PART 1A: UNDERSTAND HOW TO ORGANIZE A SITE

SITE LAYOUT AND ORGANISATION

The construction of a building can be considered as production with a temporary factory, the building site being the
‘factory’ in which the building contractor will make the product. To enable this activity to take place the builder
requires operatives, materials and plant, all of which have to be carefully controlled so that the operatives have the right
machines in the most advantageous position, the materials stored so that they are readily available and not interfering
with the general site circulation, and adequate storage space and site accommodation. There is no standard size ratio
between the free site space required to construct a building and the total size of the site on which the building is to be
erected: therefore, each site must be considered as a separate problem in terms of allocating space for operatives,
materials and plant. To obtain maximum efficiency there is an optimum way of laying out the site and also a correct
amount of expenditure to support the proposed site layout. Any planned layout should be reviewed periodically and
adjusted to suit the changing needs of the site activities. If this aspect of building construction is carefully considered,
planned and controlled, it will be reflected in the progress and profitability of the contract.

Before any initial planning of the site layout can take place certain preliminary work must be carried out, preferably at
the pre-tender stage. The decision to tender will usually be taken by the managing director or, for small works, by the
senior estimator up to a contract value laid down by the managing director. With given designs and specifications, the
best opportunity for the contractor to prepare a competitive and economic tender is in the programming and planning
of the construction activities. A thorough study of the bill of quantities will give an indication of the amount and
quality of the materials required and also of the various labour resources needed to carry out the contract. A similar
study of the drawings, together with the bill of quantities and the specification, will enable the builder to make a
preliminary assessment of the size and complexity of the contract, the plant required, and the amount of money that
can reasonably be expended on labour-saving items such as concrete mixing and placing alternatives, handling and
transporting equipment and off-site fabrication of such items as formwork and reinforcement.

Before the estimator can make a start on calculating unit rates a site investigation should be carried out, preferably by
the site manager, who will supervise the contract should the tender be successful.

An efficiently organized construction site layout has a significant impact on the productivity, material handling,
logistics, costs, and overall duration of a project. A good site layout is vital to ensuring a safe work environment and
effective and efficient construction operations. It is the contractor’s task to plan his choice of temporary works,
buildings, and services. The site layout is usually planned in detail during the pre-contract period and updated during
the construction phase.

EFFICIENT SITE ORGANIZATION AND LAYOUT CONSIDERATIONS BEFORE CONSTRUCTION

Construction site layout planning involves the identification, sizing, and positioning of temporary and permanent
facilities within the boundaries of a construction site. Temporary facilities include office accommodations, storage
facilities, and personal hygiene areas. It is important that the Project Manager visit the site before construction in order
to ascertain the following:
 Size of the site (total area available for building, etc.)
 Location of the site (brownfield city location or greenfield)
 Size and location of the proposed buildings and areas to be demolished
The site manager also needs to assess the construction project in order to determine the following information:
 Accommodations required
 Material storage requirements
 Plant required
 Access availability
BLD 312 Construction Technology I Lecture Note 1 Page 1
  Construction sequence (if a number of buildings are being constructed)
To plan the site layout, it is necessary to have drawings showing the site boundaries, the existing buildings and
services, the proposed buildings and services, and the proposed site development.
Builders are usually carrying out their work on other people’s premises. That is to say, the premises are normally
either owned by or controlled by someone other than the builder. It is therefore important to clearly identify the site
before starting work. The work instructions or contract documents should adequately define the site, but if there is
doubt, clarifying information should be requested. Once the site is clearly identified and the contracts have been signed,
the client and the contractor must agree on the start date. The contractor then can formally take possession of the land
or premises to occupy it for his work. However, it is important to establish both the right to occupy and the date and
time for occupation as it is usually expected that responsibility for site or premises passes to the contractor when he
takes possession.
After taking possession of the site, one of the first actions then is to identify and secure its boundaries, which
should be done immediately for the following reasons:
1. Warning. To let the public, know, especially children, of potential danger. Some people, unless warned or
restricted, will feel free to walk around building sites “just out of interest . . . to see what is going on” children,
of course, see a building site as an adventure playground.
2. Security. To keep out vandals and thieves.
3. control. To set limits of the work area for site personnel

Key Factors That Influence Site Organization and Layout

There a number of factors that influence the contractor’s site organization and layout, including:
 The amount of available free space in the contractor’s possession outside of the building footprint
 The space allocated by the client for site organization facilities on the drawings.
 The locations of the existing buildings on the site and the building to be constructed.
 The location of the material storage areas and requirements
 The location of plant areas
 The location of the site offices
 The location of temporary services
 The location of fencing and hoarding
 Construction waste considerations
 Site access and exit considerations
 Health and safety considerations

Traditionally, when the contractor’s site layout is drawn, a transparent overlay and/or cut-outs are used to achieve
the most efficient and effective layout. The following elements should be considered:
 Space for the use of a crane and other plant needs
 Site accommodations and material storage
 Communications
 Access
 View of the work
 Security
 Noise
 Setting out grid
 Other considerations

