Subject: Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering By Ram Krishna Sharma Sir

UNIT V
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Q1: Draw and explain elements of a communication system.

Q2: Draw and explain block diagram of a communication system.
Answer: Communication System: The communication system is a system which describes the information
exchange between two points. The process of transmission and reception of information is
called communication. The major elements of communication are the Transmitter of information, Channel or
medium of communication and the Receiver of information.

Elements of Communication Systems:

Message Source: It generates or originates messages. For Example: Our Mouth
Input Message: This is the information which is to be sent to destination. For Example: Voice signal generated
from mouth
Input Transducer: It converts the input message into electrical form. The signal can be processed in electrical
form. For example: Mic
Input Signal: The data in electrical form (this is a baseband signal). It is a low frequency signal, also known as
modulating signal. For Example: Voice Signal into electrical form
Transmitter: It modifies the signal for transmission (amplifies, modulates) and transmits it.
Channel: It is the medium over which the transmitted signal is sent. It can be wired (Optical fiber, wires,
coaxial cable) or wireless (air, space in electromagnetic form or in light form).
Distortion/Noise: It is the external signals/features that affect the signal. This is added through channel, in the
signal to be sent and distorts it. The process of adding unwanted signal is Interference.
Receiver: It modifies the received signal (amplifies and demodulates it). For Example: Voice signal in electrical
form

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Output Transducer: It converts message from electrical signal back into its original form in which form, it was
generated. For Example: Speaker converts electrical signal in voice form
Output Message: The message which is received at destination end. For Example: Our voice signal
Message Destination: It receives the signal sent from source. For Example: Our Ears.

Q3: Explain need of modulation in communication system.

Answer: Need of Modulation: Modulation is needed due to following reasons:
1 – Communication range of low frequency signals is very low.
2 – Occurrence of interference is more in low frequency signals.
3 – Power consumption increases using low frequency signal for large transmission range.
4 – Antenna height for transmitting a low frequency signal is very large (in order of kms) which is not feasible.
Antenna height for any transmission is l = λ/4.
a) Suppose a low frequency f1 = 3kHz, Hence λ = c/f = 3x108/(3x103)
Or, λ = 105 meter = 10 kms, Hence l = λ/4 = 2.5Kms (Not Feasible)
b) Suppose a high frequency f2 = 3GHz, Hence λ = c/f = 3x108/ (3x109)
Or, λ = 0.1 meter = 10 cm, Hence l = λ/4 = 2.5 cm (Feasible)
Hence modulation is needed.

Q4: Define Modulation. Hence Define AM, FM and PM. What are the advantages and disadvantages of AM?
Answer: Modulation: Modulation is the process or technique by which a low frequency signal (or modulating
signal or baseband signal), is superimposed on a high frequency signal (or carrier signal) for increasing
transmission range of the signal.
OR
Modulation is the process or technique by which any one parameter (Amplitude, Frequency or Phase) of the
carrier signal is changed in accordance with the modulating signal for increasing transmission range of the
signal.
(a) If Amplitude of carrier signal is changed in accordance with the modulating signal, then Amplitude
Modulation occurs.
(b) If Frequency of carrier signal is changed in accordance with the modulating signal, then Frequency
Modulation occurs.
(c) If Phase of carrier signal is changed in accordance with the modulating signal, then Phase Modulation
occurs.

Advantages: 1) It is simple to implement.

2) Demodulation of AM signals can be done using simple circuits consisting of diodes.
3) AM transmitters are less complex.
4) AM receivers are very cheap as no specialized components are needed.
5) AM waves can travel a longer distance.

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Disadvantages: 1) AM waves have low bandwidth.

2) Power consumption is large.
3) Large noise appears at receiving end.

Q5: Explain Modulation and Demodulation Techniques in Amplitude Modulation.

Answer: Amplitude Modulation Techniques:
(a) High level modulator: A high level modulator is defined as one that modulates a high power section of
the circuit, typically the final RF amplifier.

It has the advantage that linear amplifiers are not required for the RF amplification stages after AM
modulation has been applied. The drawback is that high power audio amplifiers are needed. For broadcast
transmitters where very high power levels are used, class D or class E amplifiers may be employed for the
audio output.

