Unit 3

The Data Link Layer

The Data Link Layer

The Data Link Layer is the second layer of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model, positioned above
the Physical Layer and below the Network Layer

It is responsible for providing a reliable communication link over a physical medium and ensuring that data is
delivered error-free between devices on the same network segment
The Data Link Layer

The Data Link Layer is the second layer of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model, positioned above
the Physical Layer and below the Network Layer

It is responsible for providing a reliable communication link over a physical medium and ensuring that data is
delivered error-free between devices on the same network segment
Functions of The Data Link Layer

● Framing
● Addressing
● Error Detection and Correction
● Flow Control
● Access Control
Framing

Description:

● Framing involves breaking the data stream from the Network Layer into manageable frames for
transmission over the network.
● Each frame typically includes a header and trailer that delineate the boundaries of the frame.
Framing

Importance:

● Framing helps in synchronization, allowing the receiver to identify the start and end of each frame.
● It ensures that data is organized into discrete units for transmission, making it easier to handle and
interpret.
Addressing

Description:

● The Data Link Layer adds addressing information to the frame, including source and destination
addresses.
● These addresses are typically MAC (Media Access Control) addresses.
● In the header, the source and the destination MAC address are dealt
Addressing

Importance:

● Addressing enables devices on a network to identify each other

● The source address indicates the sender, while the destination address ensures that the frame
reaches the intended recipient
● MAC addresses are crucial for addressing at the Data Link Layer
Error Detection and Correction

Description:

● The Data Link Layer includes mechanisms for error detection and, in some cases, error correction.

● Techniques like checksums, CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check), and parity bits are used to identify
errors.
Error Detection and Correction

Importance:

● Error detection and correction enhance the reliability of communication

● When errors are detected, the receiver can request retransmission of corrupted frames or take
corrective measures based on the error detection method employed
Flow Control

Description:

● Flow control mechanisms manage the rate of data transmission between two connected devices to
prevent data loss or buffer overflow

● Speed matching mechanism

● Techniques include buffering, acknowledgments, and windowing

Flow Control

Importance:

● Flow control ensures that a fast sender does not overwhelm a slower receiver.
● By regulating the rate of data flow, it prevents data loss due to speed mismatches and optimizes the
use of network resources.
Access Control

Description:

● Access control regulates access to the shared communication medium in shared network
environments.

● It prevents multiple devices from attempting to transmit data simultaneously, avoiding collisions.
Access Control

Importance:

● Access control is crucial for preventing data corruption due to collisions.

● Techniques like Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) are used to
coordinate access to the communication medium, especially in Ethernet networks.
Data Link Control

Data Link Control (DLC) is a subset of functions within the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.

DLC provides three fundamental services:

● Framing
● Flow control
● Error control
Data Link Control

● Data Link Control provides essential services in the Data Link Layer to ensure reliable and efficient
communication between devices on a network

● Framing helps in organizing and delineating data, flow control prevents congestion and data loss, and
error control ensures the accuracy and integrity of transmitted data

● These functions collectively contribute to the successful and secure exchange of information
between network devices
Framing

Purpose:

● Framing is the process of breaking a stream of bits into manageable frames for transmission over the
network.
● It defines how the beginning and end of each frame are identified
Framing

How it works:

● The sender adds special bit patterns or characters at the beginning and end of each frame to mark its
boundaries

● The receiver uses these markers to identify and extract the frames from the bitstream

Importance:

● Framing is crucial for synchronization and proper interpretation of the data at the receiving end
Flow Control

Purpose:

● Flow control manages the rate of data transmission between the sender and receiver to prevent the
receiver from being overwhelmed by a fast sender.

How it works:

● Flow control mechanisms include techniques such as buffering, acknowledgments, and windowing.
● These methods ensure that the sender doesn't transmit data at a rate that exceeds the receiver's
capacity.
Flow Control

Importance:

● Flow control prevents data loss and congestion in the network, optimizing the use of resources.
Error Control

Purpose:

● Error control ensures the integrity of data during transmission by detecting and correcting errors that
may occur in the communication process.