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PLANNING SITE LAYOUTS
When planning site layouts, the following must be taken into account:

 site activities;
 efficiency;
 movement;
 control;
 facilities for health, safety and welfare provision;
 accommodation for staff and storage of materials.
SITE ACTIVITIES
The time needed for carrying out the principal activities can be estimated from the data obtained previously for
preparing the material and labour requirements. With repetitive activities estimates will be required to determine the
most economical balance of units that will allow simultaneous construction processes; this in turn will help to
establish staff numbers, work areas and material storage requirements.
A similar argument can be presented for overlapping activities. If a particular process presents a choice in the way the
result can be achieved the alternatives must be considered: for example, the rate of placing concrete will be
determined by the output of the mixer and the speed of transporting the mix to the appropriate position.
Alternatives that can be considered are:

 more than one mixer;

 regulated supply of ready-mixed concrete;
 on large contracts, pumping the concrete to the placing position.
All alternative methods for any activity will give different requirements for staff numbers, material storage, access
facilities and possibly plant types and numbers.
EFFICIENCY
To achieve maximum efficiency, the site layout must aim at maintaining the desired output of the planned activities
throughout the working day, and this will depend largely upon the following factors:

 Avoidance, as far as practicable, of double handling of materials.

 Proper storekeeping arrangements to ensure that the materials are of the correct type, in the correct
quantity, and available when required.
 Walking distances kept to a minimum to reduce the non-productive time spent in covering the distances
between working, rest and storage areas without interrupting the general circulation pattern.
 Avoidance of loss by the elements by providing adequate protection for unfixed materials on site, thereby
preventing time loss and cost of replacing damaged materials.
 Avoidance of loss by theft and vandalism by providing security arrangements in keeping with the value of
the materials being protected and by making the task difficult for the would-be thief or vandal by having
adequate hoardings and fences. Also to be avoided is the loss of materials due to pilfering by site staff, who
may consider this to be a perquisite of the industry. Such losses can be reduced by having an adequate
system of stores’ requisition and material checking procedures. Engaging specialist subcontractors on a
‘supply and fit’ basis may reduce the main contractor’s concern.
 Minimising on-site traffic congestion by planning delivery arrivals, having adequate parking facilities for site
staff cars and mobile machinery when not in use, and by having sufficient turning circle room for the types
of delivery vehicle likely to enter the site.

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FACILITIES
These must be planned for each individual site, but certain factors will be common to all sites – not least the
implications of the Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1996, the Work at Height Regulations
2005 and the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974. The main contractor is obliged to provide a safe, healthy
place of work, and safe systems of work, plant and equipment that are not a risk to health. Equipment for the
conduct of work must be provided with adequate information for its safe use and, where appropriate, training in its
application. Both regulations are wide ranging and set goals or objectives relating to risk assessment to ensure
reasonably practicable steps are taken to ensure safety provision. Prescriptive requirements for such provisions as
scaffold guard rail heights and platform widths are scheduled in the Work at Height Regulations.
The requirements for health and wellbeing of persons on construction sites are enforced by the Health and Safety
Executive, through the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 and the Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare)
Regulations 1996. The following minimum requirements apply and the numbers of persons on site were established
by the Construction Regulations of 1966.

Provision Requirement No of persons employed

on site
FIRST AID Box to be distinctively marked and in 5 to 50 - first aid boxes
charge of responsible person. 50 + first aid box and a person trained in first aid
AMBULANCES Stretcher(s) in charge of responsible 25 + notify ambulance authority of site details within
person 24 hours of employing more than 25 persons
FIRST AID ROOM Used only for rest or treatment If more than 250 persons employed on site each
and in charge of trained person employer of more than 40 persons to provide a first
aid room
SHELTER AND All persons on site to have shelter and a Up to 5 where possible a means of warming
ACCOMMODATION place for changing, drying and depositing themselves and drying wet clothes
FOR CLOTHING clothes. Separate facilities for male and 5 + adequate means of warming themselves and
female staff. drying wet clothing
REST ROOM Drinking water, means of boiling water, 10 + facilities for heating food if hot meals are not
preparing and eating meals for all persons available on site
on site. Arrangements to protect non-
smokers from tobacco smoke
WASHING Washing facilities to be provided for all 20 to 100 if work is to last more than 6 weeks - hot
FACILITIES persons on site for more than 4 hours. and cold or warm water, soap and towel.
Ventilated and lit. Separate facilities 100 + work lasting more than 12 months - 4 wash
for male and female staff places + 1 for every 35 persons over 100
SANITARY To be maintained, lit, ventilated and kept Up to 100 - 1 convenience for every 25 persons
FACILITIES clean. Separate facilities for male and 100 + convenience for every 35 persons
female staff

MOVEMENT
Apart from the circulation problems mentioned above, the biggest problem is one of access. Vehicles delivering
materials to the site should be able to do so without difficulty or delay. Many of the contractors’ vehicles will be
lightweight and will therefore present few or no problems, but the weight and length of suppliers’ vehicles should be
taken into account. For example, a fully laden ready-mix concrete lorry can weigh 20 tonnes, and lorries used for
delivering structural steel can be 18.000 metres long, weigh up to 40 tonnes and require a large turning circle.
If it is anticipated that heavy vehicles will be operating on site, it will be necessary to consider the road surface
required. If the roads and paved areas are part of the contract and will have adequate strength for the weight of the
anticipated vehicles it may be advantageous to lay the roads at a very early stage in the contract, but if the
specification for the roads is for light traffic it would be advisable to lay only the base hoggin or hardcore layer at the
initial stages because of the risk of damage to the completed roads by the heavy vehicles. As an alternative it may be

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considered a better policy to provide only temporary roadways composed of railway sleepers, metal tracks or mats
until a later stage in the contract, especially if such roads will only be required for a short period.

