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Raspberry Pi Server Essentials

Transform your Raspberry Pi into a server for hosting

websites, games, or even your Bitcoin network

Piotr J. Kula

BIRMINGHAM - MUMBAI
Raspberry Pi Server Essentials

Copyright © 2014 Packt Publishing

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior written
permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embedded in
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Every effort has been made in the preparation of this book to ensure the accuracy
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However, Packt Publishing cannot guarantee the accuracy of this information.

First published: February 2014

Production Reference: 1030214

Published by Packt Publishing Ltd.

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Birmingham B3 2PB, UK.

ISBN 978-1-78328-469-6

www.packtpub.com

Cover Image by Piotr J. Kula ([email protected])

 Credits

Author Project Coordinator

Piotr J. Kula Sageer Parkar

Reviewers Proofreaders
Teemu Lätti Maria Gould
Warren Myers Paul Hindle

Acquisition Editor Indexers

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 About the Author

Piotr J. Kula developed an interest in computers when he was six years old.
He was introduced to the world of technology by his father who came from an
electronics engineering background. Piotr has lived, studied, and gained experience
in three countries. Today, he is a Microsoft Certified Professional and works with
reputed companies offering complex software solutions. In his spare time, he
enjoys working on electrical engineering projects and also enjoys doing some
home improvement projects with his wife.

I want to thank my wife Katarzyna Kula for always supporting me

during my projects.
 About the Reviewers

Teemu Lätti works as a software specialist for Elektrobit (http://elektrobit.com)

in Kajaani, Finland. He has over 15 years of experience as a professional Java and C++
developer. He is specialized in embedded software on different platforms, for example,
Raspberry Pi, Android, and Windows Phone. He has a wide experience in various
software, from device drivers to user interfaces and web development. He hosts a
private web page (http://cupla.net) and builds home automation experiments
with Raspberry Pi and Arduino.

Warren Myers is a Data Center Automation and Management Engineer with seven
years of experience with the HP automation stack. He has an extensive background
and interest in technical arenas. He started programming when he was 10, and has
always strived to learn new things on a regular basis. He currently works for Avnet
Services as a Solutions Architect in the Cloud & Automation Practice. He has also
written Debugging and Supporting Software Systems (http://cnx.org/content/
col11350), a freely available e-book.
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 Table of Contents
Preface 1
Chapter 1: Getting Started with Raspberry Pi 7
Hardware requirements 7
Extra peripherals 9
Essential peripherals 9
Wireless USB network adapters 9
USB hubs 9
Keyboards and mice 9
Useful peripherals 10
Internet 3G dongles 10
Sound cards 10
IR receivers 10
TV and radio receivers 10
Webcams 10
Multicard readers 11
Alamode 11
HDMI to VGA 11
Fun peripherals 11
Joysticks 11
USB to SATA 12
CAN bus 12
Home automation 12
USB missile launcher 12
Fingerprint scanners 12
Installing Raspbian on the Raspberry Pi 13
Understanding the design of the Raspberry Pi 14
Boot process 14
Other capabilities 15
Hardware limitations 15
Network speeds 16
USB bottlenecks 16
Time 16
Summary 17
Table of Contents

Chapter 2: Preparing the Network 19

Local Area Network (LAN) 19
The eth0 port 20
The wlan0 interface 21
The lo interface 21
Wireless configuration – Wi-Fi 21
Recommended wireless adapters 21
Setting up from the desktop 22
Setting up from the console 22
Using wicd-curses 24
Static network address 25
Testing and benchmarking your network 26
Basic tests 26
Advanced benchmarking tools 27
Speedtest application 27
Iperf 28
Recommended bandwidth 28
Internet configuration 29
ISP packages 29
Home packages 29
Business packages 30
Dynamic DNS 30
Installing the client 31
Dynamic DNS domain workaround 32
Summary 33
Chapter 3: Configuring Extra Features 35
Updating the Raspberry Pi 35
Updating firmware 36
Updating packages 36
Outcomes 36
Hardware watchdog 37
Enabling the watchdog and daemon 37
Testing the watchdog 38
Enabling extra decoders 38
Buying licenses 39
MPEG-2 39
VC-1 39
Hardware monitoring 39
Summary 40

[ ii ]
 Table of Contents

Chapter 4: Using a Fast PHP Web Server and Database 41

Working with nginx 41
Installing nginx 42
Configuring virtual hosts 42
Installing PHP 43
Installing a database 45
Installing MySQL 45
Installing SQLite3 46
Nginx with custom modules 48
Summary 48
Chapter 5: Setting Up a File Server 49
Preparing the storage medium 49
Listing the available drives 49
Formatting a drive 50
Mounting the drives 51
Remounting a disk after reboot 52
Accessing files 52
FTP service 52
Connecting with FileZilla 53
Connecting with WinSCP 53
Samba service 54
Installing and configuring Samba 54
Network shares 55
AFP for Macintosh 56
Installing and configuring 56
Shares and Time Machine 57
BitTorrent Sync 57
Installing Sync 57
Autostart 59
Hardware RAID 59
Configuration 60
Massive storage 60
Redundant storage 61
Summary 61
Chapter 6: Setting Up the Game Servers 63
Updating to Jessie 63
Selective settings 63
Games servers 64
OpenTTD 64
Installing OpenTTD 65
Configuring OpenTTD 65
Playing OpenTTD 65

