Data Communication Networks

Unit-05
BEC-062
Mr. Kamal Bhatia
Assistant Professor
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering 1
Syllabus

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 Unit-5 Syllabus
Unit-5 Topics Slide Number

Transport Layer Protocol: 4

1. UDP and TCP 11
2. ATM 22
3. Session Layer-Design issues 25
4. Application Layer: 27
5. File Transfer 28
6. Electronic mail--SMTP 33
7. WWW 42
8. HTTP 48
9. Cryptography, Network Security. 53
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 Transport Layer
• Data Link layer ---- responsible for delivery of frames between two neighboring nodes over a
link. This is called node-to-node delivery.

• Network layer ---- responsible for delivery of datagrams between two hosts. This is called
host-to-host delivery.

• Communication on the Internet is not defined as the exchange of data between two nodes or
between two hosts. Real communication takes place between two processes (application
programs). We need process-to-process delivery. However, at any moment, several processes
may be running on the source host and several on the destination host. To complete the
delivery, we need a mechanism to deliver data from one of these processes running on the
source host to the corresponding process running on the destination host.

• The transport layer ---- responsible for process-to-process delivery-the delivery of a packet,
part of a message, from one process to another. Two processes communicate in a client/server
relationship, Figure shows these three types of deliveries and their domains.
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 Transport Layer (OSI Layers)
• The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services
from the network layer.
• The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments.
• It is responsible for the End to End Delivery of the complete message.
• The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data
transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.

• At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper
layers, performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow & Error control to ensure
proper data transmission.

• It also adds Source and Destination port numbers in its header and forwards the
segmented data to the Network Layer.
 Function of Transport Layer
• Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer, and
breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header associated
with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.

• Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport layer
header includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by
specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the
correct process.
• TCPAdditional functions
1.Connection Establishment (3-way handshake)
2.Connection Management.
 Reliability (acknowledgements).
 Flow control (Buffering, congestion avoidance, windowing).
 Error correction .
3. Connection Termination (4-way handshake)
Transport Layer

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 Connectionless Versus Connection-Oriented
Service
• A transport layer protocol can either be connectionless or connection-oriented.

• In a connectionless service, the packets are sent from one party to another with no
need for connection establishment or connection release. The packets are not
numbered; they may be delayed or lost or may arrive out of sequence. There is no
acknowledgment either. one of the transport layer protocols in the Internet model,
UDP, is connectionless.

• In a connection-oriented service, a connection is first established between the sender

and the receiver. Data are transferred. At the end, the connection is released. TCP and
SCTP are connection-oriented protocols.

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 TCP and UDP(User Datagram Protocol)
UDP
 is a simple, low overhead, connectionless protocol, RFC768
 Pieces of communication in UDP are called datagrams.
 Datagrams are sent as "best effort“ “Unreliable”.
 Applications that use UDPinclude:
 DNS,DHCP,SNMP,RIP, TFTP, Online games, Video Streaming, and VoIP.
TCP
 is a connection-oriented, RFC793, additional overhead
 Reliable delivery.
 Flow control which preventsoverflow
 Applications that use TCPare:
 Web Browsers, E-mail, File Transfers.

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 UDP(User Datagram Protocol)
The following lists some uses of the UDP protocol:
• UDP is suitable for a process that requires simple request-response communication
with little concern for flow and error control. It is not usually used for a process
such as FrP that needs to send bulk data.
• UDP is suitable for a process with internal flow and error control mechanisms. For
example, the Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) process includes flow and error
control. It can easily use UDP.
• UDP is a suitable transport protocol for multicasting. Multicasting capability is
embedded in the UDP software but not in the TCP software.
• UDP is used for management processes such as SNMP.
• UDP is used for some route updating protocols such as Routing Information
Protocol(RIP).