CONTROL
This is concerned mainly with the overall supervision of the contract, including staff, materials, and the movement of
both around the site. This control should form the hub of the activities, which logically develops into areas or zones
of control radiating from this hub or centre. Which zone is selected for storage, accommodation or specific activities
is a matter of conjecture and the conditions prevailing on a particular site, but as a rule the final layout will be one of
compromise, with storage and accommodation areas generally receiving priority.

ACCOMMODATION
Apart from legislative necessities, the main areas of concern will be sizing, equipping and siting the various units of
accommodation.
Mess huts
These are for the purposes of preparing, heating and consuming food, which may require the following services:
drainage, light, power, hot and cold water supply.
To provide a reasonable degree of comfort a floor area of 2.0 to 2.5 m2 per person should be allowed. This will
provide sufficient circulation space, room for tables and seating, and space for the storage of any utensils.
Consideration can also be given to introducing a system of staggered meal breaks, thus reducing space requirements.
On large sites where full canteen facilities are being provided this will be subcontracted to a catering firm. Mess huts
should be sited so that they do not interfere with the development of the site but are positioned so that travel time is
kept to a minimum. On sites that by their very nature are large, it is worthwhile considering a system whereby tea
breaks can be taken in the vicinity of the work areas. Siting mess huts next to the main site circulation and access
roads is not of major importance. It is the principal contractor’s responsibility to ensure that reasonable welfare
facilities are available on site, although they do not necessarily have to provide these. It may be part of
subcontractors’ conditions of engagement that they provide their own.
Drying rooms
Used for the purposes of depositing and drying wet clothes. Drying rooms generally require a lighting and power
supply, and lockers or racks for deposited clothes. A floor area of 0.6 m2 per person should provide sufficient space
for equipment and circulation. Drying rooms should be sited near or adjacent to the mess room.
Toilets
Contractors are required to provide at least adequate washing and sanitary facilities as set out in Regulation 22 of the
Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations. All these facilities will require light, water and drainage
services. If it is not possible or practicable to make a permanent or temporary connection to a drainage system, the
use of chemical methods of disposal should be considered.
Sizing of toilet units is governed by the facilities being provided, and if female staff are employed on site separate
toilet facilities must be provided. Toilets should be located in a position that is convenient to both offices and mess
rooms, which may mean providing more than one location on large sites.
First-aid rooms
Only required on large sites as a specific facility, otherwise a reasonably equipped mess room will suffice. The first-
aid room should be sited in a position that is conveniently accessible from the working areas, and must be of such a
size as to allow for the necessary equipment and adequate circulation, which would indicate a minimum floor area of
6m2. First-aid equipment must be under the charge of a suitably trained, appointed person, with responsibility for
accounting for the contents and their use.

BLD 312 Construction Technology I Lecture Note 1 Page 5

Before the proposed site layout is planned and drawn, the contracts manager and the proposed site agent should visit
the site to familiarise themselves with the prevailing conditions. During this visit the position and condition of any
existing roads should be noted, and the siting of any temporary roads considered necessary should be planned.
Information regarding the soil conditions, height of water table, and local weather patterns should be obtained by
observation, site investigation, soil investigation, local knowledge or from the local authority. The amount of money
that can be expended on this exercise will depend upon the size of the proposed contract and possibly upon how
competitive the tenders are likely to be for the contract under consideration.
Site Storage
Materials stored on site prior to being used or fixed may require protection for security reasons or against the adverse
effects which can be caused by exposure to the elements. Small and valuable items should be kept in a secure and
lockable store. Similar items should be stored together in a rack or bin system and only issued against an authorised
requisition. For security protection Large or Bulk Storage Items can be stored within a lockable fenced compound.
The form of fencing chosen may give visual security by being of an open nature but these are generally easier to
climb than the close boarded type of fence which lacks the visual security property.
Storage of Materials
This can be defined as the provision of adequate space, protection and control for building materials and
components held on site during the construction process. The actual requirements for specific items should be
familiar to students who have completed studies in construction technology at an introductory level but the need for
storage and control of materials held on site can be analysed further: -
1. Physical Properties: size, shape, weight and mode of delivery will assist in determining the safe handling and
stacking method(s) to be employed on site, which in turn will enable handling and storage costs to be estimated.
2. Organisation: this is the planning process of ensuring that all the materials required are delivered to site at the
correct time, in sufficient quantity, of the right quality, the means of unloading is available and that adequate space
for storage or stacking has been allocated.
3. Protection: building materials and components can be classified as durable or non-durable, the latter will usually
require some form of weather protection to prevent deterioration whilst in store.
4. Security: many building materials have a high resale and/or usage value to persons other than those for whom
they were ordered and unless site security is adequate material losses can become unacceptable.
5. Costs: to achieve an economic balance of how much expenditure can be allocated to site storage facilities the
following should be taken into account: -
a. Storage areas, fencing, racks, bins, etc.
b. Protection requirements.
c. Handling, transporting and stacking requirements.
d. Salaries and wages of staff involved in storage of materials and components.
e. Heating and/or lighting if required.
f. Allowance for losses due to wastage, deterioration, vandalism and theft.
g. Facilities to be provided for subcontractors.
6. Control: checking quality and quantity of materials at delivery and during storage period, recording delivery and
issue of materials and monitoring stock holdings.
Site Storage Space: the location and size(s) of space to be allocated for any particular material should be planned by
calculating the area(s) required and by taking into account all the relevant factors before selecting the most
appropriate position on site in terms of handling, storage and convenience. Failure to carry out this simple planning
exercise can result in chaos on site or having on site more materials than there is storage space available.