[ iii ]
Table of Contents

Freeciv 66
Installing Freeciv 66
Configuring Freeciv 66
Playing Freeciv 66
OpenArena 67
Installing OpenArena 67
Configuring OpenArena 67
Playing OpenArena 68
Minecraft 68
Installing Java Hard-Float 68
Installing the Minecraft server 69
Configuring Minecraft 69
Playing Minecraft 70
Summary 70
Chapter 7: Bitcoins – Pools and Mining 71
Installing Bitcoind 71
Bitcoin wallet 72
Creating a Bitcoin address 73
Receiving Bitcoins 73
Sending Bitcoins 73
The value of Bitcoins 74
Mining for Bitcoins 74
Mining with ASICMiner 75
Installing CGMiner 76
Summary 78
Chapter 8: Streaming Live HD Video 79
Streaming with GStreamer 79
Streaming with FFmpeg 80
Raspivid 80
Compiling nginx-rtmp 81
Configuring nginx 82
Streaming video using the RTMP module 83
Watching a video 84
RTMP streams 84
MPEG streams 85
Other streams 86
Summary 86

[ iv ]
 Table of Contents

Chapter 9: Setting Up a Media Center 87

Slideshows 87
Using fbi 88
Watching movies 88
Using OMXPlayer 89
Playing audio 89
Using aplay 89
Using OMXPlayer 89
Using AirPlayer 90
Using alsamixer 90
Installing RaspBMC 90
Enabling other codecs 91
Configuring RaspBMC 91
Wireless 91
Media sources 91
Using Add-ons 92
AirPlay 92
Enabling CEC 93
Performance optimization 93
Change the skin 93
Overclocking 93
NFS versus Samba 94
Summary 94
Index 95