(b) Low level modulator:

A low level AM modulator would be one where the modulation is applied to low power stage of the
transmitter, typically in the RF generation stages, or via the digital signal processing areas. The drawback of
this approach is that linear amplification is required for the RF stages.

(c) Amplitude Modulation Techniques: General Way: AM generation involves mixing of a carrier and an
information signal. In low level modulation, the message signal and carrier signal are modulated at low power
levels and then amplified. The advantage of this technique is that a small audio amplifier is sufficient to
amplify the message signal.
From the equation, am(t) = Ac [1 + ma cos wmt] cos wct
We require, an summer where modulation signal is summed to a DC level and then multiplied to carrier signal.
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(d) Nonlinear Square Law AM modulator: Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted as m(t) and A c
cos (2πfct) respectively. These two signals are applied as inputs to the summer (adder) block. This summer
block produces an output, which is the addition of the modulating and the carrier signal.

b
Let two signals m(t), modulating signal and c(t), carrier signal. In this method, sum of these two signals are
passed through a non linear component like diode.
Hence, V1 (t) = m(t) + c(t) = Vm cos (wmt) + Vc cos (wct)
Output of non linear device for input V1 (t) will be,
V2 (t) = a V1 (t) + b V12 (t) + c V13 (t) + …………
Neglecting higher powers,
V2 (t) = a V1 (t) + b V12 (t)
= a [Vm cos (wmt) + Vc cos (wct)] + b [Vm cos (wmt) + Vc cos (wct)]2
= a Vm cos (wmt) + a Vc cos (wct)
+ b [Vm2 cos2 (wmt) + Vc2 cos2 (wct) + 2 Vm cos (wmt) Vc cos (wct)]
Hence, V2 (t) = a Vm cos (wmt) + a Vc cos (wct)
+ b Vm2 cos2 (wmt) + b Vc2 cos2 (wct) + 2 b Vm cos (wmt) Vc cos (wct)
We know that, cos 2x = 2cos2 x – 1
Hence, cos2 x = (1 + cos 2x) / 2
And, 2 cos A cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A – B)
Hence, V2 (t) = a Vm cos (wmt) + a Vc cos (wct)
+ b Vm2 [(1 + cos 2 wmt) /2] + b Vc2 [(1 + cos 2 wct) /2]
+ b Vm Vc cos (wc + wm)t + b Vm Vc cos (wc – wm)t
V2 (t) = a Vm cos (wmt) + a Vc cos (wct)
+ b Vm2 /2 + b Vm2 (cos 2 wmt) /2] + b Vc2 /2 + b Vc2 (cos 2 wct) /2]
+ b Vm Vc cos (wc + wm)t + b Vm Vc cos (wc – wm)t

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This signal is applied to narrow band pass filter.

Cut off frequency of narrow band pass filter is w c .
Hence, only wc and near frequencies (wc + wm) and (wc – wm) are passed.
Other frequencies wm , 2wm , 2wc ,and DC components b Vm2 /2 + b Vc2 /2 are rejected.
Hence am (t) = a Vc cos (wct) + b Vm Vc cos (wc + wm)t + b Vm Vc cos (wc – wm)t
(Carrier) (Upper Sideband) (Lower Sideband)
In this way we can generate AM wave using Nonlinear Square Law AM modulator.

Amplitude De-modulation Techniques:

(a) Square Law Demodulator: Square law demodulator is used to demodulate low level AM wave. Following
is the block diagram of the square law demodulator. This demodulator contains a square law device and low
pass filter. The AM wave is applied as an input to this demodulator.

(b) Envelope Detector; Envelope detector is used to detect (demodulate) high level AM wave. Following is the
block diagram of the envelope detector. This envelope detector consists of a diode and low pass filter. Here,
the diode is the main detecting element. Hence, the envelope detector is also called as the diode detector.
The low pass filter contains a parallel combination of the resistor and the capacitor. The AM wave is applied as
an input to this detector.

Q10: Derive Bandwidth of AM Transmission.

Answer: Bandwidth of AM Wave: Bandwidth (BW) is the difference between the highest and lowest
frequencies of the signal. Mathematically, we can write it as
BW = fmax − fmin

Here, wmax = wc + wm Or fmax = (wc + wm)/2π = fc + fm

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And, wmin = wc – wm Or fmin = (wc – wm)/2π = fc – fm

Hence, BW = fmax − fmin = (fc + fm) − (fc – fm)
Or, BW = 2fm

Q6: Derive Power Relation in AM Transmission. Hence derive transmission efficiency.

