Basic Electronics

Electronics
What is Electronics?
Electronics
What is Electronics?
• electronics is the branch of science that studies the use of circuits
formed by electrical and electronic components, with the main
objective of representing, storing, transmitting, or processing
information beyond the control of processes and servomechanisms.

• it can also be said that the internal circuits of the computers,

telecommunications systems, the various types of sensors and
transducers are all within the area of interest of electronics. It is
divided into analog and digital because its work coordinates choose
to obey.
The history of electronics
The vacuum tube era

• What is the Vacuum Tube?

The Vacuum Tube

Electron tube, also known as the vacuum tube, is a component used in

electrical circuits to regulate the flow of electrons. It typically consists of a
sealed glass or metal-ceramic enclosure. The conversion of an alternating
current (AC) into direct current (DC), the generation of oscillating
radio-frequency (RF) power for radio and radar, and the creation of images
on a television or computer monitor are among the main uses of vacuum
tubes. Magnetrons, klystrons, gyrotrons, cathode-ray tubes (like the
thyratron), photoelectric cells (also known as phototubes), neon, and
fluorescent lamps are examples of common electron tube types.
In late 1950s
Vacuum tubes were used in virtually every kind of electronic device—computers, radios,
transmitters, components of high-fidelity sound systems, and so on.

After World War II the transistor was perfected, and solid-state devices (based
on semiconductors) came to be used in all applications at low power and low frequency.

The common conception at first was that solid-state technology would rapidly render the
electron tube obsolete. Such has not been the case, however, for each technology has come
to dominate a particular frequency and power range. The higher power levels (hundreds of
watts) and frequencies (above 8 gigahertz [GHz]) are dominated by electron tubes and the
lower levels by solid-state devices. High power levels have always been required for radio
transmitters, radar systems, and implements of electronic warfare, and microwave
communications systems may require power levels of hundreds of watts. Power in these
cases is frequently provided by klystrons, magnetrons, and traveling-wave tubes. Extremely
high average power levels—several megawatts at frequencies above 60 GHz—are achieved
by gyrotrons; these are used primarily for deep-space radars, microwave weapons, and
drivers for high-energy particle accelerators.
• Early transistors were produced
using germanium as the
semiconductor material, because
methods of purifying it to the
required degree had been
developed during and shortly
after World War II. Because the
electrical properties of
semiconductors are extremely
sensitive to the slightest trace of
certain other elements, only
about one part per billion of such
elements can be tolerated in
material to be used for making
semiconductor devices.
The semiconductor revolution
• The invention of the transistor in 1947 by John Bardeen, Walter H.
Brattain, and William B. Shockley of the Bell research staff provided
the first of a series of new devices with remarkable potential for
expanding the utility of electronic equipment. Transistors, along with
such subsequent developments as integrated circuits, are made of
crystalline solid materials called semiconductors, which have
electrical properties that can be varied over an extremely wide range
by the addition of minuscule quantities of other elements. The
electric current in semiconductors is carried by electrons, which have
a negative charge, and also by “holes,” analogous entities that carry a