[v]
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
 IV. Cæcal Apparatus Combined with Structural Modifications of the Proximal Colon of
Similar Physiological Significance. (Fig. 465, IV.)
The fourth general mammalian group comprises forms in which the cæcal pouch is large, with or
without terminal appendage, while in addition the large intestine develops structural modifications
which possess the general functional significance of the cæcal apparatus. This highly developed and
complicated structure of the alimentary canal indicates that the habitual food of these animals is bulky
and difficult of digestion. Accordingly we find the group composed in main of the majority of the
Ungulates and Rodents (with the exception of Myoxus), forms in which the diet under natural
conditions is purely herbivorous. Other mammalian orders, however, also furnish representatives of
this type of cæcal apparatus, the conditions as regards character and quantity of food habitually taken
corresponding to those encountered among the Ungulates and Rodents. Thus the Phalangers among
Marsupials (Fig. 352), Galeopithecus (Fig. 419) as an exceptional form among the Insectivora, and
certain lemurs among Primates (Figs. 420-425) present examples of a highly developed and
specialized type of cæcal apparatus.
The intestinal tract of these forms must therefore be considered from two points of view:
I. The cæcum proper.
II. The analogous structural modifications of the proximal segment of the colon.
I. CÆCUM PROPER.
The pouch of the Ungulates and Rodents, taking these forms as the typical representatives of the
entire group, is usually of very large size compared with the rest of the alimentary canal. Two types
are found:
1. Large capacious smooth cæcal pouch of uniform caliber (Fig. 465, IV, 2). This form is met with in
the Muridæ among Rodents and is illustrated in Fig. 393 showing the cæcum of Mus decumanus, var.
albinus, the white rat. Fig. 392 represents the entire alimentary canal of the meadow mouse, Arvicola
pennsylvanicus, and indicates the proportion which the cæcal apparatus bears to the remainder of the
intestinal tract. The typical cæcum of the Ungulates is shown in Fig. 371, taken from Capra ægagrus,
the bezoar goat, and in Fig. 372, taken from a preparation of Boselaphus tragocamelus, the Nilghai.
2. The cæcal pouch is large, markedly crescentic in shape, sacculated, or provided in the interior with
a more or less complete spiral valve, and reduced in caliber in the terminal segment, forming at times
a pointed appendix (Fig. 465, IV, 3). This form is encountered typically among certain Rodents, as in
Castor fiber, the beaver (Figs. 381 and 382), and Erethizon dorsatus, the Canadian porcupine (Figs.
383 and 384), but is not confined to this order. Thus cæca of very similar structure are found among
the Marsupials, as in Phascolarctos and Cuscus (Fig. 352). In some of these forms the terminal
reduction of the cæcum is very marked, resulting in a long narrow segment of the pouch tapering to a
sharp point. It is significant to note in this connection that in one member of the marsupial order, the
wombat (Phascolomys), this tendency to terminal reduction of the pouch has led to the development
of a cæcum and appendix identical in structure and arrangement with the corresponding parts of man
and the anthropoid apes (Fig. 354). This is merely another illustration of the fact, evidenced
throughout the entire vertebrate series, that a primal type-form of cæcal apparatus, in responding to
the conditions which influence the development of structural modifications, will produce identical
specific types in animals otherwise widely separated in the zoölogical series.
Thus again the form of cæcum under discussion, found in many Rodents and certain Marsupials, is
encountered in the only Insectivore possessing a cæcum (Galeopithecus) (Fig. 419), and in several
Lemuroidea among Primates (Figs. 420-425).
II. Structural Modifications of the Proximal Segment of the Colon Analogous in Their
Functional Significance to the Cæcal Apparatus.
In these forms, in addition to the cæcal apparatus proper, certain accessory structural modifications of
the adjacent large intestine are developed which possess the physiological significance of the cæcal
apparatus in general, since they serve to increase the extent of the intestinal mucous surface and to
prolong the period during which the contents of the canal are retained for elaboration and absorption.
These modifications, which appear most fully developed in certain Rodents and Ungulates, are of two
kinds.
1. The development of the colic mucous membrane in the form of a projecting fold or valve usually
surrounding the lumen spirally (Fig. 465, IV, 1). The significance and phylogeny of this spiral fold has
been considered above (cf. p. 193). Functionally this reduplication must be regarded as in general
equivalent to the cæcal apparatus proper, in producing an increased surface for secretion and
absorption and in retarding the movement of intestinal contents. The cæcal pouch evidently acts as a
reservoir in which partly digested substances, mixed with the secretions of the small intestine, are
retained while the slow processes of digestion and absorption, already inaugurated in the antecedent
segment of the canal, are completed. It is reasonable to suppose that the system of projecting
mucous folds and reduplications encountered in the colon beyond the cæcum have a similar
physiological import. Moreover, in certain forms the cæcum itself is provided with a similar spiral
mucous fold, as in the instances already mentioned of Lepus among mammalia (Fig. 381) and of the
Ostrich among birds (Fig. 341). We have seen above (cf. p. 193) that the spiral intestinal valve is
encountered very early in the vertebrate series, in forms in which the alimentary canal is but slightly,
or not at all differentiated, short and straight in its course. In these forms the evident purpose of the
spiral fold is to retard the movement of the intestinal contents and to increase the area of the
secretory and absorbing surface. As a structural modification possessing this character we saw the fold
in the Cyclostomata, Selachians and Dipnœans (Figs. 310, 466, 467 and 468) and in certain Ophidians
(Python and Anaconda, Figs. 331 and 469). Among Mammals it is found in certain Rodentia in two
forms:
(a) In some of the Muridæ, as Arvicola (Fig. 394), the mucous membrane of the large globular cæcal
pouch is smooth, but the proximal segment of the colon, immediately beyond the ileo-colic junction,
develops the spiral fold (Fig. 465, IV, 2).
(b) In other forms, as in the hares (Fig. 465, IV, 3), the greater part of the cæcum carries a typical
spiral fold, continued up to the root of the terminal appendage (Fig. 388), in which segment the
mucous membrane is devoid of folds, but studded thickly with lymphoid follicles. Beyond the cæcum
proper the spiral fold is continued in the opposite direction into the proximal segment of the colon,
which is large and capacious and evidently shares both the physiological and morphological characters
of the cæcum proper, forming so to speak an accessory cæcal chamber. Beyond what we thus might
term the cæcal division of the colon the large intestine becomes reduced in caliber, and the previously
continuous spiral fold becomes broken up into separate semilunar haustral plicæ, corresponding to the
superficial constrictions between the colic cells. In structure this distal segment of the rabbit colon
closely resembles the human large intestine (Fig. 474).
One of the most marked examples of this secondary modification of the colon is presented by the
intestinal canal of another Rodent, Lagomys pusillus (Fig. 391).
The cæcum of this animal is long, curved, provided with a well-developed spiral fold. The terminal
segment of the pouch is reduced to an appendix, with smooth mucosa containing adenoid tissue, as in
the rabbit. A second adenoid appendix, representing the globular saccus lymphaticus of the rabbit, is
derived from the cæcum at the ileo-colic junction. The first segment of the colon beyond the ileo-colic
junction is dilated and sacculated, the cæcal mucous fold being prolonged into it. This is succeeded by
a narrow smooth-walled second segment. The third division of the colon is again dilated and
sacculated, followed by a short fourth smooth-walled section. A fifth stretch is again provided with
colic cells, beyond which the terminal segment continues of uniform caliber and with smooth walls to
the vent. The colon therefore presents three distinct sacculated portions whose structural
modifications suggest that they function in the same sense as the cæcal pouch proper. In man and in
other Primates the crescentic colic plicæ are disposed in a more or less evident spiral manner around
the axis of the intestine, and it is not difficult to recognize in them the modified remnants of the typical
spiral valve of lower forms. On the other hand, in conformity with the general reduction of the cæcal
apparatus, the mucous membrane of the large intestine in Carnivora is smooth and devoid of any trace
of the spiral fold (Fig. 475).
2. The second structural modification of the large intestine, associated in functional significance with
the cæcal apparatus, depends upon the increase in the length of the proximal segment of the colon
beyond the ileo-colic junction and the twisting or coiling of this segment in a more or less complicated
definite manner, usually in the form of a spiral, the individual turns of the coil being held in place by
the peritoneal connections. The proximal colon thus modified is admirably adapted to retard the
movement of contents not yet completely digested and to increase the absorbing surface of the
intestine, and hence is functionally allied to the cæcal apparatus.
This colic modification is found in its highest degree of development in the ruminant Ungulates, whose
cæcal pouch proper is also enormously developed. In these animals the colon immediately beyond the
ileo-cæcal junction is arranged in the form of a double spiral, the afferent (cæcal) and efferent (colic)
tubes alternating, and continuous with each other in the center of the coil (Fig. 465, IV, 5). Examples
of this type of spiral colon are shown in Fig. 373 (Bos indicus), Fig. 374 (Cervus sika), Fig. 375 (Ovis
aries), Fig. 376 (Oryx leucoryx). Ontogenetically the complicated spiral colon of the ruminants starts as
a simple loop of the proximal colon, which, with the further rapid growth of this segment of the
intestine, is bent to produce the turns of the coil as shown in the schematic Figs. 480-482.
Phylogenetically the same gradual development can be traced in the vertebrate series. Perhaps the
earliest tendency to structurally modify the intestine in the direction named is found in the manner in
which the intestinal coils are bound together by the subperitoneal arachnoid in many Ophidians (Fig.
331). Further in the Manidæ among the Edentates there is no cæcal pouch, but the intestine at the
ileo-colic junction is twisted into a figure 8 and held in this position by the peritoneal connections
(Figs. 362 and 465, IV, 4). In certain Marsupials with well-developed cæcal pouches, such as
Phascolarctos and the Vulpine Phalangers (Figs. 351 and 352), the colon immediately beyond the ileo-
colic entrance is sacculated and bent in the form of a short loop. In the tapir (Fig. 377), the proximal
segment of the colon forms a simple loop, whose afferent and efferent limbs are closely bound
together. The arrangement of the large intestine in this animal illustrates the early embryonal stage in
the development of the complete ruminant spiral coil (cf. Fig. 480).

Figs. 480-482.—Schematic representation of three stages in the development of the ungulate spiral colon.