Answer: Power Content in AM wave:
Now, am(t) = Ac cos wct + ½ ma Ac [cos (wc+ wm)t + cos (wc – wm)t]
Here, wmax = wc + wm Or fmax = fc + fm is Upper Sideband.
And, wmin = wc – wm Or fmin = fc – fm is Lower sideband.
And, wc is the central frequency in this spectrum. Frequency spectrum is shown in the diagram.

The amplitude of Upper Sideband = maVc /2

The amplitude of Lower Sideband = maVc /2
The amplitude of Central Band = Vc
As Power Content in a wave = Vrms2/R
Hence, Carrier Power Pc = (Vc /√2)2/R = Vc2 /2R
Upper Sideband Power PUSB = (maVc /2√2)2/R = ma2 Vc2 /8R
And, Lower Sideband Power PLSB = (maVc /2√2)2/R = ma2 Vc2 /8R
Hence, Total Sideband Power PSB = 2ma2 Vc2 /8R = ma2 Vc2 /4R
Hence, total power content in AM wave
Pt = Pc + PUSB + PLSB = Pc + PSB
Here, Pc = Vc2 /2R and PSB = ma2 Vc2 /4R = Pc ma2 /2
Or, Pt = Pc + PSB
Or, Pt = Pc + Pc ma2 /2
Or, Pt = Pc (1+ ma2/2) Hence,
This is the total power transmitted by AM wave when modulation is done with a modulation depth m a.
If ma = 0, Pt = Pc
If modulating signal is absent, or say that modulation is not done, then only carrier signal is transmitted.

Fractional Sideband Power content in AM Wave (Transmission Efficiency)

TE = PSB / Pt = [Pc ma2 /2] / [Pc (1+ ma2/2)]

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= (ma2 /2) / (1+ ma2/2)

Q7: AM Numerical: A modulating signal m(t) = 10cos(2π×103t) is amplitude modulated with a carrier
signal c(t) = 50cos(2π×105t). Find the modulation index, the carrier power, and the power required for
transmitting AM wave. Resistance of transmission circuit is 1Ω.
Answer: Vm = 10V and Vc = 50V
Modulation index ma = Am/Ac = 10/50 Or, ma = 0.2 = 20%
2 2
Carrier Power Pc = Vc /2R = 50 /(2x1) = 2500/2 = 1250
Or, Pc = 1.25 kWatt
2
Total transmitted Power Pt = Pc (1+ ma /2)
= 1.25 (1+ 0.22/2) = 1.25 (1 + 0.02) Watt
Or, Pt = 1.275 kWatt

Q8: AM Numerical: An AM transmitter has an antenna current changing from 5 A unmodulated to 5.8 A
after modulation. What is the percentage of modulation?
Answer: Given that It = 5.8 A and Ic = 5 A
We know that Pt = Pc (1+ ma2/2)
Solving this, 1 + ma2/2 = (It / Ic)2 = (5.8/5)2 = 1.3456
Hence, ma2/2 = 1.3456 – 1 = 0.3456
Hence, ma2 = 0.3456 x 2 = 0.6912
Hence, ma = √0.6912 = 0.8314

Q9: AM Numerical: What is the % change in the value of transmitted power when the modulation index
changes from 0 to 1?
Answer: We know that, Pt = Pc (1+ ma2/2)
When modulation index is zero, only carrier power is sent
Hence, P 0 = Pc
When modulation index is 1,
Then, P1 = Pc (1+ 12/2) = 3 Pc /2
Change in power ∆P = P1 – P0
Or, ∆P = 3 Pc /2 – Pc = Pc /2
% change in power %∆P = ∆Px100 /Pc = 100/2 = 50 %
Hence, %∆P = 50 %

Q10: AM Numerical: What is the effect on the transmitted power of AM signal when the modulation index
changes from 0.8 to 1?
Answer: We know that, Pt = Pc (1+ ma2/2)
When modulation index is 0.8, only carrier power is sent
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Then, P0.8 = Pc (1+ 0.82/2) = 1.32 Pc