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TCP & UDP Header

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 TCP Header Fields
• Source port : a random value above 1023.
• Destination port: Identifies the destination protocol or application.
• Sequence number: the first byte in the current segment.
Is the SYNflag set or not??
• Acknowledgement number: specifies the next expected byte by the receiver.
• Window size: determines how many bytes can be sent before
waiting for acknowledgement.
• H.length (Offset): the length of the segment header in bytes.
• Checksum: used for error checking.
• Reserved: Reserved for future use and should be set to zero.

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 At the source: Segmentation
• divides application data into blocks of data that are of appropriate size

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 At the Destination: TCP in order Reassembly
• The Transport layer reassembles the data before sending it to the destination application or
service.

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 At the Destination: UDP Out of order Reassembly
• The Transport layer reassembles the data before sending it to the
destination application or service.

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 TCP Connection Establishment (3-way handshake)

• When two hosts communicate using TCP,a connection (Three-way

handshake) is established before data canbe exchanged.

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 Flow Control - Windowing
• Flow control assists the reliability of TCPtransmission by adjusting
the effective rate of data flow between the two services in the
session.

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 Flow Control – Reducing the window
size
• If a receiving host has congestion, it may respond to the sending
host with a segment with a reduced window size.

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TCP Connection Termination (4-way Handshake)

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 Topic 2. ATM(Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is the cell relay protocol designed by the ATM Forum and adopted by the
ITU-T. The combination of ATM and SONET will allow high-speed interconnection of all the world's
networks. In fact, ATM can be thought of as the "highway" of the information superhighway.
Architecture
ATM is a cell-switched network. The user access devices, called the endpoints, are connected through a user-to
network interface (UNI) to the switches inside the network.
The switches are connected through network-to-network interfaces (NNIs). Figure shows an example of an
ATM network.

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ATM Header

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 ATM Header
Header Format ATM uses two formats for this header, one for user-to-network interface (UNI) cells and
another for network-to-network interface (NNI) cells. Figure shows these headers in the byte-by-byte format
preferred by the ITU-T (each row represents a byte).

Generic flow control (GFC). The 4-bit GFC field provides flow control at the UNI level. The ITU-T has
determined that this level of flow control is not necessary at the NNI level. In the NNI header, therefore,
these bits are added to the VPI.
The longer VPI allows more virtual paths to be defined at the NNI level. The format for this additional VPI
has not yet been determined.
o Virtual path identifier (VPI). The VPI is an 8-bit field in a UNI cell and a 12-bit field in an NNI cell (see
above).
o Virtual circuit identifier (VCI). The VCI is a 16-bit field in both frames.
o Payload type (PT). In the 3-bit PT field, the first bit defines the payload as user data or managerial
information. The interpretation of the last 2 bits depends on the first bit.
Cell loss priority (CLP). The I-bit CLP field is provided for congestion control. A cell with its CLP bit set to I
must be retained as long as there are cells with a CLP of O. We discuss congestion control and quality of
service in an ATM network in Chapter 24.
o Header error correction (HEC). The HEC is a code computed for the first 4 bytes of the header.
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 Topic 3. Session Layer (OSI Layers)
This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of
sessions, authentication, and also ensures security.

Functions of the Session Layer

•Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows the two
processes to establish, use and terminate a connection.

•Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are

considered synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points help to
identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the
messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.

•Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication
with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
 Presentation Layer (OSI Layers)
• The data from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the
required format to transmit over the network.
• The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer.

Functions of the Presentation Layer:-

•Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

•Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or
code. The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is
known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.

•Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the

network.

Note: Device or Protocol Use : JPEG, MPEG, GIF

 Topic 4. Application Layer (OSI Layers)
• The Application layer which is implemented by the network applications. These applications
produce the data, which has to be transferred over the network.
• This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access the network and for
displaying the received information to the user.

Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.

Functions of the Application Layer:-

• Network Virtual Terminal: It allows a user to log on to a remote host.

• FTAM- File transfer access and management : This application allows a user to
access file in a remote host, retrieve files in remote host and manage or
control files from a remote computer.
• Mail Services : Provide email service.