The condition encountered in some Rodents presents a more advanced stage. Thus the large intestine
in the agouti (Dasyprocta agouti), shows the development of the spiral coil advanced as far as the
second turn of the original loop (Figs. 389 and 390). It is readily seen that continued growth of this
segment of the intestine leads to the formation of the complete colic spiral as found in the typical
Ungulates.
The same arrangement of the large intestine obtains in certain Lemurs among the Primates. Thus the
proximal colon of the Slow Lemur (Nycticebus tardigradus) is seen in Figs. 421 and 422 to present a
typical spiral coil, and similar conditions are encountered in other members of the suborder.
V. Cæcal Apparatus and Colon in Hyrax.
We have left for our final consideration the aberrant and
unique mammalian type found in Hyrax (Fig. 378). In this
remarkable little animal the large intestine develops a
typical mammalian sacculated cæcum at the ileo-colic
junction, and in addition is provided further on with two
symmetrical pointed lateral colic cæca of large size. It is
quite true that this arrangement is unique among
Mammalia, confined entirely to the members of the
suborder formed by the single family of Hyrax, and that no
strictly analogous disposition of the alimentary canal is
encountered in the entire vertebrate series. Yet these
aberrant structures are possibly capable of explanation, in
regard to the method of their development, by reference to
the cæcal apparatus of certain phytophagous saurians, as
Iguana and Cyclura. In these forms (Fig. 326-330) the small
intestine enters the colon somewhat asymmetrically, the
opening being guarded by a well developed annular valve.
The proximal segment of the large intestine forms an
extensive sacculated pouch. If this is opened (Figs. 328-
330) it is seen that the small intestine leads into a
compartment which is separated from the remainder of the
pouch by a valvular diaphragm with central circular opening.
Beyond this primary compartment the colic pouch is
incompletely subdivided by a series of gradually diminishing
crescentic folds, corresponding to the external constrictions
between the sacculations. The entire pouch gradually
diminishes in caliber until it passes with a sharp angular
bend into the terminal portion of the endgut. This terminal
segment is differentiated from the elongated colic pouch by
Figs. 483-485.—Schematic figures
the greater thickness of its muscular walls and by a slight illustrating possible line of derivation of
annular projecting fold in the interior. In considering the aberrant mammalian type of alimentary
intestinal tract of Hyrax it is conceivable that the unique canal encountered in Hyrax.
condition presented by this animal may be derived from
some type conforming in general structure to the reptilian arrangement of the parts just detailed,
as indicated in the schematic Figs. 483-485. The proximal typical cæcal pouch of Hyrax would then
correspond to the similar colic pouch of Iguana. To explain the supplementary colic cæca it is
necessary to suppose that the transition of the colic pouch into the terminal hindgut had become
well differentiated, and that on each side of this junction the colic tube had extended backwards,
resulting in the production of the supplementary bilateral cæcal pouches of Hyrax.
PART IV.
 MORPHOLOGY OF THE HUMAN CÆCUM AND
VERMIFORM APPENDIX.
Not only is the anatomy of this portion of the alimentary tract of great interest in relation to the
evolution of the human structure, but in addition the pathological and surgical importance of the
region warrants a very careful study of the cæcum and appendix. This is more especially the case
since a number of variations in the arrangement of the structures are encountered. These
departures from what we consider the normal human type have an important bearing on the
development and progress of the pathological conditions prone to involve the appendix. We may
consider the subject under the following subdivisions:
I. DEVELOPMENT OF THE CÆCUM AND APPENDIX.
Much light is thrown on the adult anatomy of the parts and on the origin of the variations observed
by the study of their embryonic history. In considering the factors which determine the variations in
the position, size, and shape of the appendix it must be remembered that the rudimentary
character of this structure is responsible for many of the aberrant conditions encountered.
As a part of the general cæcal pouch which persists in an early developmental stage and which we
can regard as destined for further reduction and ultimate elimination in the course of evolution, the
appendix shares with other vestigial structures a wide range of variation. Consequently the study of
the development of this portion of the alimentary tract enables us to gain a clearer view of the
primary arrangement of the structures and to trace the causes which are active in determining the
adult conditions most frequently encountered.
 Fig. 486.—Alimentary canal and appendages of
human embryo of 12.5 mm. × 12. (Kollmann,
after His.)
Fig. 487.—A, schematic representation of
alimentary canal, with umbilical loop and
mesenteric attachments in human
embryo of about six weeks. B and C,
stages in the intestinal rotation.

At the time when the umbilical loop of the intestine has formed and has begun to protrude into the
cavity of the umbilical cord (fifth to sixth week), the first indication of the future cæcum appears as
a circumscribed thickening of the returning or ascending limb of the intestinal loop a short distance
from the apex (Figs. 486-488). This rudiment indicates the derivation of the future definite
intestinal segments from the elements of the loop. The descending limb, apex (site of embryonic
vitelline duct, Meckel’s diverticulum of adult) and a short succeeding portion of the ascending limb
furnish the ileum and jejunum. The rest of the ascending limb develops into cæcum and appendix,
ascending and transverse colon. The increase in the length of the intestine is not uniform. The
formation of convolutions begins in the seventh week in the apex and subsequently in the
descending limb. By the eighth week a considerable number of jejuno-ileal coils have resulted from
the growth in length of these parts of the original umbilical loop, while the growth of the segment
which furnishes the colon is at this time still inconsiderable (Fig. 489). In the meanwhile the
thickening of the tube which forms the first rudiment of the cæcum has developed into a small sac-
like enlargement of the gut, budding from the left and dorsal aspect of the ascending limb,
crescentic in shape, turning its concavity toward the parent tube. In the majority of instances
examined the small outgrowth is packed closely between the incipient ileal convolutions, lying
under cover of the more prominent bulging coils of the umbilical protrusion, between them and a
single coil of larger arc situated dorsally and belonging to the jejunal or proximal portion of the
small intestine (Fig. 490). Fig. 497, taken from an embryo of 11 mm. cervico-coccygeal length,
represents this stage in the development of the umbilical loop. The arrangement of the cæcum
which we can assume as the typical condition at this stage and which determines in part the
subsequent final arrangement of the structures, is illustrated by this relation of the cæcal bud to
the surrounding incipient convolutions of the small intestine, with the larger part of these coils
situated ventrad of the cæcum and only a single coil of larger curve placed dorsally; the cæcal
pouch, derived from the ascending limb of the umbilical loop, is situated between these two
divisions, turning its concave border to the right and embracing the parent tube. At the time when
the human cæcum first appears as a distinct structure it forms a small conical pouch with blunt
extremity whose shape is well illustrated by the cæcum of some of the new-world monkeys, as
Mycetes fuscus, the brown howler monkey (Figs. 449 and 450). The outgrowth develops rapidly in
length and very soon assumes a distinct crescentic shape, gradually tapering toward the extremity,
a type which is found reproduced in the cæcum of Ateles ater, the black-handed spider monkey
(Fig. 443). There is as yet no constriction or demarcation separating the distal segment (future
appendix) from the proximal part (cæcum proper) but the entire pouch gradually narrows funnel-
like to its termination.