When modulation index is 1,
Then, P1 = Pc (1+ 12/2) = 3 Pc /2 = 1.5 Pc
Change in power ∆P = P1 – P0.8
Or, ∆P = 1.5 Pc – 1.32 Pc = 0.18 Pc
% change in power %∆P = ∆Px100 /1.32 Pc = 18/1.32 = 13.63 %
Hence, %∆P = 13.63 %

Q11: AM Numerical: An AM transmitter has transmitting power changing from 1 kW unmodulated to 1.245
kW after modulation. What is the percentage of modulation? After this, one more signal with modulation
index 0.5 is modulated in the same carrier. Calculate transmitted power.
Answer: We know that, Pt = Pc (1+ ma2/2)
When unmodulated, Pc = 1 kW, after modulation, Pt = 1.245 kW
Then, 2
1.245 = 1 (1+ m1 /2) or, 1 + m12/2 = 1.245
Hence, m12/2 = 0.245 or, m12 = 0.49 Or, m1 = 0.7 (70%)
Now another signal with m2 = 0.5 is modulated. (Multitone)
2 2 2 2 2
Hence, ma = m1 + m2 = 0.7 + 0.5 = 0.49 + 0.25 = 0.74 Or, ma = √0.74 = 0.86
Hence, Pt = Pc (1+ ma2/2) = 1 x (1+ 0.862/2) = 1.7396 kW Hence Pt = 1.7396 kW

Q12: AM Numerical: An oscillator for an AM transmitter has a 100μH coil and a 10nF capacitor. If a
modulating frequency of 10 KHz modulates the oscillator, find the frequency range of the side bands.
Answer: We know that, fc = 1/(2π√LC)
Here, L = 100 μH = 100 x 10-6 = 10-4 H
And C = 10 nF = 10 x 10-9 = 10-8 F
Hence, fc = 1/(2π√LC) = 1/(2π√(10-4 x 10-8)) = 1/(2π√(10-12)) = 1/(2πx10-6)
Hence, fc = 106 /(2π) = 1000 x 103 /(2π) = 1000 x 103 /(2π) = 159.15 kHz
According to question, fm = 10 kHz
Hence, USB = fmax = fc + fm = 159.15 + 10 = 169.15 kHz
Hence, LSB = fmin = fc – fm = 159.15 – 10 = 149.15 kHz
Hence, Frequency Range of Side bands = 149.15 kHz to 169.15 kHz

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Q13: Explain Satellite Communication with neat diagram and write advantages and disadvantages. Also
explain its transponder component.
Answer: Satellite Communication: Communication refers to the exchange (sharing) of information between
two or more entities, through any medium or channel. In other words, it is nothing but sending, receiving and
processing of information.
If the communication takes place between any two earth stations through a satellite, then it is called
as satellite communication. In this communication, electromagnetic waves are used as carrier signals. These
signals carry the information such as voice, audio, video or any other data between ground and space and
vice-versa.
Soviet Union had launched the world's first artificial satellite named, Sputnik 1 in 1957. Nearly after 18 years,
India also launched the artificial satellite named, Aryabhata in 1975.
Need of Satellite Communication: The following two kinds of propagation are used earlier for communication
up to some distance.
Ground wave propagation − Ground wave propaga on is suitable for frequencies up to 30MHz. This method
of communication makes use of the troposphere conditions of the earth.
Sky wave propagation − The suitable bandwidth for this type of communica on is broadly between 30–40
MHz and it makes use of the ionosphere properties of the earth.
The maximum hop or the station distance is limited to 1500KM only in both ground wave propagation and sky
wave propagation. Satellite communication overcomes this limitation. In this method, satellites
provide communication for long distances, which is well beyond the line of sight.
How a Satellite works: A satellite is a body that moves around another body in a particular path. A
communication satellite is nothing but a microwave repeater station in space.

A repeater is a circuit, which increases the strength of the received signal and then transmits it. But this
repeater works as a transponder. That means, it changes the frequency band of the transmitted signal from
the received one.
The frequency with which, the signal is sent into the space is called as Uplink frequency. Similarly, the
frequency with which, the signal is sent by the transponder is called as Downlink frequency.