• Directory Services : This application provides distributed database sources

and access for global information about various objects and services.
 Topic 5. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
• FTP is a standard internet protocol provided by TCP/IP used for transmitting the files from one
host to another.
• It is mainly used for transferring the web page files from their creator to the computer that acts
as a server for other computers on the internet. It is also used for downloading the files to
computer from other servers.

• Why FTP?
Although transferring files from one system to another is very simple and straightforward, but
sometimes it can cause problems.
For example, two systems may have different file conventions. Two systems may have
different ways to represent text and data. Two systems may have different directory structures.
FTP protocol overcomes these problems by establishing two connections between hosts. One
connection is used for data transfer, and another connection is used for the control connection.

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 Mechanism of FTP

• The FTP client has three components: the user interface, control process, and data
transfer process.
• The server has two components: the server control process and the server data transfer
process
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 FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
• Control Connection: The control connection uses very simple rules for communication.
Through control connection, we can transfer a line of command or line of response at a time. The
control connection is made between the control processes. The control connection remains
connected during the entire interactive FTP session.
• Data Connection: The Data Connection uses very complex rules as data types may vary. The
data connection is made between data transfer processes. The data connection opens when a
command comes for transferring the files and closes when the file is transferred.

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 FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
FTP Clients
• FTP client is a program that implements a file transfer protocol which allows you to transfer files
between two hosts on the internet.
• It allows a user to connect to a remote host and upload or download the files.
• It has a set of commands that we can use to connect to a host, transfer the files between you and
your host and close the connection.
• The FTP program is also available as a built-in component in a Web browser. This GUI based FTP
client makes the file transfer very easy and also does not require to remember the FTP commands

Objectives of FTP
•It provides the sharing of files.
•It is used to encourage the use of remote computers.
•It transfers the data more reliably and efficiently

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 FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
Advantages of FTP:
• Speed: One of the biggest advantages of FTP is speed. The FTP is one of the fastest way to transfer the
files from one computer to another computer.
• Efficient: It is more efficient as we do not need to complete all the operations to get the entire file.
• Security: To access the FTP server, we need to login with the username and password. Therefore, we
can say that FTP is more secure
Disadvantages of FTP:
• The standard requirement of the industry is that all the FTP transmissions should be encrypted.
However, not all the FTP providers are equal and not all the providers offer encryption. So, we will
have to look out for the FTP providers that provide encryption.
• FTP serves two operations, i.e., to send and receive large files on a network. However, the size limit of
the file is 2GB that can be sent. It also doesn't allow you to run simultaneous transfers to multiple
receivers.
• Passwords and file contents are sent in clear text that allows unwanted eavesdropping. So, it is quite
possible that attackers can carry out the brute force attack by trying to guess the FTP password.
• It is not compatible with every system 30
 Topic 6. E-Mail Protocols (SMTP)

• E-mail Protocols are set of rules that help the client to properly transmit the information to or
from the mail server. Here in this tutorial, we will discuss various protocols such as SMTP,
POP, and IMAP.
SMTP:
SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It was first proposed in 1982. It is a standard
protocol used for sending e-mail efficiently and reliably over the internet.
Key Points:
• SMTP is application level protocol.
• SMTP is connection oriented protocol.
• SMTP is text based protocol

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 E-Mail Protocols(IMAP)
IMAP: IMAP stands for Internet Mail Access Protocol. It was first proposed in
1986. There exist five versions of IMAP as follows:
• Original IMAP
• IMAP2
• IMAP3
• IMAP2bis
• IMAP4
Key Points:
• IMAP allows the client program to manipulate the e-mail message on the server
without downloading them on the local computer.
• The e-mail is hold and maintained by the remote server.