positive charge. The availability of two kinds of charge carriers in
semiconductors is a valuable property exploited in many electronic
devices made of such materials.
• During the late 1950s, research on the purification of silicon succeeded in
producing material suitable for semiconductor devices, and new devices
made of silicon were manufactured from about 1960. Silicon quickly
became the preferred raw material, because it is much more abundant
than germanium and thus less expensive. In addition, silicon retains its
semiconducting properties at higher temperatures than does germanium.
Silicon diodes can be operated at temperatures up to 200 °C (400 °F),
whereas germanium diodes cannot be operated above 85 °C (185 °F).
There was one other important property of silicon, not appreciated at the
time but crucial to the development of low-cost transistors and integrated
circuits: silicon, unlike germanium, forms a tenaciously adhering oxide film
with excellent electrical insulating properties when it is heated to high
temperatures in the presence of oxygen. This film is utilized as a mask to
permit the desired impurities that modify the electrical properties of silicon
to be introduced into it during manufacture of semiconductor devices. The
mask pattern, formed by a photolithographic process, permits the creation
of tiny transistors and other electronic components in the silicon.
 Integrated circuits
• By 1960 vacuum tubes were rapidly being
supplanted by transistors, because the latter
had become less expensive, did not burn out
in service, and were much smaller and more
reliable. Computers employed hundreds of
thousands of transistors each. This fact,
together with the need for compact,
lightweight electronic missile-guidance
systems, led to the invention of the integrated
circuit (IC) independently by Jack Kilby of
Texas Instruments Incorporated in 1958 and
by Jean Hoerni and Robert Noyce of Fairchild
Semiconductor Corporation in 1959. Kilby is
usually credited with having developed the
concept of integrating device and circuit
elements onto a single silicon chip, while 8.5 Kilby’s integrated circuit | Bit by Bit
Noyce is given credit for having conceived the
method for integrating the separate elements.
• Early ICs contained about 10 individual components on a silicon chip 3
mm (0.12 inch) square. By 1970 the number was up to 1,000 on a chip
of the same size at no increase in cost. Late in the following year the
first microprocessor was introduced. The device contained all the
arithmetic, logic, and control circuitry required to perform the
functions of a computer’s central processing unit (CPU). This type of
large-scale IC was developed by a team at Intel Corporation, the same
company that also introduced the memory IC in 1971. The stage was
now set for the computerization of small electronic equipment.
The Inventor of Battery
The Inventor of Battery
• Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta - 18
February 1745 – 5 March 1827) was an Italian
physicist, chemist and lay Catholic who was a
pioneer of electricity and power who is credited as
the inventor of the electric battery and the
discoverer of methane. He invented the voltaic pile
in 1799, and reported the results of his experiments
in 1800 in a two-part letter to the president of the
Royal Society. With this invention Volta proved that
electricity could be generated chemically and
debunked the prevalent theory that electricity was
generated solely by living beings. Volta's invention
sparked a great amount of scientific excitement and
led others to conduct similar experiments, which
eventually led to the development of the field of
electrochemistry.
Voltage
• Electric voltage, also known as the potential difference.