How it works:

● Error Detection: Parity bits, checksums, and cyclic redundancy checks (CRC) are commonly used to
detect errors in frames.
● Error Correction: Forward Error Correction (FEC) and Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ) are methods
employed to correct errors. ARQ involves retransmitting frames that are detected as erroneous.
Error Control

Importance:

● Error control is vital for maintaining data integrity, especially over unreliable communication channels.
High level Data link Control (HDLC)

High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a bit-oriented, synchronous data link layer protocol defined by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in its standards ISO/IEC 13239.

It offers reliable and versatile communication over point-to-point and multipoint links.
High level Data link Control (HDLC)

Frame Structure: HDLC frames consist of a header and trailer that encapsulate the data being transmitted.
The frame structure helps in the synchronization and organization of data.

Address Field: HDLC frames can include an address field, although it is often not used in point-to-point
configurations. In multipoint configurations, the address field helps identify the source and destination
stations.

Control Field: The control field contains information about the type of frame and the control functions, such
as supervisory, unnumbered, or information frames. It helps manage the flow of data and control the
reliability of the communication.
High level Data link Control (HDLC)

Information Field: This is where the actual data payload is carried. The length of the information field can
vary, and it contains the user data to be transmitted.

Frame Check Sequence (FCS): The FCS is a field in the HDLC frame that contains a checksum or cyclic
redundancy check (CRC) to detect errors in the transmitted frame. It helps ensure the integrity of the data
during transmission.

Bit Stuffing: HDLC uses a technique called bit stuffing to ensure that the frame structure is maintained, even
when there are long sequences of consecutive bits with the same value. This helps in maintaining
synchronization between the sender and receiver.
Point to Point Protocol

Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a data link layer (Layer 2) protocol used to establish a direct connection
between two network nodes.

It is commonly used in dial-up connections and dedicated point-to-point links, providing a standard method
for the encapsulation and transmission of network-layer protocols over different physical mediums.

PPP is defined in several RFCs (Request for Comments), including RFC 1661 and RFC 1662.
Channel Allocation Problem
● The channel allocation problem in the data link layer is a concern in computer networking, particularly
in networks where multiple devices need to share the same communication medium

● This problem is more prevalent in wireless networks or shared physical media, like in Ethernet
networks
Concepts related to Channel Allocation
Problem
Multiplexing

● Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):

○ This technique divides the available frequency spectrum into multiple non-overlapping
frequency bands, and each device is assigned a unique frequency band
○ FDM is commonly used in wired communication
○ Imagine the road is divided into different lanes. Each device (car) gets its own lane, and they
can communicate without interfering with each other
Concepts related to Channel Allocation
Problem
Multiplexing

● Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):

○ In TDM, the available time is divided into fixed-size time slots, and each device is allocated a
specific time slot.
○ TDM is often used in both wired and wireless communication
○ Think of the road having specific time slots. Each device gets its own time slot to use the road.
They take turns, ensuring that only one device uses the channel at a given time
Concepts related to Channel Allocation
Problem
Multiple Access Protocols

● Random Access Protocols:

○ are a class of network protocols in the data link layer that allow multiple devices to contend for
access to a shared communication channel

○ The key characteristic of these protocols is that devices do not have a fixed schedule for
accessing the channel; instead, they make attempts to transmit data randomly

○ Devices share the road and can use it whenever they want. But, before sending data, they
"listen" to check if the road is clear. If it's busy, they wait for a random time before trying again.
Types of Random Access Protocols

ALOHA

● ALOHA is a computer networking protocol used for communication between multiple devices over a
shared communication channel

● It was developed at the University of Hawaii in the 1960s for the ALOHAnet, which was one of the
earliest computer networks
Types of Random Access Protocols

Pure ALOHA

● In Pure ALOHA, any device can transmit data at any time without checking for the availability of the
channel

● After transmitting a frame, the sender waits for an acknowledgment (ACK) from the receiver

● If the sender receives an ACK within a certain time window, it assumes that the transmission was
successful. If no ACK is received, it assumes a collision occurred, and it retries the transmission after
a random backoff time
Types of Random Access Protocols

Pure ALOHA

● Imagine people talking in a group without any order. Anyone can speak up whenever they have
something to say

● If two people start talking at the same time (a collision), they wait for a random moment and then try
again
Types of Random Access Protocols

Slotted ALOHA

● Slotted ALOHA introduces a time slot mechanism to improve efficiency

● The time is divided into discrete slots, and each device is only allowed to transmit at the beginning of a time
slot

