The atom

Question 1

State the main postulates of - Dalton's atomic theory. Explain how the modern atomic theory
contradicted Dalton's atomic theory.

Answer

Postulates of Dalton's atomic theory : Matter consists of particles called - atoms, which are
indivisible & cannot be created or destroyed.

1. Atoms of the same element are alike but differ from atoms of all other elements.
2. Compounds or molecules are formed when atoms combine with other atoms in simple
whole number ratios.
3. An atom is the smallest unit of matter which takes part in a chemical reaction.

Dalton's atomic theory

Atoms are destructible Atoms are indestructible

Atoms are divisible & consist of - protons, Atoms are indivisible & smallest
electrons & neutrons particle of an element.

Atoms of the same element may not be alike as Atoms of the same element are alike in
seen in case of isotopes all respect.

Contradiction :

Sub-atomic particles

Question 2

With reference to the discovery of the structure of an atom, explain in brief - William
Crookes experiment for the discovery of cathode rays, followed by - J.J. Thomsons
experiment pertaining to the constituents of the cathode rays.
State which sub-atomic particle was discovered from his experiment.

Answer

William Crookes Experiment:

William Crookes passed an electric discharge through a discharge tube containing a gas at
low pressure. Blue rays were emitted from the cathode [negative plate] which were called
cathode rays.
J.J. Thompson's Experiment:

In his experiments, J.J. Thomson studied the characteristics and constituents of cathode rays
and observed that the rays have kinetic energy & cast a shadow of an object in their path.
They were deflected by a positively charged plate.

Discovery of electron:

This proved that the cathode rays consisted of negatively charged sub-atomic particles
called electrons.

Question 3

Explain in brief - Goldstein's experiment which led to the discovery of the proton and - Lord
Rutherford's experiment which led to the discovery of the atomic nucleus.

Answer

Goldstein's Experiment:

Goldstein used a modified cathode ray tube with a perforated cathode and observed new type
of rays produced from the anode passing through the hole of the perforated cathode. These
rays were called - Anode rays.

The positive rays were affected by electric & magnetic fields but in a direction opposite to
that of cathode rays.

Goldstein concluded that anode rays or positive rays consist of positively charged particles
called protons.

Lord Rutherford's Experiment:

Lord Rutherford projected alpha particles towards a thin gold foil in the path of the rays.

He observed that most of the alpha particles went straight through the foil but some were
deflected slightly & some by large angles.

He concluded that an atom on the whole is relatively empty but consists of a concentrated
positive mass in the centre which lead to the deflection of the alpha particles. Hence, Lord
Rutherford discovered atomic nucleus.

Question 4

'Electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed orbits or shells called energy levels'. State how
these energy levels are represented.

Answer

The energy levels 1,2,3... are represented by integer 'n' or as K, L, M, N...

Question 5
Draw a neat labeled diagram representing an atom. Name the three sub-atomic particles in the
atom & represent them symbolically showing the mass & charge of each. State where the
sub-atomic particles are present in the atom.

Answer

Below labelled diagram shows the representation of an atom as per the modern atomic
theory:

The three sub-atomic particles in the atom are:

S. Sub-atomic
Symbol
No. particle

1. Proton +1 p1

2. Neutron 0n1

3. Electron -1 e0

Protons and neutrons are found inside the nucleus of the atom. Electrons are distributed
across energy levels outside of the nucleus.

Terms

Question 6

Define the term - 'atomic number' of an atom. If an atom 'A' has an atomic number of -
eleven, state the number of protons & electrons it contains.

Answer
Atomic number of an atom is equal to number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. As
number of electrons = number of protons hence, atomic number is also equal to the number
of electrons in an element.

If atomic number [Z] is 11, the number of electrons = number of protons = 11.

Question 7

Define the term - 'mass number' of an atom. If an atom 'B' has mass number 35 & atomic
number 17, state the number of protons, electrons & neutrons it contains.

Answer

Mass number is equal to the total number of protons & neutrons in the atom of an element.

If,
mass number [A] = 35,
atomic number [Z] = 17 then
number of protons = number of electrons = 17
number of neutrons [n] = A - Z = 35 - 17 = 18 neutrons

Question 8

State why the atomic weight of an element is also termed - relative atomic mass.

Answer

As atomic weight is the number of times, one atom of an element is heavier than the mass of
an atom of hydrogen or 1⁄12 the mass of an atom of carbon, hence, it is also termed as
Relative Atomic Mass.