• the difference in electrical potential between two points or the

difference in potential electrical energy per electric charge unit
between two points. Its unit of measure is the volt or joules by
coulomb. The potential difference is equal to the work that must be
done per unit of load against an electric field to move any load.
Voltage (Cont)
• It is a physical quantity that drives electrons along a conductor (for
example, a cable) in a closed electrical circuit, causing the flow of an
electric current. Its unit is Volt (V). The instrument used to measure
the voltage is known as a voltmeter.
• A voltmeter can be used to measure the potential difference between
two points in a system, and usually, a common reference point is
earth. Fields can cause electrical voltage by an electric current under
the action of a magnetic field by a variant magnetic field or a
combination of the three.
Electric Current
• Electric current is the orderly flow of electrically charged particles, or
also the displacement of loads within a conductor when there is an
electrical potential difference between the ends. The standard unit in
the International System of Units for measuring current intensity is
ampere. To measure the current, you can use an ammeter. An
electric current, since it is electric, this is a phenomenon that can be
used as an electromagnet, being this the principle of operation of a
motor.
2 types of current
• Direct Current
• Alternate Current
2 types of current
• Direct Current
Direct current, direct current, galvanic current, or direct current (DC) is
the orderly flow of electrons in one direction at a time. This type of
current is generated by car or motorcycle batteries (6, 12 or 24V), small
batteries (usually 9V), batteries (1.2V and 1.5V), dynamos, solar cells
and power supplies of various technologies, which rectify the
alternating current to produce direct current.
• Direct Current ( Cont.)
• It is the continuous flow of electrons through a conductor between two points
of different potential. In the direct current, the electric charges always circulate
in the same direction. It is continuing the current still maintains the same
polarity. In the systematic American standard, the color black corresponds to
the negative and the red to the positive or is symbolized for the positive with
VCC, +, VSS, and for the negative with 0V, -, GND.
• It has usually used for powering electronic devices (between 1.2 V and 24V) and
digital circuits of computer equipment (computers, modems, hubs, etc.). This
type of circuit has a negative pole and a positive pole (is polarized), whose
intensity is maintained. More correctly, the intensity increases at the beginning
to a maximum point, remaining continuous, that is, without changing. When
turned off, it decreases to zero and extinguishes.
• Many devices need direct current to operate on all those that carry electronics
(audiovisual equipment, computers, etc.). For this purpose, power supplies are
used. You can find it in the batteries, batteries, output of the computer
chargers.
2 types of current (Cont.)
Alternate Current
Alternating current (AC) is an electrical current whose direction varies
in time, as opposed to the following of the direct current whose
direction remains constant over time.
The usual waveform in an AC power is sinusoidal for to be the most
efficient form of energy transmission. However, in specific applications,
different waveforms are used, such as triangular or square waves.
While the direct current source consists of the positive and negative
poles of an alternating current is composed of phases (and often
neutral wire).
Alternate Current (Cont.)
• It is the electric current in which the magnitude and direction vary
cyclically. The most commonly used alternating current waveform is
that of a sine wave. The AC voltage is what reaches the electrical
outlets of homes and businesses, and it is very common to find it in
the sockets where our appliances are connected. However, audio and
radio signals transmitted by electric cables are also examples of
alternating current. In these uses, the most important purpose is
usually the transmission and retrieval of the information encoded (or
modulated) on the AC signal.
Alternate Current (Cont.)
• The AC voltage is what reaches the electrical outlets of homes and
businesses, and it is very common to find it in the sockets where our
appliances are connected. However, audio and radio signals
transmitted by electric cables are also examples of alternating
current. In these uses, the most important purpose is usually the
transmission and retrieval of the information encoded (or modulated)
on the AC signal.
Resistance
• Electrical resistance is the capacity of a body to oppose the passage
of electric current even when there is a difference of applied
potential. It is measured in ohms (Ω).

• Resistors are components whose purpose is to offer opposition to

the passage of electric current through its material. We call this
opposition electrical resistance. They cause a voltage drop in the
power supply to a power supply unit may be limited to some part of
an electrical circuit, but it will never cause an electric current drop,
even though the current is limited.
Ampere (A)

The ampere is a basic unit of electric current, often called an "amp". It

is a unit of electrical constant current of one ampere. The ampere is
one of several electrical charge units used to measure the
electromagnetic force between straight parallel conductors carrying
electric current
Milliampere
• A unit of current equal to one thousandth (10−3) of an ampere.
• The milliampere is a multiple of the ampere, which is the SI base unit
for electric current. In the metric system, "milli" is the prefix for 10-3.
A milliampere is sometimes also referred to as a milliamp.
Milliamperes can be abbreviated as mA; for example, 1 milliampere
can be written as 1 mA.

• Note: 1 Ampere = 1000 mA

Ohm's Law
• Ohm's Law states that the current (I) circulating through a given
circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage (V) and inversely
proportional to its resistance (R).
Formula
• To find the Voltage, ( V )
[ V = I x R ] V (volts) = I (amps) x R (Ω)

• To find the Current, ( I )

• [ I = V ÷ R ] I (amps) = V (volts) ÷ R (Ω)

• To find the Resistance, ( R )

• [ R = V ÷ I ] R (Ω) = V (volts) ÷ I (amps)
Example of Voltage, Current, Resistance,
Power Computation
Voltage [ V = I x R ] = 2 x 12Ω
= 24V
Current [ I = V ÷ R ] = 24 ÷ 12Ω
= 2A
Resistance [ R = V ÷ I ] = 24 ÷ 2
= 12 Ω
Power [ P = V x I ] = 24 x 2
= 48W
Electrical Power in Circuits

• Electrical Power, ( P ) in a circuit is the rate at which energy is absorbed or

produced within a circuit. A source of energy such as a voltage will produce
or deliver power while the connected load absorbs it. Light bulbs and
heaters for example, absorb electrical power and convert it into either heat,
or light, or both. The higher their value or rating in watts the more electrical
power they are likely to consume.