● This reduces the chances of collisions compared to Pure ALOHA because transmissions are synchronized to
the time slots
Types of Random Access Protocols

Slotted ALOHA
● Picture the group discussion being organized into time slots. People can only talk at the beginning of
a slot.
● This reduces the chance of collisions compared to Pure ALOHA, making it more efficient
Types of Random Access Protocols

Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

● Devices listen to the channel before transmitting to check if it's busy. If the channel is clear, they transmit;
if it's busy, they wait for a random amount of time before attempting again
● CSMA/CD (Collision Detection): Used in Ethernet networks. If a collision is detected while transmitting,
devices stop transmitting and initiate a backoff period before retrying
Types of Random Access Protocols

Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

● Think of people checking if others are talking before speaking in a group

● If the "channel" (the group discussion) is quiet, they talk. If someone else is talking, they wait for a bit and try
again later
Types of Random Access Protocols

CSMA/CD (Collision Detection)

● Similar to CSMA, but with an added feature: people can hear if someone else is talking at the same time.

● If a collision is detected (two people talking simultaneously), they stop talking, wait for a random time, and
then try again.
Types of Random Access Protocols

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)

● Commonly used in wireless networks.

● Devices listen before transmitting and send a short request to transmit (RTS) to reserve the channel. If the
channel is clear, the actual data transmission (CTS) follows.
Control Access Protocols

● Controlled Access Protocols are a class of network protocols in the data link layer that
provide a more organized and controlled approach to channel access compared to
random access protocols

● Unlike random access, where devices contend for access to the communication
channel, controlled access protocols employ mechanisms to regulate and coordinate
which device can transmit data at a given time
Types of Control Access Protocols

Reservation based Protocols

● Devices explicitly request permission to transmit before actually sending data.

● A central authority or coordinator grants time slots or permissions to devices,

ensuring an organized use of the channel
Types of Control Access Protocols

Reservation based Protocols

● Analogy: Imagine students raising their hands to ask the teacher for permission before speaking.

● Example: In a reservation-based protocol, devices request permission to transmit before actually

sending data. Wi-Fi networks often use a form of reservation to access the channel.
Types of Control Access Protocols

Polling
● A central controller, often referred to as a "master" or "polling station," queries devices one by one to
check if they have data to transmit

● Only the device being polled is allowed to transmit during its turn, reducing the chances of collisions
Types of Control Access Protocols

Polling
● Analogy: The teacher goes around the room, asking each student if they have something to say.

● Example: In polling, a central controller checks each device in a specific order to see if it has data to
transmit. This is commonly used in Bluetooth communication.
Types of Control Access Protocols

Token Passing
● Devices pass a special token or permission to transmit in a predefined order
● Only the device holding the token is allowed to transmit, ensuring fair and controlled access to the
channel
Types of Control Access Protocols

Token Passing
● Analogy: Imagine a special object (like a talking stick) that students must hold to speak.
● Example: In token passing, devices pass a special token, and only the device holding the token
is allowed to transmit. This approach is used in Token Ring networks
Channelization Protocols

● Channelization Protocols in multi-access communication refer to techniques that divide a

communication channel into distinct segments, allowing multiple devices to share the overall
bandwidth without interfering with each other
● These protocols help organize and allocate the channel efficiently.
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

Analogy: Think of a radio tuner where different stations operate on different frequencies.

FDMA divides the available frequency spectrum into separate frequency bands

Each device is allocated a unique frequency band, and they transmit data simultaneously without
interfering with devices on other frequency bands
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

Analogy: Imagine a shared playground where different kids take turns using the swing.

TDMA divides the communication channel into discrete time slots

Each device is assigned a specific time slot during which it can transmit data

Devices take turns using the channel, reducing the chance of collisions
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Analogy: Think of a library where people can speak quietly, and each person speaks a unique language
that others don't understand.

CDMA allows multiple devices to transmit simultaneously over the same frequency band

Each device uses a unique code to modulate its signal, and a receiver with the corresponding code can
pick up the intended transmission, while others see it as noise
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Analogy: Think of a library where people can speak quietly, and each person speaks a unique language
that others don't understand.