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The transmission of signal from first earth station to satellite through a channel is called as uplink. Similarly,
the transmission of signal from satellite to second earth station through a channel is called as downlink.
Uplink frequency is the frequency at which, the first earth station is communicating with satellite. The satellite
transponder converts this signal into another frequency and sends it down to the second earth station. This
frequency is called as Downlink frequency. In similar way, second earth station can also communicate with
the first one.
The process of satellite communication begins at an earth station. Here, an installation is designed to transmit
and receive signals from a satellite in an orbit around the earth. Earth stations send the information to
satellites in the form of high powered, high frequency (GHz range) signals.
Pros and Cons of Satellite Communication
Following are the advantages of using satellite communication:
• Area of coverage is more than that of terrestrial systems
• Each and every corner of the earth can be covered
• Transmission cost is independent of coverage area
• More bandwidth and broadcasting possibilities.
Following are the disadvantages of using satellite communication −
• Launching of satellites into orbits is a costly process.
• Propagation delay of satellite systems is more than that of conventional terrestrial systems.
• Difficult to provide repairing activities if any problem occurs in a satellite system.
• Free space loss is more
• There can be congestion of frequencies.
Applications of Satellite Communication: Satellite communication plays a vital role in our daily life. Following
are the applications of satellite communication −
• Radio broadcasting and voice communications
• TV broadcasting such as Direct To Home (DTH)
• Internet applications such as providing Internet connection for data transfer, GPS applications, Internet
surfing, etc.
• Military applications and navigations
• Remote sensing applications
• Weather condition monitoring & Forecasting
Elements of Satellite: A satellite transponder is a transparent relay channel that connects the transmitting
and receiving antennas for the purpose of communication.

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A satellite transponder is a series of interlinked devices that form a single communication channel
between transmitter and receiver. 6 GHz signal is down-converted to 4 GHz. The intermediate frequency
band pass filter takes the 4 GHz signal as output and removes the undesired frequency signal. The filtered
signal undergoes amplification by the use of a pre-amplifier like a traveling wave tube amplifier. Then the
output of the TWTA is fed to a high-power amplifier that smooth out the amplitude and phase variation of
the received signal.

Q14: Explain RADAR Communication with neat diagram.

Answer: RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging): The full form of RADAR is Radio Detection and Ranging.
Detection refers to whether the target is present or not. The target can be stationary or movable, i.e., non-
stationary. Ranging refers to the distance between the Radar and the target.
Radars can be used for various applications on ground, on sea and in space. The applications of Radars are
listed below.
• Controlling the Air Traffic
• Ship safety
• Sensing the remote places
• Military applications
In any application of Radar, the basic principle remains the same.
Principle of RADAR (Radio Detection And Ranging): Radar is used for detecting the objects and finding their
location. We can understand the basic principle of Radar from the following figure.

As shown in the figure, Radar mainly consists of a transmitter and a receiver. It uses the same Antenna for
both transmitting and receiving the signals. The function of the transmitter is to transmit the Radar signal in
the direction of the target present.
Target reflects this received signal in various directions. The signal, which is reflected back towards the
Antenna gets received by the receiver.

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Range: The distance between Radar and target is called Range of the target or simply range, R. We know that
Radar transmits a signal to the target and accordingly the target sends an echo signal to the Radar with the
speed of light, c.
Let the time taken for the signal to travel from Radar to target and back to Radar be ‘T’. The two way distance
between the Radar and target will be 2R, since the distance between the Radar and the target is R.
Now, the following is the formula for Speed.
Speed = Distance / Time
Hence, Distance = Speed × Time
2R = C × T
R = CT/2

Q15: Explain Evolution of mobile radio communication.