Question 9

State how electrons are distributed in an atom. Explain in brief the rules which govern their
distribution.

Answer

Electrons revolve around the nucleus in imaginary paths called orbits or shells. Different
Orbits are K shell [first shell, n=1], L shell [second shell, n=2] M, N...... etc.

Rules governing the distribution of electrons are summarized below:

1. The maximum number of electrons in each shell or orbit is determined by the formula
2n2, where n is the number of shell.
K shell, n=1, no. of electrons = 2 x 12 = 2
L shell, n=2, no. of electrons = 2 x 22 = 8
M shell, n=3, no. of electrons = 2 x 32 = 18
2. Electrons are not accommodated in a given shell, unless the inner shells are filled.
Shells are filled in step-wise manner.
 3. The atom's outermost shell needs 2 electrons for stability (duplet rule) if it has only
one shell. If it has multiple shells, it requires 8 electrons (octet rule) in the outermost
shell for stability.

Question 10

If an atom 'A' has atomic number 19 & number 39, state -

(i) Its electronic configuration.

(ii) The number of valence electrons it possesses.

Answer

(i) As atomic number [Z] is 19 so electronic configuration = [2,8,8,1]

(ii) Number of valence electrons = 1

Arrangement of electrons

Question 11

Draw the atomic diagrams of the following elements showing the distribution of - protons,
neutrons & the electrons in the various shells of the atoms.

(a) Carbon - 126C

(b) Oxygen - 168O

(c) Phosphorus - 3115P

(d) Argon - 4018Ar

(e) Calcium - 4020Ca

[The upper number represents the - mass number & the lower number the - atomic number
e.g. calcium - mass number = 40, atomic number = 20]

Answer

(a) Carbon - 126C

(b) Oxygen - 168O

(c) Phosphorus - 3115P

(d) Argon - 4018Ar

(e) Calcium - 4020Ca

Valency

Question 12

'Valency' is the number of hydrogen atoms which can combine with [or displace] one atom of
the element [or radical] forming a compound. With reference to the above definition of
valency, state the valency of chlorine in hydrogen chloride, giving reasons.

Answer

In hydrogen chloride, one atom of hydrogen combines with one atom of chlorine so valency
of chlorine in hydrogen chloride is 1.

Question 13

'Valency' is also the number of electrons - donated or accepted by an atom so as to achieve

stable electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas'. With reference to this definition -

(a) State what is meant by 'stable electronic configuration'.

(b) State why the valency of -

(i) sodium, magnesium & aluminium is: +1, +2 & +3 respectively.

(ii) chlorine, oxygen & nitrogen is: -1, -2 & -3 respectively.

Answer
(a) Stable electronic configuration — The atom's outermost shell needs 2 electrons for
stability (duplet rule) if it has only one shell. If it has multiple shells, it requires 8 electrons
(octet rule) in the outermost shell for stability.

(b) (i) The atoms of sodium, magnesium and aluminium donate 1, 2 and 3 electrons,
respectively, in order to achieve a stable electronic configuration of 8 electrons (octet rule) in
the outermost shell. Hence, their valencies are +1, +2 & +3.

(ii) The atoms of chlorine, oxygen and nitrogen accept 1, 2 and 3 electrons, respectively, in
order to achieve a stable electronic configuration of 8 electrons (octet rule) in the outermost
shell. Hence, their valencies are -1, -2 & -3.

Formation of compounds

Question 14

With reference to formation of compounds from atoms by electron transfer - electrovalency,

state the basic steps in the conversion of sodium & chlorine atoms to sodium & chloride ions
leading to the formation of the compound - sodium chloride.

[electronic configuration of: Na = 2,8,1 & Cl = 2,8,7]

Answer

Formation of compounds from atoms by electron transfer

 Electronic configuration of Na = 2,8,1

 Nearest noble gas = Neon [2,8]

 Na loses one electron from outermost shell to attain stability

 Electronic configuration of Cl = 2,8,7

 Nearest noble gas = Argon [2,8,8]

 Cl gains one electron in outermost shell to attain stability.

Hence, the electron given by Na is gained by Cl, both attain a stable configuration and
sodium chloride is formed.