CDMA allows multiple devices to transmit simultaneously over the same frequency band

Each device uses a unique code to modulate its signal, and a receiver with the corresponding code can
pick up the intended transmission, while others see it as noise
Ethernet Cable

Ethernet cables come in various types, each designed for specific purposes and network requirements.

The most common Ethernet cable types are categorized by their different categories (Cat) or
standards.
Category 5e (Cat5e)

Data Rate: Cat5e cables support data rates up to 1000 Mbps (1 Gbps).

Applications: Suitable for Gigabit Ethernet and commonly used in home networks and small to
medium-sized businesses.
Category 6 (Cat6)

Data Rate: Cat6 cables support data rates up to 10 Gbps.

Applications: Ideal for 10 Gigabit Ethernet, Cat6 cables are often used in environments requiring
higher bandwidth, such as larger offices and data centers.
Category 6a (Cat6a)

Data Rate: Cat6a cables also support data rates up to 10 Gbps.

Applications: Cat6a provides additional shielding, allowing for better performance and reduced
crosstalk. It is suitable for high-performance applications and environments with electromagnetic
interference concerns.
Category 7(Cat7)

Data Rate: Cat7 cables support data rates up to 10 Gbps and even up to 100 Gbps over short
distances.

Applications: Cat7 cables offer better shielding and reduced crosstalk, making them suitable for
high-performance data centers and environments with demanding networking requirements.
Category 8(Cat8)

Data Rate: Cat8 cables support data rates up to 25 or 40 Gbps over short distances.

Applications: Primarily used for data center and enterprise applications, Cat8 provides high
performance and reduced crosstalk.
Choosing the right cable

For basic home networks and small businesses, Cat5e or Cat6 cables are often sufficient

For demanding applications, such as high-performance data centers or 10 Gigabit Ethernet

networks, Cat6a, Cat7, or Cat8 cables may be preferable
Ethernet Standards

Ethernet (IEEE 802.3):

● Overview: The original Ethernet standard, commonly known as IEEE 802.3, operates over
coaxial cables and uses a bus topology
● Data Rates: Ethernet initially had a data rate of 10 Mbps (Ethernet 10Base-T). Later,
advancements led to the development of Fast Ethernet (100Base-T) and Gigabit Ethernet
(1000Base-T) with increased data rates
Ethernet Standards

Fast Ethernet (IEEE 802.3u):

● Overview: Fast Ethernet was introduced to provide a tenfold increase in data rates compared to
traditional Ethernet, supporting speeds of 100 Mbps.
● Cabling: Fast Ethernet can use the same cabling as traditional Ethernet, such as Category 5 twisted
pair cables.
Ethernet Standards

Gigabit Ethernet (IEEE 802.3z):

● Overview: Gigabit Ethernet further increased data rates to 1000 Mbps (1 Gbps), providing higher
performance for bandwidth-intensive applications.
● Cabling: Gigabit Ethernet often requires higher-grade cabling, such as Category 5e or Category 6.
Ethernet Standards

10 Gigabit Ethernet (IEEE 802.3ae):

● Overview: 10 Gigabit Ethernet extends Ethernet capabilities to 10 Gbps, suitable for high-performance
computing and data center applications.
● Cabling: Depending on the specific standard (e.g., 10GBase-T or 10GBase-SR), different cabling types
may be used.
Ethernet Standards

Power over Ethernet (PoE):

● Overview: PoE allows the transmission of electrical power alongside data on Ethernet cabling. It's
commonly used to power devices like IP cameras, VoIP phones, and wireless access points.
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is like a super-fast, reliable highway for data in computer networks.

Imagine your computer is like a car, and it needs to send data to other computers

FDDI is the high-speed road (or fiber optic cable) where these cars can travel really quickly and smoothly
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)

High-Speed Data Highway: FDDI is a technology that lets computers send and receive data at very high
speeds. It's like having a special road just for data that can handle a lot of traffic

Fiber Optic Cables: Instead of using regular metal cables, FDDI uses special cables made of glass or plastic
threads called fiber optics. These cables allow data to travel really fast using light signals

Double Ring System: FDDI uses a clever setup called a "double ring." It's like having two lanes on the highway
going in opposite directions. If there's a problem or a car (data) needs to pass another, it can use the second
lane
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)

Token Passing: FDDI uses a system called "token passing" to control how computers take turns sending
data. It's like having a special token that a computer needs to hold to speak. When a computer has the token,
it can send its data, ensuring that everyone gets a fair chance.