Answer: Evolution of mobile radio communication fundamentals: The first wire line telephone system was
introduced in the year 1877. Mobile communication systems as early as 1934 were based on Amplitude
Modulation (AM) schemes and only certain public organizations maintained such systems. The first
commercial mobile telephone system was launched by BELL in St. Louis, USA, in 1946. Few lucky customers
got the services
With the development of the cellular concept in the 1960s at the Bell Laboratories, mobile communications
began to be a promising field of expanse which could serve wider populations.
Even though the US based BELL lab introduced the cellular principle, the Nordic countries were the first to
introduce cellular services for commercial use with the introduction of the Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) in
1981.
The first mobile phone system in the market was AMPS. It was the first U.S. cellular telephone system,
deployed in Chicago in 1983. The main technology of this first generation mobile system was FDMA/FDD and
analog FM.
1G: Where it all began: The first generation of mobile networks – or 1G as they were retroactively dubbed
when the next generation was introduced – was launched by Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT) in Tokyo
in 1979. By 1984, NTT had rolled out 1G to cover the whole of Japan. In 1983, the US approved the first 1G
operation. However, 1G technology suffered from a number of drawbacks like low speed, high data rate and
less bandwidth.
2G: The Cultural Revolution (From Analogue to Digital): The second generation of mobile networks, or 2G,
was launched under the GSM standard in Finland in 1991. For the first time, calls could be encrypted and
digital voice calls were significantly clearer with less static and background crackling. For the first time, people
could send text messages (SMS), picture messages, and multimedia messages (MMS) on their phones. By the
end of the era, speeds of 40 kbit/s were achievable and EDGE connections offered speeds of up to 500 kbit/s.
3G: The ‘Packet-Switching’ Revolution (Web Browsing Arrives): 3G was launched by NTT DoCoMo in 2001 and
aimed to standardize the network protocol used by vendors. 3G’s increased data transfer capabilities (4 times
faster than 2G) also led to the rise of new services such as video conferencing, video streaming and voice over

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IP (such as Skype). The twilight era of 3G saw the launch of the iPhone in 2007, meaning that its network
capability was about to be stretched like never before.
4G: The Streaming Era (Enabling Streaming and Downloading): 4G was first deployed in Stockholm, Sweden
and Oslo, Norway in 2009 as the Long Term Evolution (LTE) 4G standard. 4G offers fast mobile web access (up
to 1 gigabit per second for stationary users) which facilitates gaming services, HD videos and HQ video
conferencing.
5G: The Internet of Things Era (The Super-Fast Next Generation): 5G is the 5th generation mobile network.
5G enables a new kind of network that is designed to connect virtually everyone and everything together
including machines, objects, and devices.
5G wireless technology is meant to deliver higher multi-Gbps peak data speeds, ultra low latency, more
reliability, massive network capacity, increased availability, and a more uniform user experience to more users
with higher performance and improved efficiency.
Technologies that Make Up 5G: 5G is based on OFDM (Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing), a method
of modulating a digital signal across several different channels to reduce interference. 5G also uses wider
bandwidth technologies such as sub-6 GHz and mm Wave.

Q16: Explain GPRS and benefits of it. How was it a key invention in 3rd generation of mobile communication.
Answer: General Packet Radio Service (GPRS): General Packet Radio System is also known as GPRS is a third-
generation step toward internet access. GPRS is also known as GSM-IP that is a Global-System Mobile
Communications Internet Protocol, allows making voice calls, and accessing internet on-the-go. Even Time-
Division Multiple Access (TDMA) users benefit from this system as it provides packet radio access.
The packet radio principle is employed by GPRS to transport user data packets in a structure way between
GSM mobile stations and external packet data networks. These packets can be directly routed to the packet
switched networks from the GPRS mobile stations.
The GPRS specifications are written by the European Telecommunications Standard Institute (ETSI), the
European counterpart of the American National Standard Institute (ANSI).
Key Features: Following three key features describe wireless packet data:
• The always online feature - Removes the dial-up process, making applications only one click away.
• An upgrade to existing systems - Operators do not have to replace their equipment; rather, GPRS is
added on top of the existing infrastructure.
• An integral part of future 3G systems - GPRS is the packet data core network for 3G systems EDGE and
WCDMA.

Benefits of GPRS: 1 – Higher Data Rate: GPRS benefits the users in many ways, one of which is higher data
rates in turn of shorter access times. In the typical GSM mobile, setup alone is a lengthy process and equally,
rates for data permission are restrained to 9.6 kbit/s.
2 – Easy Billing: GPRS packet transmission offers a more user-friendly billing than that offered by circuit
switched services. With packet switched services, billing can be based on the amount of transmitted data

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Q17: Introduce Cellular Network and explain its key features.

Answer: Introduction to Cellular Networks: Cellular networks are a type of wireless communication
technology that allows mobile devices to connect to each other and to the internet via radio frequencies.
These networks are widely used for mobile communication, internet access, and various other services, such
as IoT applications.
Basic Structure of Cellular Networks: Cellular networks are organized into a system of interconnected cells,
each served by a base station.