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 E-Mail Protocols (POP)

POP (Post Office Protocol) It is generally used to support a single client. There are
several versions of POP but the POP 3 is the current standard.
Key Points
• POP is an application layer internet standard protocol.
• Since POP supports offline access to the messages, thus requires less internet usage
time.
• POP does not allow search facility.
• In order to access the messaged, it is necessary to download them.
• It allows only one mailbox to be created on server.
• It is not suitable for accessing non mail data

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 E-Mail Components

• E-mail system comprises of the following three components:

• Mailer: It is also called mail program, mail application or mail client. It allows us to
manage, read and compose e-mail.
• Mail Server: The function of mail server is to receive, store and deliver the email. It is must
for mail servers to be running all the time because if it crashes or is down, email can be lost.
• Mailboxes: Mailbox is generally a folder that contains emails and information about them.

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 Working of E-Mail
Email working follows the client server approach. In this, client is the mailer i.e.
the mail application or mail program and server is a device that manages emails.
Example:-
Suppose person A wants to send an email message to person B.
• Person A composes the messages using a mailer program i.e. mail client and then
select Send option.
• The message is routed to Simple Mail Transfer Protocol to person B’s mail server.
• The mail server stores the email message on disk in an area designated for person
B.

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 Working of E-Mail
• Now, suppose person B is running a POP client and knows how to communicate with B’s mail
server.
• It will periodically poll the POP server to check if any new email has arrived for B.As in this
case; person B has sent an email for person B, so email is forwarded over the network to B’s
PC. This is message is now stored on person B’s PC

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 E-Mail
• Email is a service which allows us to send the message in electronic mode over the
internet. It offers an efficient, inexpensive and real time mean of distributing
information among people.
E-Mail Address:
• Each user of email is assigned a unique name for his email account. This name is
known as E-mail address. Different users can send and receive messages according to
the e-mail address. E-Mail is generally of the form username@domainname.
• For example, [email protected] is an email address where webmaster is
username and tutorialspoint is domain name.
• E-mail is the username and the domain name are separated by @ (at) symbol.
• E-mail addresses are not case sensitive.
• Spaces are not allowed in e-mail address.

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 E-Mail
Advantages: E-mail has proved to be powerful and Disadvantages : Apart from several benefits of E-
reliable medium of communication. Here are the mail, there also exists some disadvantages as
benefits of E-mail: discussed below:
• Reliable: Many of the mail systems notify the sender if • Forgery: E-mail doesn’t prevent from forgery, that
e-mail message was undeliverable is, someone impersonating the sender, since
• Convenience: There is no requirement of stationary and sender is usually not authenticated in any way.
stamps. One does not have to go to post office. But all
these things are not required for sending or receiving an • Overload: Convenience of E-mail may result in a
mail. flood of mail.
• Speed: E-mail is very fast. However, the speed also • Misdirection: It is possible that you may send e-
depends upon the underlying network mail to an unintended recipient.
• Inexpensive: The cost of sending e-mail is very low. • Junk: Junk emails are undesirable and
• Printable: It is easy to obtain a hardcopy of an e-mail. inappropriate emails. Junk emails are sometimes
Also an electronic copy of an e-mail can also be saved referred to as spam.
for records. • No Response: It may be frustrating when the
• Global: E-mail can be sent and received by a person recipient does not read the e-mail and respond on
sitting across the globe. a regular basis

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 Topic 7. WWW
• The World Wide Web (WWW) is a repository of information linked together from points all over the
world. The WWW has a unique combination of flexibility, portability, and user-friendly features that
distinguish it from other services provided by the Internet. The WWW project was initiated by CERN
(European Laboratory for Particle Physics) to create a system to handle distributed resources
necessary for scientific research.

• The WWW today is a distributed client/server service, in which a client using a browser can access a
service using a server. However, the service provided is distributed over many locations called sites.