Objective Type Questions

Question 1

Match the statements in List I with the correct answer from List II.
 List I List II

1. Mass number of an atom is the number of protons and A: Electron

2. The sub-atomic particle with a negligible mass. B: Argon

3. An atom having stable electronic configuration. C: Nitrogen

4. A molecule formed by sharing of electrons [covalency]. D: Sodium

5. A metallic atom having unstable electronic configuration. E: Neutrons

Answer

List I List II

1. Mass number of an atom is the number of protons and E: Neutrons

2. The sub-atomic particle with a negligible mass. A: Electron

3. An atom having stable electronic configuration. B: Argon

4. A molecule formed by sharing of electrons [covalency]. C: Nitrogen

5. A metallic atom having unstable electronic configuration. D: Sodium

Question 2

Select the correct answer from the choice in bracket to complete each sentence:-

1. An element 'X' has six electrons in its outer or valence shell. Its valency is ...............
[+2/-2/-1].

2. An element 'Y' has electronic configuration 2, 8, 6. The element 'Y' is a ...............

[metal/non-metal/noble gas].

3. A ............... [proton/neutron] is a sub-atomic particle with no charge and unit mass.

4. An element Z with zero valency is a ............... [metal/noble gas/non-metal].

5. Magnesium atom with electronic configuration 2, 8, 2 achieves stable electronic

configuration by losing two electrons, thereby achieving stable electronic
configuration of the nearest noble gas ............... [neon/argon].
Answer

1. An element 'X' has six electrons in its outer or valence shell. Its valency is -2.

2. An element 'Y' has electronic configuration 2, 8, 6. The element 'Y' is a non-metal.

3. A neutron is a sub-atomic particle with no charge and unit mass.

4. An element Z with zero valency is a noble gas.

5. Magnesium atom with electronic configuration 2, 8, 2 achieves stable electronic

configuration by losing two electrons, thereby achieving stable electronic
configuration of the nearest noble gas neon.

Question 3

The diagram represents an isotope of hydrogen [H]. Answer the following:

1. Are isotopes atoms of the same element or different elements.

2. Do isotopes have the same atomic number or the same mass number.

3. If an isotope of 'H' has mass no. = 2, how many electrons does it have.

4. If an isotope of 'H' has mass no. = 3, how many neutrons does it have.

5. Which sub-atomic particles in the 3 isotopes of 'H' are the same.

Answer

1. Isotopes are atoms of the same element.

2. Isotopes have same atomic number.

 3. Number of electrons in an isotope of 'H' having mass no. = 2 is 1 as its atomic number
is 1.

4. Number of neutrons in an isotope of 'H' having mass no. [A] = 3 is 2, because, atomic
number [Z] is 1 so number of protons = number of electrons = 1 and number of
neutrons [n] = A - Z = 3 - 1 = 2.

5. Number of electrons and protons are same in the 3 isotopes of 'H' as atomic number is
the same.

Question 4

State the electronic configuration for each of the following:

1. Hydrogen [p = 1].

2. Boron [p = 5]

3. Nitrogen [p = 7].

4. Neon [p = 10]

5. Magnesium [p = 12].

6. Aluminium [p = 13].

7. Sulphur [p = 16].

8. Argon [p = 18].

9. Potassium [p = 19].

10. Calcium [p = 20].

Answer

S. Electronic
Element
No. Configuration

1. Hydrogen [p = 1] 1

2. Boron [p = 5] 2, 3

3. Nitrogen [p = 7] 2, 5

4. Neon [p = 10] 2, 8

5. Magnesium [p = 12] 2, 8, 2
 S. Electronic
Element
No. Configuration

6. Aluminium [p = 13] 2, 8, 3

7. Sulphur [p = 16] 2, 8, 6

8. Argon [p = 18] 2, 8, 8

9. Potassium [p = 19] 2, 8, 8, 1

10. Calcium [p = 20] 2, 8, 8, 2

Question 5

Draw the structure of the following atoms showing the nucleus containing - protons, neutrons
and the orbits with the respective electrons:

1. Lithium [At. no. = 3, Mass no. = 7].

2. Carbon [At. no. = 6, Mass no. = 12].

3. Silicon [At. no. 14, Mass no. = 28].

4. Sodium [At. no. = 11, Mass no. = 23].

5. Isotopes of hydrogen [11H, 12H, 13H]

Answer

1. Lithium [At. no. = 3, Mass no. = 7]

2. Carbon [At. no. = 6, Mass no. = 12]

3. Silicon [At. no. 14, Mass no. = 28]

4. Sodium [At. no. = 11, Mass no. = 23]

5. Isotopes of hydrogen [11H, 12H, 13H]

C1.1 Atomic Structure
Learning Objectives

1. Understand the definition of an element.

2. Learn about the chemical symbols for atoms.
3. Explore the periodic table structure and its significance.
4. Comprehend the basic structure of atoms.