Figs. 488-492.—Series of schematic figures illustrating

stages in the rotation of the intestinal canal.
 Figs. 493-496.—Series of schematic figures illustrating
stages in the rotation of the intestinal canal.
II. CHANGES IN THE POSITION OF THE CÆCUM AND APPENDIX DURING NORMAL
DEVELOPMENT, DEPENDING UPON THE ROTATION OF THE INTESTINE AND THE
SUBSEQUENT DESCENT OF THE CÆCUM.
The primary cause leading to the rotation of the intestinal canal and inaugurating the successive
stages which produce the adult disposition of the tube is to be found in the rapid increase in length
of the small intestine. Numerous convolutions of this tube succeed to the few primary coils noted in
the first stages. This condition is illustrated in Fig. 498, taken from an embryo of 4.4 cm. cervico-
coccygeal measure, and the arrangement of the intestine is indicated in schema, Fig. 491. The
cæcum is found nearly in the median line imbedded among the surrounding coils of the small
intestine, which by their rapid increase have pushed the pouch cephalad nearly into contact with
the caudal surface of the liver.
 Fig. 497.—Human embryo of 11 mm. Fig. 498.—Human embryo of 4.4 cm. cervico-coccygeal measure.
cervico-coccygeal measure. Enlarged Intestinal canal; Liver removed. (Columbia University, Study
view of ventral and left aspect of Collection.)
intestinal canal. (Columbia University,
Study Collection.)