• Each site holds one or more documents, referred to as Web pages. Each Web page can contain a link
to other pages in the same site or at other sites. The pages can be retrieved and viewed by using
browsers.
• CLIENT(BROWSER)
• SERVER
• Uniform Resource Locator
• COOKIES
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WWW

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 WWW
• CLIENT(BROWSER) A variety of vendors offer commercial browsers that interpret and display a
Web document, and all use nearly the same architecture. Each browser usually consists of three
parts: a controller, client protocol, and interpreters. The controller receives input from the
keyboard or the mouse and uses the client programs to access the document. After the document
has been accessed, the controller uses one of the interpreters to display the document on the
screen. The client protocol can be one of the protocols described previously such as FTP or HTIP
(described later in the chapter). The interpreter can be HTML, Java, or JavaScript, depending on
the type of document.

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 WWW
• Server The Web page is stored at the server. Each time a client request arrives,
the corresponding document is sent to the client. To improve efficiency, servers
normally store requested files in a cache in memory; memory is faster to access
than disk.
• A server can also become more efficient through multithreading or
multiprocessing. In this case, a server can answer more than one request at a
time.

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 WWW
URL A client that wants to access a Web page needs the address. To facilitate the
access of documents distributed throughout the world, HTTP uses locators. The
uniform resource locator (URL) is a standard for specifying any kind of information
on the Internet. The URL defines four things: protocol, host computer, port, and
path.

Example https://192.168.1.254:8090/httpclient.html

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 WWW
Cookies The World Wide Web was originally designed as a stateless entity. A client sends a
request; a server responds. Their relationship is over. The original design of WWW, retrieving
publicly available documents, exactly fits this purpose. Today the Web has other functions;
some are listed here.
I. Some websites need to allow access to registered clients only.
II. Websites are being used as electronic stores that allow users to browse through the
store, select wanted items, put them in an electronic cart, and pay at the end with a
credit card.
III. Some websites are used as portals: the user selects the Web pages he wants to see.
IV. Some websites are just advertising.

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 Topic 8. HTTP
• The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a protocol used mainly to access data on the World
Wide Web.
• HTTP functions as a combination of FTP and SMTP. It is similar to FTP because it transfers files and
uses the services of TCP. However, it is much simpler than FfP because it uses only one TCP
connection.
• There is no separate control connection; only data are transferred between the client and the
server. HTTP is like SMTP because the data transferred between the client and the server look like
SMTP messages.
• In addition, the format of the messages is controlled by MIME-like headers. Unlike SMTP, the HTTP
messages are not destined to be read by humans; they are read and interpreted by the HTTP
server and HTTP client (browser).
• SMTP messages are stored and forwarded, but HTTP messages are delivered immediately. The
commands from the client to the server are embedded in a request message. The contents of the
requested file or other information are embedded in a response message. HTTP uses the services
of TCP on well-known port 80.

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 HTTP
• The HTTP transaction between the client and server. Although HTTP uses the services of TCP,
HTTP itself is a stateless protocol.
• The client initializes the transaction by sending a request message. The server replies by sending a
response.

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 HTTP
• Messages The formats of the request and response messages are similar; both are shown in Figure.
A request message consists of a request line, a header, and sometimes a body. A response message
consists of a status line, a header, and sometimes a body.

• The HTTP status code relays general information, information related to a successful
request, redirection information, or error information. o The HTTP header relays additional
information between the client and server.

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 HTTP
Header The header exchanges additional information between the client and the server. For
example, the client can request that the document be sent in a special format, or the server
can send extra information about the document.

• An HTTP header consists of a header name and a header value.

• An HTTP general header gives general information about the request or response
message.
• An HTTP request header specifies a client's configuration and preferred document format.
• An HTTP response header specifies a server's configuration and special information about
the request.
• An HTTP entity header provides information about the body of a document.

Request and Status Lines The first line in are quest message is called a request line; the first
line in the response message is called the status line.
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Unit-5 Syllabus

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 Topic 9. Cryptography
• Computer data often travels from one computer to another, leaving the safety of its protected
physical surroundings. Once the data is out of hand, people with bad intention could modify or
forge your data, either for amusement or for their own benefit.
• Cryptography can reformat and transform our data, making it safer on its trip between computers.
The technology is based on the essentials of secret codes, augmented by modern mathematics that
protects our data in powerful ways.