Reliability: FDDI is designed to be really reliable. If there's a break or problem in one part of the cable, the
data can still travel the other way using the second lane, ensuring a smooth flow of information.
Wireless LAN: IEEE 802.11x and Bluetooth
Standards
Wireless LAN (Local Area Network) technologies enable devices to communicate without physical cable.

Two widely used standards for wireless communication are IEEE 802.11 (commonly known as Wi-Fi) and
Bluetooth
Wireless LAN: IEEE 802.11x and Bluetooth
Standards
Wi-Fi, based on the IEEE 802.11 family of standards, is a set of protocols for wireless communication. The
"x" in 802.11x represents different versions and amendments within the family

IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n/ac/ax

● a, b, g, n, ac, ax: These letters and numbers represent different versions or amendments to the original
802.11 standard, each introducing improvements in data rates, range, and other features.

● Data Rates: The latest standards, like 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6), support higher data rates, improved
efficiency, and better performance in crowded environments.
Wireless LAN: IEEE 802.11x and Bluetooth
Standards
Frequency Bands

● Wi-Fi operates in both the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz frequency bands
● Dual-band routers support both, offering flexibility and reduced interference

Modes of Operation

● Wi-Fi supports different modes, including Infrastructure mode (connecting devices to a central access
point) and Ad-hoc mode (peer-to-peer connections between devices)
Wireless LAN: IEEE 802.11x and Bluetooth
Standards
Security:

Wi-Fi standards have evolved to include various security protocols, such as WEP, WPA, and WPA2/WPA3, to
protect wireless communications from unauthorized access.

Applications:

Wi-Fi is widely used for connecting devices like laptops, smartphones, tablets, smart TVs, and IoT devices to
the internet and local networks.
Bluetooth

Bluetooth is a wireless communication standard designed for short-range connections between devices

It's commonly used for connecting peripherals and devices in close proximity.
Bluetooth

Bluetooth Versions:

Bluetooth 1.x, 2.x, 3.x, 4.x, 5.x: Each version introduces enhancements in data rates, range, and power efficiency.

Frequency Band:

Bluetooth operates in the 2.4 GHz frequency band.

Connection Range:

Bluetooth typically has a shorter range compared to Wi-Fi, making it suitable for connecting devices within close
proximity (typically within 10 meters).
Bluetooth

Power Efficiency:

Bluetooth is designed to be power-efficient, making it suitable for battery-powered devices like wireless headphones, keyboards, and
smartwatches.

Bluetooth Classic and Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE):

Bluetooth Classic is used for data-intensive applications, while Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) is designed for power-efficient, intermittent data
transfer, making it ideal for IoT devices and wearables.

Applications:

Bluetooth is commonly used for connecting devices like wireless headphones, speakers, keyboards, mice, fitness trackers, and smart home devices.
Token Bus

Definition: Token bus is a network topology and protocol that uses a token-passing mechanism for managing
access to the network.

Token Passing: In a token bus network, a special data packet called a "token" circulates around the network.
Only the device that holds the token has the right to transmit data.

Topology: Token bus typically employs a physical bus topology where all devices are connected to a single
communication channel.
Token Ring

Definition: Token Ring is another network topology and protocol that uses a token-passing approach.

Topology: In a Token Ring network, devices are connected in a physical or logical ring. The token circulates
around the ring, and only the device that holds the token can send data.

Advantages: Token Ring networks were known for their deterministic behavior and reliability, but they have
become less common with the widespread adoption of Ethernet.
VLAN

A VLAN is a logical segmentation of a network into smaller, isolated broadcast domains. It allows network
administrators to group devices together even if they are not physically connected, creating separate broadcast
domains.

Benefits:

Security: VLANs enhance security by isolating broadcast traffic. Devices in one VLAN usually cannot
communicate directly with devices in another VLAN without routing.

Flexibility: VLANs provide flexibility in network design, allowing administrators to logically group devices based
on function, department, or other criteria.

Traffic Management: VLANs can be used to manage and control network traffic more effectively.