Three main divisions of the convolutions of the small intestine can be made out, slightly separated
from each other in the figure to exhibit the cæcum between them. The proximal (jejunal) set of
these convolutions occupy the upper and left part of the abdominal cavity. They are the product of
the single larger coil which in the earlier stage (Fig. 497, schema Fig. 490) appeared dorsad of the
cæcal diverticulum. The distal (ileal) division of small intestinal convolutions has become greatly
augmented and lies to the right of the cæcum. The concavity of the pouch is still, as in the earlier
stages, directed to the right and the entrance of ileum into colon takes place from right to left. The
caudal part of the abdominal cavity is occupied by an intermediate set of transition convolutions
which join the proximal and distal divisions. In the two stages just described (Figs. 497 and 498,
Schema Figs. 490 and 491), the initial step in the intestinal rotation has been taken, i. e., the
beginning of the colon has been displaced cephalad from its original position in the caudal and left
part of the abdominal cavity by the pressure of the rapidly growing coils of the small intestine and
now lies transversely ventrad of the duodenum, having crossed the duodeno-colic neck or isthmus
of the primitive umbilical loop (cf. Fig. 487, C).
At first the distal coils of the small intestine occupy a position behind as well as to the right of the
cæcum, forming a dorsal retro-cæcal division connected by intermediate convolutions with the
ventral division occupying the lower and left portion of the abdominal cavity. The apex of the
cæcum is frequently imbedded among these terminal coils of the ileum. With the continued growth
of the small intestines a further displacement of the cæcum cephalad and to the right takes place,
while at the same time the terminal ileal coils pass downwards and to the left, from a retro-cæcal
into a subcæcal position, thus permitting a direct apposition of the cæcum to the dorsal parietal
(prerenal) peritoneum. The last steps in this process of withdrawal of the original voluminous
dorsal (retro-cæcal) division of ileal convolutions are well seen in the preparation shown in Fig.
499, taken from an embryo of 6.7 cm. vertex-coccygeal measure, and corresponding to the
schematic stages represented in Figs. 490 and 491. The cæcum in this preparation has not yet
completed its rotation and still turns its concavity upwards and to the right, with the apex
imbedded among the terminal convolutions of the ileum.
The ileo-cæcal junction takes place from right to left in a downward direction. Nearly the entire
mass of the small intestine is situated below and to the left of cæcum and colon, but a terminal
ileal coil still occupies, although evidently in the process of withdrawal, the retro-cæcal position,
separating the cæcum from direct contact with the dorsal parietal peritoneum. The withdrawal of
this terminal coil of the small intestine is accompanied, or immediately followed, by a further turn
of the colon cephalad and to the right, which brings it
into contact with the caudal surface of the liver and
completes the rotation, producing a change in the
relative positions of the terminal ileal coils and the
cæcum. In the stages illustrated in Figs. 498 and 499
and shown schematically in Figs. 490 and 491, the
terminal coils of the ileum pass from right to left behind
the cæcum to enter the colon, and the concavity of the
cæcal pouch is directed upwards and to the right. After
the final rotation has occurred (schema, Fig. 492) the
ileum enters the large intestine from the left and from
below, and the concave border of the cæcum is directed
caudad and to the left. This change in relative position
has been accomplished by a revolution of the colon and
cæcum through an arc of 180° around its own long axis Fig. 499.—Human embryo of 6.7 cm. vertex-
carrying the cæcum above and behind the small coccygeal measure. Liver removed. (Columbia
University, Study Collection.)
intestine and bringing it into contact with the dorsal
prerenal parietal peritoneum. At the same time the
terminal coils of the ileum turn downwards and to the
left. If this final step in the rotation of the large
intestine fails to occur, with otherwise normal
development of the parts, the ileum will persist in
entering the large intestine from right to left after the
cæcum has obtained its final lodgment in the right iliac
fossa. We have had occasion to refer previously to the
significance of these instances of partially arrested
development (cf. p. 61, Figs. 123, 127 and 128). Fig. 500.—Human embryo of 4.9 cm. vertex-
In Figs. 500 and 501, taken from an embryo of 4.9 cm. coccygeal measure. Ventral view of abdominal
vertex-coccygeal measure, the final rotation of the cavity, with liver partially removed. (Columbia
University, Study Collection.)
cæcum from the position occupied in Fig. 498 has
occurred and the concavity of the pouch is directed
caudad and towards the left. At the same time the
escape of the terminal ileal coils from behind the
cæcum and beginning of the colon has not yet taken
place and hence the colon is still kept by these coils
from direct opposition to the dorsal prerenal parietal
peritoneum. The condition presented by this
preparation can be schematically indicated by Figs. 492
and 493. The rotation has carried the beginning of the Fig. 501.—The same embryo
colon (Fig. 500), with the cæcal bud and appendix represented in Fig. 500. The colic coil
further depressed and turned to the
curved on itself and turning its concavity to the left, into
left; seen from the right side.
the subhepatic position. The greater part of the small
intestinal coils lie now below and to the left of the
cæcum, but the terminal ileal convolutions (Fig. 500) still occupy a retro-cæcal position, separating
the pouch and the colon from the dorsal parietal peritoneum. In Fig. 501 the right lateral view of
the same embryo is shown with the cæcum and colon depressed and turned to the left. The
termination of the ileum reaches the ileo-colic junction by passing behind the cæcum, and the
immediately adjacent ileal coils are still retro-cæcal, intervening between the pouch and the dorsal
parietal peritoneum.
In the next succeeding stage (schema, Fig. 494) these coils of the ileum turn downward and to the
left so as to lie below and mesad to the cæcum and colon, thus permitting the direct apposition of
the large intestine to the parietal prerenal peritoneum. The terminal ileum now passes from below
and to the left upwards and to the right to its junction with the colon. This freeing of the dorsal
surface of cæcum and colon from contact with the coils of the small intestines, and the consequent
direct apposition of the same to the dorsal parietal peritoneum influences to a great extent the
subsequent arrangement of the parts, because it affords the conditions necessary to the fixation of
the colon and mesocolon by adhesion to the parietal peritoneum (cf. p. 81).
Fig. 499, taken from an embryo of 6.7 cm. vertex-coccygeal measure, illustrates this stage, which
is encountered in the majority of instances and during which the retro-cæcal coils of the terminal
ileum are withdrawn (schema, Fig. 493). The convolutions of the small intestine have greatly
increased in size and number. The retro-cæcal ileal coils, compared with Fig. 500, have shifted their
position caudad and to the left, so as to lie below and ventrad of the beginning of the colon. Only a
single coil remains behind the cæcum and appendix, intervening between these structures and the
ventral surface of the right kidney, and this coil is in the process of withdrawal from the dorsal
position as indicated by the superficial and short course of the coil which connects it with the
remaining ventral convolutions. As soon as the withdrawal of this single remaining dorsal coil is
completed the entire mass of the small intestines will occupy a position ventrad, caudad and to the
left of the cæcum and colon (Fig. 494), which will then rest directly against the dorsal parietal
peritoneum investing the ventral surface of the right kidney.
This stage is illustrated in Fig. 502, taken from an embryo
of 6.6 cm. vertex-coccygeal measure. The cæcum and
appendix here occupy the subhepatic position, well to the
right of the median line and in the background of the
abdominal cavity. The terminal retro-cæcal ileal coils of
the embryo shown in Figs. 500 and 501 have descended
caudad and to the left, thus freeing the dorsal surface of
cæcum and colon and permitting direct contact with the
prerenal parietal peritoneum.
In the succeeding stages the cæcum gradually descends
along the background of the right lumbar region from the
subhepatic position to the right iliac fossa, producing by
this descent the ascending colon as a distinct segment of
the large intestine. Fig. 502.—Human embryo, 6.6 cm. vertex-
It will be observed that in the stage shown in Fig. 502 coccygeal measure. Liver removed. (Columbia
University, Study Collection.)
(schema, Fig. 494) the large intestine passes from the
cæcum to the splenic flexure transversely from right to
left across the upper part of the abdominal cavity, caudad and ventrad of the stomach and
cephalad of the coils of the small intestine.
In the following stages the disproportionately large size of the embryonic liver compels the colon,
as the cæcum descends, to assume an oblique position. When the cæcal descent is completed the
colon traverses the abdominal cavity in contact with the caudal surface of the liver passing from
the right iliac fossa obliquely cephalad and to the left to the splenic flexure where it becomes
continuous with the descending colon, which segment has early assumed its definite position in the
background of the abdominal cavity on the left side (Fig. 495). This oblique position of the colon is
seen in Figs. 503 and 504. During this stage the increase in the length of the colon may lead to the
arrangement seen in Fig. 505, where the future transverse segment of the large intestine is bent
caudad in form of an arch whose summit extends nearly to the pelvis. This condition at times
persists in the adult, in cases of unusually long large intestine, and recalls the normal arrangement
found in many of the cynomorphous monkeys in whom the transverse colon forms an extensive V-
or U-shaped loop, with the apex directed caudad toward the pubic symphysis (Fig. 506). In other
instances in the human fœtus this part of the large intestine is thrown into a number of shorter
irregular coils (Fig. 507).