Atoms and Elements

 Atoms:
o Smallest unit of matter.
o Comprise a nucleus (protons and neutrons) and electrons in shells.
o Atoms are indivisible by chemical means.

 Elements:
o Composed of a single type of atom.
o About 100 elements exist naturally.
o Example: Oxygen (OOO), Hydrogen (HHH), and Gold (AuAuAu).

Periodic Table

 Organization:
o Vertical groups contain elements with similar properties.
o Rows are periods, indicating increasing atomic numbers.
  Classification:
o Metals: Left of the "staircase" line (e.g., Sodium (NaNaNa)).
o Non-metals: Right of the staircase (e.g., Sulfur (S).
o Metalloids: Exhibit properties of both metals and non-metals (e.g., Silicon
(Si).

Structure of an Atom

1. Subatomic Particles:
o Protons:
 Positive charge (+1).
 Found in the nucleus.
o Neutrons:
 Neutral charge.
 Found in the nucleus.
o Electrons:
 Negative charge (−1).
 Orbit the nucleus in shells.
2. Atoms are neutral because they contain an equal number of protons and electrons.

C1.2 Chemical Reactions and Equations

Law of Conservation of Mass

 Definition:
o Mass remains constant in chemical reactions.
o The number of atoms remains unchanged.
 Example:
o Calcium carbonate decomposes: CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2( g)

Balancing Chemical Equations

1. Count atoms for each element on both sides of the equation.

2. Adjust coefficients to balance the atoms.
3. Do not change chemical formulas.
4. Include state symbols:
o s: Solid
o l: Liquid
o g: Gas
o aq: Aqueous
C1.3 Separating Mixtures
Techniques

1. Filtration:
o Separates insoluble solids from liquids.
o Example: Sand and water.

2. Crystallization:
o Separates soluble solids by evaporating the liquid.
o Example: Salt crystals from seawater.

3. Distillation:
o Separates liquids with different boiling points.
o Example: Purifying water from saltwater.

4. Fractional Distillation:
o Separates miscible liquids with close boiling points using a fractionating
column.
o Example: Separating ethanol from water.

5. Chromatography:
o Separates substances based on solubility.
o Components travel at different rates on chromatography paper.
o Example: Separating dyes in inks or food coloring.

C1.5 History of the Atom

Early Theories

1. John Dalton (1800s):

o Suggested atoms are tiny, hard spheres.
o Each element consists of unique atoms.
o Atoms rearrange during chemical reactions.

2. J.J. Thomson:
o Discovered the electron.
o Proposed the "Plum Pudding Model":
 Electrons are embedded in a sphere of positive charge.

C1.6 Atomic Numbers and Mass Numbers

Definitions

1. Atomic Number (Z):

o Number of protons in the nucleus.
o Equals the number of electrons in a neutral atom.

2. Mass Number (A):

o Total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
o Formula: Number of neutrons=Mass number−Atomic number\text{Number
of neutrons} = \text{Mass number} - \text{Atomic
number}Number of neutrons=Mass number−Atomic number

Examples

1. Argon (18 AR 40
o Atomic number = 18 (protons and electrons).
o Mass number = 40.
o Neutrons = 40−18=2240 - 18 = 2240−18=22.

2. Lead (82Pb207
o Protons = 82, Electrons = 82.
o Neutrons = 207−82=125

C1.7 Ions, Atoms, and Isotopes

Ions

1. Formed by losing or gaining electrons.

2. Cation:
o Positive ion (more protons than electrons).
o Example: Na+Na^+Na+ (sodium loses 1 electron).
3. Anion:
o Negative ion (more electrons than protons).
o Example: O-2

Isotopes

 Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.

 Example:
o Carbon-12 (6C12 ) vs. Carbon-14 (6C14 )
Atomic Size

1. Atoms are incredibly small

2. A nucleus occupies less than 1/10,000

Practice Questions

1. Define a mixture:
o Two or more substances physically combined but not chemically bonded.
2. Separate a mixture of ethanol and water:
o Use fractional distillation; ethanol (boiling point 78∘C separates before water
(100∘C)
3. Describe chromatography:
o Dissolved substances travel at different rates up a chromatography paper,
separating based on solubility.