BLD 312 Construction Technology I Lecture Note 1 Page 6

Fig. 1a.1 Typical Site Layout with storage, accommodation and other pertinent areas.

Calculation of Storage Space Requirements: each site will present its own problems since a certain amount of site
space must be allocated to the units of accommodation, car parking, circulation and working areas, therefore the
amount of space available for materials storage may be limited. The size of the materials or component being ordered
must be known together with the proposed method of storage and this may vary between different sites of similar
building activities. There are therefore no standard solutions for allocating site storage space and each site must be
considered separately to suit its own requirements.

BLD 312 Construction Technology I Lecture Note 1 Page 7

Typical Examples
Bricks: Quantity = 15,200 to be delivered in strapped packs of 380 bricks per pack each being 1100 mm wide x
670mm long x 850mm high. Unloading and stacking to be by forklift truck to form 2 rows 2 packs high.
Area required: - number of packs per row = 15,200 = 20
380 x 2
length of row = 10 x 670 = 6.700
width of row = 2 x 1100 = 2.200
allowance for forklift approach in front of stack = 5.000
Therefore, minimum brick storage area = 6.700 long x 7.200 wide
Timber: to be stored in open sided top covered racks constructed of standard scaffold tubes.
Maximum length of timber ordered = 5.600. Allow for rack to accept at least 4 No. 300mm wide timbers placed
side by side then minimum width required = 4 x 300 = 1.200
Minimum plan area for timber storage rack = 5.600 x 1.200. Allow for end loading of rack equal to length of rack
Therefore, minimum timber storage area = 11.200 long x 1.200 wide
Height of rack to be not more than 3 x width = 3.600
Areas for other materials stored on site can be calculated using the basic principles contained in the examples above.

Site Allocation for Materials Storage: the allocation of an actual position on site will depend on: -
1. Space available after areas for units of accommodation have been allocated.
2. Access facilities on site for delivery, vehicles.
3. Relationship of storage area(s) to activity area(s) - the distance between them needs to be kept as short as possible
to reduce transportation needs in terms of time and costs to the minimum. Alternatively, storage areas and work
areas need to be sited within the reach of any static transport plant such as a tower crane.
4. Security - needs to be considered in the context of site operations, vandalism and theft.
5. Stock holding policy - too little storage could result in delays awaiting materials to be delivered, too much storage
can be expensive in terms of weather and security protection requirements apart from the capital used to purchase the
materials stored on site. For example, Bricks may be supplied loose or strapped in unit loads and stored on timber
pallets.

BLD 312 Construction Technology I Lecture Note 1 Page 8

BLD 312 Construction Technology I Lecture Note 1 Page 9
BLD 312 Construction Technology I Lecture Note 1 Page 10
BLD 312 Construction Technology I Lecture Note 1 Page 11
Fig. 1a.2 Typical Site Layout example

BLD 312 Construction Technology I Lecture Note 1 Page 12

PART 1B:
CLIENT-ENGINEER-CONTRACTOR RELATIONSHIPS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING CONTRACTS
Civil engineering can be distinguished from building best by its product as it involves the construction of docks,
harbours, roads, bridges, airfields, power stations, reservoirs, sewage disposal works and structures such as oil rigs,
refineries and sea defences. The projects are therefore usually large in size and the majority of the clients are from the
public sector.
In certain situations, the clients may employ all of the professional team on a salaried basis, for example, a local
authority may employ all parties as members of its own staff. Alternatively, the client may choose to sublet the
professional work, in which situation he would usually appoint a consultant civil engineer. The consultant civil engineer
adopts a similar role to that of the architect in building: however, as the work normally involves the design of massive
complex structures, it is necessary that he is trained to carry out the work of a specialised nature involving detailed
structural calculations.
There is no mystique about contractual relations. Contractual relations are basically human relations with legal
obligations and responsibilities involved. The contract creates an association between the interested parties who have
different functions but with the common goal of accomplishing a given result.
The parties to a contract therefore are not competitors in any way, but rather joint ventures contributing their separate
talents and efforts to produce the outcome provided for in the contract. In spite of this accepted premise, conflicts do
arise, very many of them traceable to personality differences, pride of authorship, or the desire to prevail regardless of
what might be good judgment and acceptable conduct.
As applied to the construction industry, contractual relations differ from those related to other fields, only in that
construction is the product involved rather than something else. Here too, the most effective approach is the
employment of good business ethics by all parties.
The elements of satisfactory contractual relations are dependent basically upon the following characteristics and
qualities that should apply to all parties of the contract:

1. Good reputation 10. Equitable judgment

2. Financial responsibility 11. Congeniality
3. Competence 12. Discretion
4. Managerial ability 13. Cooperative tendencies
5. Organizing ability 14. Interpretive understanding
6. Technical knowledge 15. Timely compliance
7. Open mindedness 16. Initiative
8. Planning ability 17. Punctuality
9. Satisfactory performance 18. Amenability
To enumerate the above might appear to be a redundancy because it is so elementary in nature. However, good
contractual relations start with these elements, and they must be applied throughout the periods of the initial bidding
or negotiation, during the execution of the contract, and during the contract settlement effort. Such is required of all
parties to be workable.
Contract relations does not recognize business hours or specific categories of work. It is the business of everyone who
has to do with the execution of the contract whether they are principals or subordinates. True enough, the various
individuals involved will have different functions to fulfil and specialties to understand and perform. Good
management will however arrange that these be integrated into a unified organization capable of producing the final
results called for in the contract.
We sometimes lose sight of certain things and find ourselves in difficulties. More often than not the trouble can be
attributable to failure on the part of someone involved to adhere to the most elementary rules. Since all events that can
transpire during the course of execution of a contract cannot be foreseen or pre-planned, it follows that no universal
formula can be offered to forestall their occurrence. The next best thing is to be aware of and to follow good practice,

BLD 312 Construction Technology I Lecture Note 1 Page 13

and to conduct business affairs as near as possible in an unquestionable manner. Regardless of how much is written on
the subject, there is no legitimate substitute for the exercise of good business ethics.
Since every construction project and job is unique, contract conditions are of necessity largely tailored to fit each
situation, so that challenges to them can be more diverse and follow a less uniform pattern than in other kinds of
business.

The Client-Engineer-Contractor (CEC) relationship is a fundamental concept in civil engineering contracts. This
relationship defines the roles, responsibilities, and interactions between the three primary parties involved in a
construction project:

CLIENT
1. Project Owner: The client is the entity that owns the project and is responsible for financing it.

2. Project Requirements: The client defines the project's requirements, including its scope, budget, and timeline.

3. Decision-Making: The client makes key decisions regarding the project, including selecting the engineer and
contractor.

ENGINEER
1. Design and Supervision: The engineer is responsible for designing the project and supervising its construction.

2. Technical Expertise: The engineer provides technical expertise and ensures that the project is constructed according
to the approved design and specifications.

3. Contract Administration: The engineer administers the contract between the client and contractor, ensuring that the
contractor complies with the contract terms.

CONTRACTOR
1. Construction: The contractor is responsible for constructing the project according to the approved design and
specifications.

2. Project Execution: The contractor executes the project, including procuring materials, labour, and equipment.

3. Quality Control: The contractor ensures that the project is constructed to the required quality standards.

RELATIONSHIP DYNAMICS
1. Client-Engineer Relationship: The client hires the engineer to design and supervise the project. The engineer reports
to the client and provides technical expertise.

2. Engineer-Contractor Relationship: The engineer selects and hires the contractor to construct the project. The
contractor reports to the engineer and is responsible for executing the project.

3. Client-Contractor Relationship: The client has a direct relationship with the contractor, primarily for contractual
and payment purposes.

BLD 312 Construction Technology I Lecture Note 1 Page 14

KEY BENEFITS
1. Clear Roles and Responsibilities: The CEC relationship clearly defines the roles and responsibilities of each party,
reducing confusion and miscommunication.

2. Effective Communication: The CEC relationship promotes effective communication among the parties, ensuring
that project requirements are met, and issues are addressed promptly.

3. Quality Project Delivery: The CEC relationship enables the delivery of high-quality projects, as each party is
accountable for their specific responsibilities.

COMMON CHALLENGES
1. Communication Breakdowns: Poor communication among the parties can lead to misunderstandings, delays, and
cost overruns.

2. Role Confusion: Unclear roles and responsibilities can cause confusion and conflicts among the parties.

3. Contractual Disputes: Disputes over contractual terms, payment, or scope can arise, potentially leading to project
delays or termination.

By understanding the Client-Engineer-Contractor relationship, parties involved in civil engineering contracts can
navigate the complexities of project delivery, ensuring successful project outcomes.

The work is usually carried out under different form of contract and method of measurement as published by the
Institution of Civil Engineers, and because of the different conditions contained within the contract, the consultant
civil engineer appoints other professionals direct. In doing so, the powers of such parties are somewhat diminished.
For example, the role of private quantity surveyor is usually restricted to measuring and establishing value of work.

As a result of the size of the work, the consultant civil engineer usually appoints a resident engineer who, as his title
would suggest, is based on site. The resident engineer carries out very important function protecting the client’s interests
on site. He is usually responsible for all post contract activities including day-to-day design work, variations, valuation
and measurement of work and dealing with the civil engineering contractor.

The role of the civil engineering contractor is very similar to that of the main contractor in building having due regard
to the larger scope of projects, the repetitive nature of the work and the smaller range of construction materials. It
would be reasonable to assume therefore that his head office and site organisation structure would also be similar.

Here are the principal duties of a Resident Engineer in construction:

1. Site Management: Oversee and manage the construction site, ensuring that all activities are carried out in accordance
with the project plans, specifications, and schedules.
2. Supervision of Contractors: Supervise and coordinate the work of contractors, subcontractors, and other site
personnel to ensure that the work is executed in accordance with the contract documents.
3. Quality Control: Ensure that all work is carried out to the required quality standards, and that any defects or
deficiencies are identified and rectified promptly.
4. Safety Management: Implement and enforce site safety policies and procedures to ensure a safe working environment
for all site personnel.
5. Project Planning and Scheduling: Assist in the development and implementation of project plans and schedules, and
monitor progress against these plans.
6. Cost Management: Monitor and control project costs, ensuring that expenditures are in line with the approved
budget.