Fig. 503.—Human embryo, 7.6 cm. vertex- Fig. 504.—Human fœtus, 10.6 cm. vertex-
coccygeal measure. Liver and small intestine from coccygeal measure. Liver and greater part of small
the duodeno-jejunal to the ileo-colic junction intestine removed. (Columbia University, Study
removed. (Columbia University, Study Collection.) Collection.)

Fig. 505.—Human fœtus, 20.4 cm. vertex-

coccygeal measure. (Columbia University, Study
Collection.)

Fig. 506.—Abdominal viscera of Macacus rhesus,

rhesus monkey, hardened in situ. (Columbia
University Museum, No 1817.)
 Fig. 507.—Abdominal viscera of human fœtus at
term, hardened in situ; hepatic flexure formed, and
ascending and transverse colon differentiated.
(Columbia University Museum, No. 1816.)
Fig. 508.—Human fœtus of 10.7 cm. vertex-
coccygeal measure. Liver and small intestine
from the duodeno-jejunal to the ileo-colic
junction removed. The colon already presents
an ascending, transverse and descending
segment. The appendix is retro-cæcal, curved,
with the tip turned down, under cover of the
ileo-colic junction and mesentery. (Columbia
University, Study Collection.)

Normally, however, in the process of further development and with the relative decrease in the size
of the liver, the hepatic flexure (Fig. 505) becomes defined and passes cephalad and to the right,
taking up the slack of the bent segment and establishing the typical ascending and transverse
colon as seen in Fig. 508 (schema, Fig. 496).
III. VARIATIONS OF ADULT CÆCUM AND APPENDIX.
The study of the variations of the adult cæcum and appendix involves the consideration of the
following points:
(a) Shape of cæcum and origin of appendix. (Type of adult cæcum.)
(b) Position, direction and peritoneal relations of the appendix.
(c) Arrangement of the vascular and serous ileo-cæcal folds.
The peculiarities encountered in any individual case usually depend upon the combination of all
three of these factors, which together influence and determine the arrangement of the structures
in the adult. Hence the examination of each case should be made with reference to these three
points, which we will now consider in detail.
A. SHAPE OF CÆCUM AND ORIGIN OF APPENDIX. TYPES AND VARIATIONS OF ADULT
CÆCUM AND APPENDIX.
The various forms of the adult cæcum are all derived by modifications from the fœtal type of the
pouch.
In the embryo the cæcum is funnel-shaped, narrowing gradually and symmetrically in caliber to the
root of the appendix, at which point the three colic tænia or longitudinal muscular bands of the
large intestine meet. The appendix arises from the apex of the funnel, the lateral walls of which are
equally and symmetrically developed. The entire pouch is of a crescentic shape, the concavity of
the curve turned to the left and directed toward the caudal margin of the terminal ileum. Two
subdivisions of the fœtal type are found:

Fig. 509.—Schematic table of types of human cæca.

I. The crescentic curve of the cæcum is only slightly
marked; the appendix arises from the most pendent part
of the pouch and hangs downward (schema, Fig. 509, I,
a).
This form, which is encountered only occasionally in the
fœtus and infant, is illustrated by the preparation shown
in Fig. 510, taken from a fœtus at term.
II. In the majority of cases the inherent crescentic shape
of the cæcal pouch is pronounced and carries the
termination of the funnel with the root of the appendix
cephalad and to the left toward the caudal margin of the
ileo-colic junction (schema, Fig. 509, II, a).
Fig. 510.—Human fœtus at term. Cæcum and
At birth this typical arrangement of the cæcum ileo-colic junction; ventral view. (Columbia
frequently places the pouch in a nearly transverse University, Study Collection.)
position, with the apex and the root of the appendix 1. Appendix.
turned to the left, in contact with, or under cover of the 2. Reduced intermediate non-vascular fold.
terminal piece of the ileum at its junction with the large 3. Ventral vascular fold.
intestine.
Figs. 511 and 512 represent the parts in the ventral view in the fœtus at term.
 Fig. 511.—Human fœtus at term. Fig. 512.—Human fœtus at term
Cæcum and ileo-colic junction; (negro). Cæcum and ileo-colic
ventral view. (Columbia junction; ventral view. (Columbia
University, Study Collection.) University Museum, No. 692.)
1. Appendix, coiled spirally
behind terminal ileum.
2. Non-vascular intermediate fold.

Fig. 513.—Human fœtus at Fig. 514.—Human fœtus at

term. Cæcum and ileo-colic term. Cæcum and ileo-colic
junction; dorsal view. junction; dorsal view.
(Columbia University, Study (Columbia University Museum,
Collection.) No. 1715.)

Figs. 513 and 514, also taken from the fœtus at term, show the cæcum from the dorsal aspect and
illustrate well the sharp character of the curve which carries the apex of the pouch up and to the
left.
All the variations observed in the adult cæcum are derived from these two fœtal types by a
subsequent and usually asymmetrical enlargement and dilatation of the pouch.
We can consider the derivatives of each form separately.
I. Adult Cæca Derived From Type I. (schema, Fig. 509, Ia, Fig. 510).
1. Further development leads to an enlargement of the cæcal pouch and a sharper demarcation
between the same and the appendix. The resulting cæcum is symmetrical, with equally developed
lateral sacculi, between which the termination of the longitudinal muscular bands and the root of
the appendix is situated (schema, Fig. 509, Ib).
Fig. 515.—Human fœtus at term. Cæcum and ileo-colic
junction; ventral view. (Columbia University Museum, No.
1510.) Fig. 516.—Human fœtus at term. Cæcum and ileo-
colic junction; ventral view. (Columbia University
Museum, No. 1548.)