(Figure: Basic Structure of Cellular Networks)

In a cellular structure, a MS (mobile station) needs to communicate with the BS of the cell where the MS is
currently located and the BS acts as a gateway to the rest of the world. Therefore, to provide a link, the MS
needs to be in the area of one of the cells (and hence a BS) so that mobility of the MS can be supported.

(Figure: Basic Structure of Cellular Networks)

Several base stations are connected through hard-wires and are controlled by a BS controller (BSC), which in
turn is connected to a mobile switching center (MSC).

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A cellular system requires a fairly complex infrastructure. A generic block diagram in shown in the figure:
1. Base Station: A BS consists of a base transceiver system (BTS) and a BSC. Both tower and antenna are a
part of the BTS, while all associated electronics are contained in the BSC.
2. Home Location Register: The HLR (home location register) and VLR (visitor location register) are two
sets of pointers that support mobility and enable the use of the same telephone numbers worldwide.
3. Authentication Center: The AUC (authentication center) unit provides authentication and encryption
parameters that verify the user's identity and ensure the confidentiality of each cell.
4. Equipment Identity Register: The EIR (equipment identity register) is a database that information
about identity of mobile equipment. Both AUC and EIR can be implemented as individual stand-alone
units or as a combined AUC/EIR unit.

Key Features of Cellular Networks

1. Frequency Reuse: Frequency reuse is a key principle in cellular network design that allows the efficient
utilization of the limited radio frequency spectrum. It involves using the same frequency bands in non-
adjacent cells to provide coverage over a larger area without interference.
Cellular Division: The entire coverage area is divided into smaller regions called cells.

These cells are typically represented as hexagons for simplicity in diagrams, though their actual shape
may vary. Each cell is served by a base station that manages communication within the cell.
Hexagonal cell shape is perfect over square or triangular cell shapes in cellular architecture because it
covers an entire area without overlapping i.e., they can cover the entire geographical region without
any gaps.
Frequency Allocation: The available frequency spectrum is divided into multiple channels. These
channels are assigned to cells in a pattern that ensures no two adjacent cells use the same frequencies,
minimizing interference.
Reuse Factor: The reuse factor refers to the number of cells in a pattern before frequencies are
reused. For example: A reuse factor of 1 means frequencies are reused in every cell. A reuse factor of 7
means frequencies is reused every 7 cells. A higher reuse factor reduces interference but may result in
less efficient use of the spectrum.

2. Handoff (Handover): Seamless transition of a mobile device from one cell to another as the user
moves. The modular nature of cellular networks allows them to grow and accommodate more users. It
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Subject: Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering By Ram Krishna Sharma Sir

Provides uninterrupted connectivity for users in motion. With advancements like 4G and 5G, cellular
networks now offer significantly higher data transfer rates.

Q17: Explain the Applications, Challenges and Future Trends of Cellular Network.
Applications of Cellular Networks
1. Voice and Video Communication: The core use of cellular networks.
2. Internet Access: High-speed internet through mobile data plans.
3. IoT (Internet of Things): Connectivity for devices like smart home appliances, vehicles, and industrial
machinery.
4. Emergency Services: Quick response capabilities for disasters and emergencies.
5. Entertainment: Streaming music, videos, and gaming.
Challenges in Cellular Networks
1. Spectrum Scarcity: The increasing number of users and devices strains available frequencies.
2. Interference: Signal disruption caused by overlapping frequencies or physical obstructions.
3. Security Concerns: Cellular networks are vulnerable to hacking, data breaches, and cyberattacks.
4. Infrastructure Costs: Building and maintaining cellular infrastructure is expensive, especially in remote
areas.
Future Trends in Cellular Networks
 6G Development: Research on 6G networks is focused on achieving even faster speeds, higher
capacity, and better integration with AI and machine learning.
 Network Virtualization: Use of software-defined networks (SDN) and network function virtualization
(NFV) for more flexible and efficient management.
 Green Networking: Emphasis on energy-efficient network components to reduce environmental
impact.
 Massive IoT Integration: Cellular networks will play a crucial role in connecting billions of IoT devices
globally.
In conclusion, cellular networks have revolutionized communication and continue to evolve, offering faster,
more reliable, and feature-rich services. With advancements like 5G and the potential of 6G, these networks
are set to play an even greater role in shaping the future of connectivity.

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