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7. Communication and Coordination: Liaise with clients, architects, engineers, contractors, and other stakeholders to
ensure that all parties are informed and aligned with project progress and issues.
8. Inspection and Testing: Conduct regular inspections and testing to ensure that the work meets the required standards
and specifications.
9. Defect Management: Identify, document, and manage defects and deficiencies, ensuring that they are rectified
promptly and to the required standards.
10. Record Keeping: Maintain accurate and comprehensive records of site activities, including progress photos,
inspection reports, and correspondence.
11. Dispute Resolution: Assist in resolving disputes and claims that may arise during the project, ensuring that they
are resolved in a fair and timely manner.
12. Commissioning and Handover: Ensure that the project is properly commissioned and handed over to the client,
including the provision of operation and maintenance manuals.
13. Warranty and Maintenance: Ensure that all warranty and maintenance requirements are met, and that the client is
aware of their responsibilities in this regard.
14. Site Closure: Ensure that the site is properly closed out, including the removal of all temporary facilities and the
restoration of the site to its original condition.

These duties may vary depending on the specific project requirements and the employer's expectations.

BLD 312 Construction Technology I Lecture Note 1 Page 16

PART 1C:
MANUAL HANDLING HAZARDS AND CONTROL MEASURES
The term ‘manual handling’ is defined as the movement of a load by human effort alone. This effort may be applied
directly or indirectly using a rope or a lever. Manual handling may involve the transportation of the load or the direct
support of the load including pushing, pulling, carrying, moving using bodily force and, of course, straightforward
lifting. Back injury due to the lifting of heavy loads is very common and several million working days are lost each year
as a result of such injuries.
Typical hazards of manual handling include:

 lifting a load which is too heavy or too cumbersome, resulting in back injury;
 poor posture during lifting or poor lifting technique, resulting in back injury;
 dropping a load, resulting in foot injury;
 lifting sharp-edged or hot loads resulting in hand injuries.

Fig. 1c.1 Manual Handling: there are many potential hazards

INJURIES CAUSED BY MANUAL HANDLING

Manual handling operations can cause a wide range of acute and chronic injuries to workers. Acute injuries normally
lead to sickness leave from work and a period of rest during which time the damage heals. Chronic injuries build up
over a long period of time and are usually irreversible, producing illnesses such as arthritic and spinal disorders. There
is considerable evidence to suggest that modern lifestyles, such as a lack of exercise and regular physical effort, have
contributed to the long-term serious effects of these injuries.
The most common injuries associated with poor manual handling techniques are all musculoskeletal in nature and are:

 muscular sprains and strains – caused when a muscular tissue (or ligament or tendon) is stretched beyond its
normal capability leading to a weakening, bruising and painful inflammation of the area affected. Such injuries
normally occur in the back or in the arms and wrists;
 back injuries – include injuries to the discs situated between the spinal vertebrae (i.e. bones) and can lead to
a very painful prolapsed disc lesion (commonly known as a slipped disc). This type of injury can lead to other
conditions known as lumbago and sciatica (where pain travels down the leg);
 trapped nerve – usually occurring in the back as a result of another injury but aggravated by manual handling;

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  hernia – this is a rupture of the body cavity wall in the lower abdomen, causing a protrusion of part of the
intestine. This condition eventually requires surgery to repair the damage;
 cuts, bruising and abrasions – caused by handling loads with unprotected sharp corners or edges;
 fractures – normally of the feet due to the dropping of a load. Fractures of the hand also occur but are less
common;
 work-related upper limb disorders (WRULDs);
 rheumatism – this is a chronic disorder involving severe pain in the joints. It has many causes, one of which
is believed to be the muscular strains induced by poor manual handling lifting technique.
The sites on the body of injuries caused by manual handling accidents are shown in Figure 1c.2. Nearly 11 million
working days were lost in 2008/09 due to musculoskeletal disorders, which are thought to cost the UK more than £7
billion each year and affect 6.5 million people.
Musculoskeletal problems are the most common cause of absence, followed by viral infections and stress-related
illnesses. These findings are based on an analysis of sickness management records for 11,000 individual employees
across a range of private sector organisations. A recent study has found that musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) account
for nearly half (49%) of all absences from work and 60% of permanent work incapacity in the European Union.
It is estimated that this costs the UK economy £7 billion every year and costs Europe £240 billion each year. The
study, conducted across 25 European countries, found that 100 million Europeans suffer from chronic musculoskeletal
pain – over 40 million of whom are workers – with up to 40% having to give up work due to their condition. In the
UK alone, 9.5 million working days were lost in one year due to musculoskeletal problems.
In general, pulling a load is much easier for the body than pushing one. If a load can only be pushed, then pushing
backwards using the back is less stressful on body muscles. Lifting a load from a surface at waist level is easier than
lifting from floor level and most injuries during lifting are caused by lifting and twisting at the same time. If a load has
to be carried, it is easier to carry it at waist level and close to the body trunk. A firm grip is essential when moving any
type of load.