In Figs. 515 and 516 two infantile cæca are shown which illustrate this form. The narrow and
pointed apex of the fœtal conical cæcum is replaced by the capacious pouch which is differentiated
sharply from the appendix. Among the anthropoid apes the same type is seen in the cæcum of the
gibbon (Figs. 455 and 456), and of the young chimpanzee shown in Fig. 460.
2. An increased development of the cæcal pouch in the adult leads to the protrusion caudad of two
symmetrical sacculations on each side of the root of the appendix which appears between them.
The original apex of the cæcal pouch is still marked by the implantation of the appendix and by the
termination of the longitudinal muscular bands, but the lowest level of the pouch is found on each
side of this point at the fundus of the secondary lateral sacculi (schema, Fig. 509, Ic). Treves, to
whom belongs the credit of first accurately describing and classifying the forms of the adult cæcum
based on the development, found this type in three of a series of 100 cases examined.

Fig. 517.—Adult human cæcum and ileo-colic junction. Fig. 518.—Adult human cæcum and ileo-
(Columbia University, Study Collection.) colic junction. (Columbia University
Museum, No. 234.)
Figs. 517 and 518 illustrate this form of the pouch, which, in our experience, is frequently
associated with the retro-cæcal erect position of the appendix (cf. infra, p. 251). Fig. 472 shows
this type in the adult with pendent appendix.
II. Adult Cæca Derived from Type II. (schema, Figs. 509 and 511).—From this more
commonly observed type of fœtal cæcum the following adult forms are developed:
1. The general shape and trend of the fœtal cæcum is preserved. The pouch turns sharply to the
left, carrying the apex with the root of the appendix upward toward the ileum, the appendix itself
being frequently placed under cover of the terminal coil of the small intestine (schema, Fig. 509,
IIb).

Fig. 519.—Human adult (Smith’s Sound Eskimo). Ileo-colic junction

and cæcum. (Columbia University Museum, No. 59/1483.)

Fig. 520.—Human adult. Ileo-colic junction and cæcum.

(Columbia University, Study Collection.)
 Fig. 521.—Human adult. Ileo-colic junction and Fig. 522.—Human adult (Smith’s Sound Eskimo).
cæcum. (Columbia University, Study Collection.) Ileo-colic junction and cæcum. (Columbia
University Museum, No. 56/1571.)

The apex of the cæcal pouch is either conical, narrowing gradually toward the root of the appendix
(Figs. 520 and 521), or blunt and more sharply defined against the appendix (Fig. 522). Mr. Treves
encountered this “persistent fœtal type” in two per cent. of his series.
The cæcum is frequently sharply bent
on itself in making the turn upward
and to the left, resulting in a deep
indentation of the concave border and
producing a corresponding projecting
fold in the interior of the pouch (Fig.
523). The ventral longitudinal
muscular band follows the crescentic
sweep of the cæcum to the root of the
appendix. Fig. 523.—Human adult. Ileo-colic junction
and cæcum; dorsal view; dried preparation.
Figs. 524a and 525b, representing the (Columbia University Museum, No. 200.)
cæcum of a fœtus at term in the
ventral and dorsal view respectively,
show very clearly the arrangement of
the fœtal pouch from which the adult
type with sharp angular bend is
derived. This type of adult cæcum is
found in certain of the anthropoid
apes.
In the orang (Figs. 458 and 459) the
cæcum turns sharply upward and to
the left, gradually narrowing in caliber
to the root of the appendix which is
coiled behind the termination of the
ileum.
The same type is seen in Figs. 462
and 463, taken from a preparation of
the adult chimpanzee. Fig. 463 shows
especially well the sharp bend
between the cæcum and colon by
means of which the apex of the pouch
is carried cephalad behind the ileo-
colic junction.
Fig. 431, taken from another specimen
Fig. 524.—Human fœtus at term. Fig. 525.—Same preparation
of the same animal, shows the
Ileo-colic junction and cæcum; as Fig. 524; dorsal view.
characteristic crescentic curve of the ventral view. (Columbia University
cæcum and the corresponding course Museum, No. 1717.)
of the longitudinal muscular band. The
apex of the pouch in this preparation is more rounded and blunt.
The same blunt termination of the cæcum of this type, with a corresponding sharper demarcation
of the appendix, is seen in the gorilla (Fig. 457) recalling the conditions found in certain instances
in the human subject (Fig. 522).
2. In by far the larger proportion of cases (ninety per cent. in Treves’ series) the adult cæcum
obtains its characteristic form by an unequal development of the walls of the intestine. The right
segment between the ventral and dorso-lateral muscular bands dilates, forming a sacculation which
projects caudad and constitutes the secondary caput coli, while the segment between the lower
border of the ileum and the original apex, marked by the origin of the appendix, remains stationary
or is further reduced. This unequal development produces a relative displacement of the root of the
appendix upward and to the left toward the ileo-colic junction.
In some cases the primitive crescentic curve of the cæcum, as indicated by the direction of the
ventral longitudinal muscular band, is still perceptible.
The right wall of the fœtal cæcum, forming the most pendent portion of the pouch, dilates
uniformly and thus constitutes the adult caput coli. The left wall appears as a small sacculation
separating the root of the appendix from the ileo-colic junction (schema, Fig. 509, II, c). This type
of the adult cæcum is illustrated by the preparations shown in Figs. 526-528. In other cases part of
the right wall of the cæcum between the ventral and dorso-lateral colic tænia, dilates abruptly
forming a very prominent rounded sacculation which carries the lowest part of the pouch caudad in
a sharper curve than in the preceding form as indicated by its deviation from the direction of the
longitudinal muscular band (schema, Fig. 509, II, d).
Fig. 526.—Human adult (Smith’s Sound Eskimo). Ileo-colic junction
and cæcum; dorsal view. (Columbia University Museum, No.
61/1461.)

Fig. 527.—Human adult. Ileo-colic junction and cæcum;

ventral view. (Columbia University, Study Collection.)
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