𝑅𝑛 = 2000 Ω
𝐴 = 25
𝑅𝐿 = 125 kΩ
∆𝑓 = 1 𝑀𝐻𝑧
𝑇 = 20⁰C = 20+273 = 293 𝐾
𝑅𝑎 = 75 Ω
𝑅𝐿 125 × 103
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 2 = 1000 + 2000 +
𝐴 252
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 3200 Ω
′
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅𝑒𝑞 − 𝑅𝑡 = 3200 − 1000 = 2200 Ω
′
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑡
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑒𝑞 +
𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡
75 × 1000
𝑅 = 2200 + = 2269.76 Ω
75 + 1000
𝑉𝑛𝑖 = 4𝑘𝑇∆𝑓𝑅
𝑉𝑛𝑖 = 4 × 1.38 × 10;23 × 293 × 1 × 106 × 2269.76 = 6.09 μ𝑉
′
𝑅𝑒𝑞
𝐹 =1+
𝑅𝑎
2200
Noise factor 𝐹 = 1 + = 30.33 so Noise figure = 10 log(F)
75
 SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO
Q. A receiver has an input signal power of l.2µW. The noise power is
0.80µW. The signal to noise ratio is
Signal to Noise Ratio = 10 log (1.2/0.8)
= 10 log 1.5
= 10 (0.176)
= 1.76 dB
Example:-
Calculate the output signal-to-noise ration in decibels for three
identical links, given that the signal-to-noise ratio for any one link is
60 dB.
 Noise Figure
Example:
The noise figure of an amplifier is 7 dB. Calculate the output
signal-to-noise ratio when the input signal-to-noise ratio is
35 dB

= 28 dB
 Noise Figure
Example:
The signal power and noise power measured at the input of an
amplifier are 150 μW and 1.5 μW respectively. If the signal
power at the output is 1.5W and noise power is 40mW,
calculate the amplifier noise factor and noise figure
Given Parameters, 𝑃𝑠𝑖 = 150 μW, 𝑃𝑛𝑖 = 1.5 μW, 𝑃𝑠𝑜 = 1.50 W, 𝑃𝑛𝑜 = 40mW

𝑃𝑠𝑖 𝑃𝑛𝑜
𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = Χ
𝑃𝑛𝑖 𝑃𝑠𝑜

= 2.666

Noise figure = (F) dB = 10 log10 [Noise Factor]

= 4.26 dB
 EXAMPLE
A mixer stage has a noise figure of 20 dB, and this is preceded by an
amplifier that has a noise figure of 9 dB and an available power gain of
15 dB. Calculate the overall noise figure referred to the input.

SOLUTION:- Convert all decibel values to the equivalent power ratios:

𝑭𝒅𝑩 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 𝑭

F2 = 20 dB = 100 in power ratio

F1 = 9 dB = 7.94 in power ratio
G1= 15 dB = 31.62 in power ratio
F= F1 + (F2 -1)/ G1
= 7.94 +(100-1)/31.62 =11.07
This is the overall noise factor.

The overall noise figure is

(F)dB =10 log 11.07=10.44 dB
 EXAMPLE
If each stage has a gain of 10 dB and noise figure of 10 dB
determine the overall noise figure of a two stage cascaded
amplifier.

SOLUTION:- Convert all decibel values to the equivalent power ratios:

G = 10 dB = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 10=10 (power ratio ) for each stage

Noise Figure FdB=10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐹

F=10
Overall noise Factor F= F1 + (F2 -1)/ G1

= 10+(10-1)/10=10.9

The overall noise figure is

(F)dB =10 log 10.9=10.37 dB
 Numerical on Noise Figure
• Consider the communication system shown in Fig.1 and the
related quantities referred to each element in the system. The
system is a chain composed by a receiving antenna at the
temperature 𝑇𝑎 = 350 𝐾 , a first amplifier of gain 𝐺𝑑1 =
12 𝑑𝐵, and noise figure 𝐹1 = 4 𝑑𝐵, and a second amplifier of
gain 𝐺𝑑2 = 30 𝑑𝐵, and noise figure 𝐹2 = 9 𝑑𝐵. Compute the
useful signal power 𝑃𝑟 at the input of the receiver in order to
obtain an output SNR = 45 𝑑𝐵. Assume a equivalent noise
bandwidth BW = 10 𝑀𝐻𝑧.
 Numerical on Noise Figure
Given
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑆/𝑁
𝑇𝑎 = 350 𝐾 𝐹 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑆/𝑁
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝑁𝑅
𝐺𝑑1 = 12 𝑑𝐵 Output SNR =
𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡
𝐹2 ;1
𝐹1 = 4 𝑑𝐵 𝐹 = 𝐹1 +
𝐺1
𝑆 𝑃𝑠𝑖 𝑃𝑟
𝐺𝑑2 = 30 𝑑𝐵 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝑁𝑅 = = =
𝑁𝑖 𝑃𝑛𝑖 𝐾 𝑇𝑎 :𝑇0 𝐵𝑊
𝐹2 = 9 𝑑𝐵
Output SNR = 45 𝑑𝐵
BW = 10 𝑀𝐻𝑧
𝐹1 = 4 𝑑𝐵, 𝐹1 = 2.5
𝐹2 = 9 𝑑𝐵, 𝐹2 =7.94
𝐺𝑑1 = 12 𝑑𝐵, 𝐺𝑑1 = 15.84
𝐺𝑑2 = 30 𝑑𝐵, 𝐺𝑑2 = 1000
7.94 − 1
𝐹 = 2.5 + = 2.938
15.84
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝑁𝑅
Output SNR =
𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡
45 𝑑𝐵 = (𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝑑𝐵 − 𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝐵 = 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝑁𝑅 𝑑𝐵 − 10 log(2.93)
(𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝑑𝐵 = 49.66 𝑑𝐵

𝑃𝑟
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝑁𝑅 =
𝐾 𝑇𝑎 + 𝑇0 𝐵𝑊
𝑃𝑟
(𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝑑𝐵 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝐾 𝑇𝑎 + 𝑇0 𝐵𝑊
10 log 𝑃𝑟 = (𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝑑𝐵 +10log[𝐾 𝑇𝑎 + 𝑇0 𝐵𝑊]

10 log 𝑃𝑟 = 49.66 + 10 log 1.38 × 10;23 350 + 290 × 10 × 106 = −80.87

𝑃𝑟 = 8.18 × 10;9 𝑊
 NOISE BANDWIDTH
• Equivalent noise bandwidth(ENBW) is defined as
the bandwidth of a brickwall (ideal) filter which
produce same integrated noise power as that of
an actual filter. This is also referred to as noise
bandwidth or effective noise bandwidth.