• The quantity symbol for power is P and is the product of voltage multiplied
by the current with the unit of measurement being the Watt ( W ). Prefixes
are used to denote the various multiples or sub-multiples of a watt, such as:
milliwatts (mW = 10-3W) or kilowatts (kW = 103W).
Then by using Ohm’s law and substituting for the values of V, I and R the
formula for electrical power can be found as:

• To find the Power (P)

[ P = V x I ] P (watts) = V (volts) x I (amps)

• Also:

[ P = V2 ÷ R ] P (watts) = V2 (volts) ÷ R (Ω)

• Also:

[ P = I2 x R ] P (watts) = I2 (amps) x R (Ω)

Cont.
 James Prescott Joule
• James Prescott Joule (1818–1889) was an English
physicist best known for his work on the relationship
between heat and mechanical work, which led to the
formulation of the law of conservation of energy. He
discovered that energy could be converted from one
form to another, such as mechanical energy into
heat. This principle was foundational to the
development of the first law of thermodynamics.
Joule's most famous experiment involved using an
apparatus that showed how the mechanical work of
turning a paddle wheel in water could generate heat.
His findings were essential in establishing the
concept that energy cannot be created or destroyed,
only transformed. Joule also contributed to the
understanding of electricity and magnetism, and his
name is used as the unit of energy, the "joule" (J), in
his honor.
Joule’s Law
• Joule’s Law is written like so:
• P=I2R – to get the power

• P = (I x I )x R = (0.03A x 0.03A) x100 Ω

• P = 0.09W
Calculating power
• To calculate the power consumption of your circuit in watts, you
multiply the voltage and current of the circuit.
• The equation is P=IxR
• If you apply this equation to the same circuit as the example in the
“Ohm’s Law” section, you can calculate its power:

• P=(VSUPPLY - VFORWARD) x I
• P = (5V-2V)x0.03A
• P = 0.09W
Electronic Components
• Various electronic components join forces to achieve fantastic
applications such as your home TV or computer, inside you go and
find cards with resistors, capacitors, integrated circuits, transistors,
among others.
Microcontroller
A microcontroller is a programmable integrated circuit capable of to
execute the orders recorded in his memory. A microcontroller has
inside it three main functional units:
• central processing unit,
• memory, input,
• and output peripherals.
Microcontroller (Cont.)
• The microcontrollers are different from the processors because,
besides the logical components and usual arithmetic of a
general-purpose microprocessor, the microcontroller integrates
additional elements into its internal structure, such as memory read
and write for data storage, read-only memory for storage of
programs, EEPROMs for permanent data storage, peripheral devices
such as analog / digital converters (ADC), digital-to-analog (DAC)
converters in some cases; and, data input and output interfaces.
Microcontroller (Cont.)
• They are generally used in automation and control of products and
peripherals, such as automotive engine control systems, remote
controls, office and residential machines, toys, supervisory systems,
etc. By reducing the size, cost, and energy consumption, and when
compared to the way of the use of conventional microprocessors,
allied to the ease of application design, along with its low price, the
• microcontrollers are an efficient alternative for controlling many
processes and applications.
Protoboard
• It is a reusable board used to build
prototypes of seamless electronic circuits. A
protoboard is made of perforated plastic
blocks and several thin sheets of copper, tin,
and phosphorus alloy.
Resistor
• It is a component formed by carbon and other resistant elements
used to limit the electric current in a circuit. It opposes the passage of
the current. The maximum current in a resistor is conditioned by the
maximum power that can dissipate your body. This power can be
visually identified from the diameter without another indication
being necessary. The most common values are 0.25 W, 0.5 W, and 1
W.
Thermistor
• The NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient)
thermistor is a temperature-sensitive
semiconductor electronic component used for
control, measurement, or polarization of
electronic circuits. It has a coefficient of
resistance variation that varies negatively as
the temperature increases, i.e., its electrical
resistance decreases with increasing
temperature.
Diode
• It is the simplest type of
semiconductor electronic
component. It is a component that
allows the chain to cross only in one
direction.
Transistor
It is mainly used as an amplifier, an
electrical signal switch, and an electric
rectifier in a circuit. The term comes from
the English transfer resistor (resistor/
transfer resistance), as its inventors knew it.
Capacitor
• The capacitor is an electrical device capable of
storing electrical charges. In electronic circuits,
some components require DC power, while the
power supply is connected to AC power. Solving
this problem is one example of the usefulness of
a capacitor.
• This element is capable of storing electrical
potential energy during a time interval and is
constructed using a uniform electrical field. A
capacitor consists of two conductive parts, called
armatures and insulating material with specific
properties called the dielectric.
LED
• The LED (Light Emitting Diode) is a diode that emits
light when energized. LEDs have many advantages
over incandescent light sources such as lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, smaller size, exceptional
durability, and reliability. The LED has a polarity, an
order of connection. Connecting it upside down will
not work correctly. Check the drawings for a match
between the negative and the positive.
• They are mainly used in microelectronic products,
such as a warning signal. It is also widely used in
panels, curtains, and led tracks. They can be found in
larger sizes, such as some models of traffic lights or
displays.
RGB LED
• An RGB LED is an LED that incorporates
in a single package three LEDs, one red,
one green, and one red, blue. In this
way, it is possible to form thousands of
colors by adjusting each color
individually. The three LED's are joined
by a negative or cathode.
LCD
• A liquid crystal display, or LCD (liquid crystal
display), is a thin panel used to display information
by electronic means, such as text, images, and
videos. An LCD consists of an electrically
controlled light polarizing liquid that is
compressed into cells between two transparent
polarizing blades. Its main features are lightness
and portability. Its low power consumption allows
it to be used in portable equipment, powered by
electronic battery. An LCD can vary the number of
lines and characters per line, the color of the
characters, and the background color, as well as
having or not backlighting. The models with
backlight have better visualization.
Button
• A button, or push button, is used to activate
some function. The buttons are usually
activated by pressing them. A button on an
electronic device often functions as an
electrical switch. There are two contacts
inside, and if it is a normally closed or
normally open device, pressing the button
will activate the opposite function to the one
currently being performed.
Potentiometer
• A potentiometer is a resistance whose value is
variable. In this way, indirectly, you can control
the current intensity that flows through a
circuit if it is connected in parallel, or control
the voltage by connecting it in series. They are
suitable for use as a control element in
electronic devices. You can activate it to vary
the normal operating parameters. An example
is the volume button of a radio.
Photocell
• The LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) is a
resistance whose value in ohms varies
according to the incident light. A photocell
has a low resistance value in the presence
of light and a high value in its absence. It
can be found in various consumer goods,
such as cameras, light meters, radio
clocks, security alarms, or public lighting
systems.
Piezoelectric Transducer
• A piezoelectric transducer is efficient for
detecting vibrations or blows. It can be
used as a sensor by reading the output
voltage. This electroacoustic transducer
can also be used as a small buzzer to
produce a continuous or intermittent
sound or buzz.
DC Motor
The direct current (DC) motor is a machine that
converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy, causing a rotary motion. This direct
current machine is one of the most versatile. Its
easy control of position, pause, and speed
makes it one of the best options in process
control and automation applications. For
example, you can find yourself in the traction of
battery-powered toy cars or on the wheels of a
robot.
Relay
• It is an electromechanical switch used to turn
devices on or off. When a current circulates
through the internal coil, it creates a magnetic
field that attracts one or a series of contacts by
the closing or opening circuits. When the coil
current ceases, the magnetic field also ceases,
causing the connections to return to their original
position.
End