Cryptographic systems are generally classified along 3 independent dimensions:

• Type of operations used for transforming plain text to cipher text
• The number of keys used
• Cryptanalysis:

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 Cryptography
• Type of operations used for transforming plain text to cipher text: All the encryption
algorithms are based on two general principles: substitution, in which each element in the
plaintext is mapped into another element, and transposition, in which elements in the plaintext are
rearranged.

• The number of keys used: If the sender and receiver uses same key then it is said to be
symmetric key (or) single key (or) conventional encryption. If the sender and receiver use
different keys then it is said to be public key encryption. The way in which the plain text is
processed

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 Cryptography
• Symmetric Cryptography
Symmetric encryption is a technique which allows the use of only one key for performing both
the encryption and the decryption of the message shared over the internet. It is also known as
the conventional method used for encryption.

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 Cryptography
DES (Data Encryption
Standard)
Data Encryption
Standard (DES) is
a symmetric key block
cipher that was adopted
by National Institute of
Standard and
Technology in the
year 1977. DES is based on
the Feistel structure where
the plaintext is divided into
two halves. DES takes
input as 64-bit plain text
and 56-bit key to produce
64-bit Ciphertext.

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 Cryptography
AES (Advanced Encryption Standard):
• Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) is also a symmetric
key block cipher. AES was published in 2001 by
the National Institute of Standards and Technology. AES
was introduced to replace DES as DES uses very small
cipher key and the algorithm was quite slower.
• AES algorithm takes 128-bit plaintext and 128-bit secret
key which together forms a 128-bit block which is depicted
as 4 X 4 square matrix. This 4 X 4 square matrix undergoes
an initial transformation.

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 Cryptography
• Asymmetric Cryptography:
Asymmetric encryption is an encryption technique that uses a pair of key (private key and public
key) for encryption and decryption. Asymmetric encryption uses the public key for the encryption
of the message and the private key for the decryption of the message. The public key is freely
available to anyone who is interested in sending the message.

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 Cryptography

Cryptanalysis:
• The process of attempting to discover X or K or both is known as cryptanalysis. The strategy
used by the cryptanalysis depends on the nature of the encryption scheme and the information
available to the cryptanalyst. There are various types of cryptanalytic attacks based on the
amount of information known to the cryptanalyst.
Cryptographic Attacks
• Passive Attacks
• Active attacks

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 Network Security
• What is Network Security?
Network security is the process of taking preventative measures to protect the underlying networking
infrastructure from unauthorized access, misuse, malfunction, modification, destruction or improper
disclosure. The Internet has undoubtedly become a huge part of our lives. Many people in today’s generation
rely on the Internet for many of their professional, social and personal activities.
There are many people who attempt to damage our Internet-connected computers, violate our privacy and make
it impossible to the Internet services. Given the frequency and variety of existing attacks as well as the threat of
new and more destructive future attacks, network security has become a central topic in the field of cyber
security.

• What is network security attack?

A network attack can be defined as any method, process, or means used to maliciously attempt to compromise
network security.
• Network security is the process of preventing network attacks across a given network infrastructure, but the
techniques and methods used by the attacker further distinguish whether the attack is an active cyber attack, a
passive type attack, or some combination of the two.
• Let’s consider a simple network attack example to understand the difference between active and passive attack
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 Network Security
• Active Attacks
An active attack is a network exploit in which attacker attempts to make changes to data on
the target or data en route to the target.

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 Network Security

• Passive Attacks
A passive attack is a network attack in which a system is monitored and sometimes scanned
for open ports and vulnerabilities, but does not affect system resources.

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 References
1) B. A. Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking”, 5th
Edition, TMH, 2017.

2) S. Tanenbaum, “Computer Networks”, 4th Edition, Pearson,

2013.

3) W. Stallings, “Data and Computer Communication”, 8th Edition,

Pearson, 2007.

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