Fig. 1c.2 Main injury sites caused by manual handling accidents

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HIERARCHY OF MEASURES FOR MANUAL HANDLING OPERATIONS
With the introduction of the Manual Handling Operations Regulations, the emphasis during the assessment of lifting
operations changed from a simple reliance on safe lifting techniques to an analysis, using risk assessment, of the need
for manual handling. The Regulations established a clear hierarchy of measures to be taken when an employer is
confronted with a manual handling operation:

 Avoid manual handling operations so far as is reasonably practicable by either redesigning the task to avoid
moving the load or by automating or mechanising the operations.
 If manual handling cannot be avoided, then a suitable and sufficient risk assessment should be made.
 Reduce the risk of injury from those operations so far as is reasonably practicable, either by the use of
mechanical handling or making improvements to the task, the load and the working environment.
The guidance given to the Manual Handling Operations Regulations (available in the HSE Legal series – L23) is a
very useful document. It gives very helpful advice on manual handling assessments and manual handling training. The
advice is applicable to all occupational sectors. In the construction industry, the typical manual handling tasks that
occur on most sites are lifting building blocks, cement bags, doors, windows and lintels. Another common example
occurs in road and street works – the lifting and manoeuvring of kerb stones and paving slabs. These examples can
lead not only to a strained back and pulled muscles but also to trapped fingers and toes.
This indicates the need for strong gloves and safety footwear.
MANUAL HANDLING ASSESSMENTS
The Regulations specify four main factors which must be taken into account during the assessment. These are the task,
the load, the working environment and the capability of the individual who is expected to do the lifting. The task
should be analysed in detail so that all aspects of manual handling are covered including the use of mechanical
assistance. The number of people involved and the cost of the task should also be considered. Some or all of the
following questions are relevant to most manual handling tasks:

 Is the load held or manipulated at a distance from the trunk? The further from the trunk, the more difficult
it is to control the load and the stress imposed on the back is greater.
 Is a satisfactory body posture being adopted? Feet should be firmly on the ground and slightly apart and there
should be no stooping or twisting of the trunk. It should not be necessary to reach upwards, as this will place
additional stresses on the arms, back and shoulders. The effect of these risk factors is significantly increased
if several are present while the task is being performed.
 Are there excessive distances to carry or lift the load? Over distances greater than 10 m, the physical demands
of carrying the load will dominate the operation. The frequency of lifting and the vertical and horizontal
distances the load needs to be carried (particularly if it has to be lifted from the ground and/or placed on a
high shelf) are very important considerations
 Is there excessive pulling and pushing of the load? The state of floor surfaces and the footwear of the individual
should be noted so that slips and trips may be avoided.
 Is there a risk of a sudden movement of the load? The load may be restricted or jammed in some way.
 Is frequent or prolonged physical effort required? Frequent and prolonged tasks can lead to fatigue and a
greater risk of injury.
 Are there sufficient rest or recovery periods? Breaks and/or the changing of tasks enables the body to recover
more easily from strenuous activity.
 Is there an imposed rate of work on the task? This is a particular problem with some automated production
lines and can be addressed by spells on other operations away from the line.

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  Are the loads being handled while the individual is seated? In these cases, the legs are not used during the
lifting processes and stress is placed on the arms and back.
 Does the handling involve two or more people? The handling capability of an individual reduces when he/she
becomes a member of a team (e.g. for a three-person team, the capability is half the sum of the individual
capabilities). Visibility, obstructions and the roughness of the ground must all be considered when team
handling takes place.
The load must be carefully considered during the assessment and the following questions asked:

 Is the load too heavy? The maximum load that an individual can lift will depend on the capability of the
individual and the position of the load relative to the body. There is therefore no safe load. Figure 1c.3 is
reproduced from the HSE guidance, which does give some advice on loading levels. It recommends that loads
in excess of 25 kg should not be lifted or carried by a man (and this is only permissible when the load is at
the level of and adjacent to the thighs). For women, the guideline figures should be reduced by about one-
third.
 Is the load too bulky or unwieldy? In general, if any dimension of the load exceeds 0.75 m (c. 2 ft.), its
handling is likely to pose a risk of injury. Visibility around the load is important. It may hit obstructions or
become unstable in windy conditions. The position of the centre of gravity is very important for stable lifting
– it should be as close to the body as possible.
 Is the load difficult to grasp? Grip difficulties will be caused by slippery surfaces, rounded corners or a lack
of foot room.
 Are the contents of the load likely to shift? This is a particular problem when the load is a container full of
smaller items, such as a sack full of nuts and bolts. The movements of people (in a nursing home) or animals
(in a veterinary surgery) are loads which fall into this category.
 Is the load sharp, hot or cold? Personal protective equipment may be required.

Fig. 1c.3 HSE guidance for manual lifting – recommended weights

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 The working environment in which the manual handling operation is to take place must be considered during the
assessment. The following areas will need to be assessed:
 any space constraints which might inhibit good posture. Such constraints include lack of headroom,
narrow walkways and items of furniture;
 slippery, uneven or unstable floors;
 variations in levels of floors or work surfaces, possibly requiring the use of ladders;
 extremes of temperature and humidity.
 ventilation problems or gusts of wind;
 poor lighting conditions.
Finally, the capability of the individual to lift or carry the load must be assessed. The following questions will
need to be asked:

 Does the task require unusual characteristics of the individual (e.g. strength or height)? It is important to
remember that strength and general manual handling ability depends on age, gender, state of health and
fitness.
 Are employees who might reasonably be considered to be pregnant or to have a health problem put at
risk by the task? Particular care should be taken to protect pregnant women or those who have recently
 given birth from handling loads. Allowance should also be given to any employee who has a health
problem, which could be exacerbated by manual handling.
The assessment must be reviewed if there is reason to suspect that it is no longer valid or there has been a significant
change to the manual handling operations to which it relates.
REDUCING THE RISK OF INJURY
This involves the introduction of control measures resulting from the manual handling risk assessment. The guidance
to the Regulations (L23) and the HSE publication Manual Handling – Solutions You Can Handle (HSG115) contain
many ideas to reduce the risk of injury from manual handling operations. An ergonomic approach is generally required
to design and develop the manual handling operation as a whole. The control measures can be grouped under five
headings. However, the first consideration, when it is reasonably practicable, is mechanical assistance.
The task can be improved by changing the layout of the workstation by, for example, storing frequently used loads at
waist level. The removal of obstacles and the use of a better lifting technique that relies on the leg rather than back
muscles should be encouraged. When pushing, the hands should be positioned correctly. The work routine should also
be examined to see whether job rotation is being used as effectively as it could be. Special attention should be paid to
seated manual handlers to ensure that loads are not lifted from the floor while they are seated. Employees should be
encouraged to seek help if a difficult load is to be moved so that a team of people can move the load. Adequate and
suitable personal protective equipment should be provided where there is a risk of loss of grip or injury. Care must be
taken to ensure that the clothing does not become a hazard in itself (e.g. the snagging of fasteners and pockets).
The load should be examined to see whether it could be made lighter, smaller or easier to grasp or manage. This could
be achieved by splitting the load, the positioning of handholds or a sling, or ensuring that the centre of gravity is
brought closer to the handler’s body. Attempts should be made to make the load more stable and any surface hazards,
such as slippery deposits or sharp edges, should be removed. It is very important to ensure that any improvements do
not, inadvertently, lead to the creation of additional hazards.
The working environment can be improved in many ways. Space constraints should be removed or reduced. Floors
should be regularly cleaned and repaired when damaged. Adequate lighting is essential and working at more than one
level should be minimised so that hazardous ladder work is avoided. Attention should be given to the need for suitable
temperatures and ventilation in the working area.
The capability of the individual is the fifth area where control measures can be applied to reduce the risk of injury.
The state of health of the employee and his/her medical record will provide the first indication as to whether the
BLD 312 Construction Technology I Lecture Note 1 Page 21
individual is capable of undertaking the task. A period of sick leave or a change of job can make an individual vulnerable
to manual handling injury. The Regulations require that the employee be given information and training. The
information includes the provision, where it is reasonably practicable to do so, of precise information on the weight of
each load and the heaviest side of any load whose centre of gravity is not centrally positioned. In a more detailed risk
assessment, other factors will need to be considered such as the effect of personal protective equipment and
psychosocial factors in the work organisation. The following points may need to be assessed:

 Does protective clothing hinder movement or posture?

 Is the correct personal protective equipment being worn?
 Is proper consideration given to the planning and scheduling of rest breaks?
 Is there good communication between managers and employees during risk assessment or workstation design?
 Is there a mechanism in place to deal with sudden changes in the volume of workload?
 Have employees been given sufficient training and information?
 Does the worker have any learning disabilities and, if so, has this been taken into account in the assessment?
An example of a manual handling assessment in construction would be the moving of a rolled steel joist (RSJ) beam.
The assessment would need to consider the weight of the beam, the distance that it needed to be carried and the vertical
height of the required lift. Other factors would include the condition of the floor and the space available to manoeuvre
the beam into its final position.
Recent amendments to the Manual Handling Operations Regulations have emphasised that a worker may be at risk if
he/she:

 is physically unsuited to carry out the tasks in question;

 is wearing unsuitable clothing, footwear or other personal effects;
 does not have adequate or appropriate knowledge or training.
The HSE have developed a Manual Handling Assessment Chart (MAC) tool to help the user identify high-risk
workplace manual handling activities and the assessment of common risks associated with lifting, carrying and handling.
The tool can be used to assess the risks posed by lifting, carrying and team manual handling activities. It incorporates
a numerical and a colour coding score system to highlight high-risk manual handling tasks. There are three types of
assessment that can be carried out with the MAC:
1. lifting operations; 2. carrying operations; 3. team handling operations.
The MAC is available on the HSE website.

MANUAL HANDLING TRAINING

Training alone will not reduce manual handling injuries – there still need to be safe systems of work in place and the
full implementation of the control measures highlighted in the manual handling assessment. The following topics
should be addressed in a manual handling training session:

 types of injuries associated with manual handling activities;

 the findings of the manual handling assessment;
 the recognition of potentially hazardous manual handling operations;
 the correct use of mechanical handling aids;
 the correct use of personal protective equipment;
 features of the working environment which aid safety in manual handling operations;
 good housekeeping issues;
 factors which affect the capability of the individual;

BLD 312 Construction Technology I Lecture Note 1 Page 22

  good lifting or manual handling technique as shown in Figure 1c.4.
The ‘good handling technique’ given in the Guidance on the Manual Handling Operations Regulations (L23) advises:

 think before you lift;

 keep the load close to your waist;
 adopt a stable position;
 ensure a good hold on the load;
 at the start of the lift, moderate flexion (slight bending) of the back, hips and knees is preferable to fully
flexing the back (stooping) or the hips and knees (squatting);
 don’t flex your spine any further as you lift;
 avoid twisting the trunk or leaning sideways, especially while the back is bent;
 keep your head up when handling;
 move smoothly;
 don’t lift more than you can easily manage; and
 put down then adjust.
Finally, it needs to be stressed that if injuries involving manual handling operations are to be avoided, planning, control
and effective supervision are essential.

Fig. 1c.4 The main elements of a good lifting technique

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