UNIT-5

GIS DATA MODELS

Data model is, basically, a conceptual representation of the data structures in a
database.
Data model represents a set of rules or guidelines which are used to convert the real world
features into digitally and logically represented spatial objects.
GIS data models, all real world features are represented as points, lines or arcs and polygons.
Data modellers often use multiple models during the representation of real world in a GIS
environment.
The conceptual model is the process of developing a graphical representation from the real
world.

Reality (real
world features)

Human-oriented
aspects of real
world
Conceptual
model

Increasing Logical
abstraction model

Physical
Computer-oriented model
aspects of real
world

Fig: Stages of processing relevant to GIS data models

Geospatial data (Spatial Data) depicts the real world in two basic models such as :-Object-based
model, Field-based model

1. Object-Based Model: The object is a spatial feature and has some characteristics like
spatial boundary, application relevant and feature description (attributes). Spatial
 objects represent discrete features with welldefined or identifiable boundaries, for
example, buildings, parks, forest lands, geomorphologic boundaries, soil types, etc.
In this model, data can be obtained by field surveying methods (chain-tape, theodolite
and total station surveying, GPS/DGPS survey) or laboratory methods (aerial photo
interpretation, remote sensing image analysis and onscreen digitization).
Depending on the nature of the spatial objects we may represent them as graphical
elements of points, lines and polygons.

2. Field-Based Model: Spatial phenomena are real world features that vary continuously
over space with no specific boundary. Data for spatial phenomena may be organized as
fields which are obtained by direct or indirect sources. Source of direct data is from
aerial photos, remote sensing imagery, scanning of hard copy maps, and field
investigations made at selected sample locations. We can obtain or generate the data
by using mathematical functions such as interpolation, sampling or reclassification from
selected sample locations. This approach comes under indirect data source.
For example, Digital Elevation Model (DEM) can be generated from topographic data
such as spot heights and contours that are usually obtained by indirect measurements.

Real World

Object Based Object Based

Models Models

Image-grid matrix
Object / Feature Conversion

Spatial
database
Raster Data Models
The raster data model is composed of a regular grid of cells in specific sequence and each cell
within a grid holds data. The conventional sequence is row by row which may start from the top
left corner. In this model, basic building block is the cell. The representation of the geographic
feature in this model is used by coordinate, and every location corresponds to a cell. Each cell
contains a single value and is independently addressed with the value of an attribute.
One set of cells and associated value is a layer. Cells are arranged in layers. A data set can be
composed of many layers covering the same geographical areas e.g., water, paddy, forest,
cashew. Points, lines and polygons representation in grid format is presented in Figure. The
raster model, which is most often used to represent continuously varying phenomena such as
elevation or climate, and it is also used to store pictures or satellite images and plane based
images.

The dimension of the cells can be as large or as small as needed to represent the surface
conveyed by the raster dataset and the features within the surface, such as a square kilometer,
square foot, or even square centimeter. The smaller the cell size, the smoother or more
detailed the raster will be. However, the greater the number of cells, the longer it will take to
process, and it will increase the demand for storage space. If a cell size is too large, information
may be lost or subtle patterns may be obscured..
Vector Data Models
Vector data model comprises discrete features. Features can be discrete locations or events
(points), lines, or areas (polygons). This model uses the geometric objects of point, line and
polygon.
In vector data model, the point is the fundamental object. Point represents anything that can
be described as a discrete x,y location (e.g., hospital, temple, well, etc.). Line or polyline
(sequence of lines) is created by connecting the sequence of points. End points are usually
called as nodes and the intermediate points are termed as vertices. If we know the start and
end node coordinates of each line or polyline we can compute the length of line or polyline.
These are used to represent features that are linear in nature e.g., stream, rail, road, etc.
Polygon is defined in this model by a closed set of lines or polylines. Areas are often referred to
as polygons. A polygon can be represented by a sequence of nodes where the last node is equal
to the first node. Polygons or areas identified as closed set of lines are used to define features
such as rock type, land use, administration boundaries, etc.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Raster and Vector Data Models

Raster Data Model

Advantages
 Data structure is simple.
 Good for representing continuous surfaces.
 Location specific data collection is easy.
 Spatial analytical operations are faster.
 Different forms of data are available (satellite images, field data, etc.).
  Mathematical modelling and quantitative analysis can be made in easiest way
due to the inherent nature of raster images.

Disadvantages
 Data volumes are huge.
 Poor representation for points, lines and areas.
 Cartographic output quality may be low.
 Difficult to effectively represent linear features (depends on the cell resolution). Hence,
the network analysis is difficult to establish
 Coordinate transformation is difficult which sometimes cause distortion of grid cell
shape.
 Suffer from mixed pixel problem and missing or redundant data.
 Raster images generally have only one attribute or characteristic value for a feature or
object, therefore, limited scope to handle the attribute data.

Vector Data Model

Advantages
 Data structure is more compact.
 Data can be represented with good resolution.
 It can clearly describe topology. Hence, good for proximity and network analysis.
 Spatial adjustment of the data is easy with the utilisation of techniques such as rubber
sheeting, affine, etc.
 Graphic output in small scale as well as large scale gives a good accuracy
 Geographic location of entities accurate.
 Modernizing and generalization of the entities are possible.
 Easy handling of attribute data.
 Coordinate transformation techniques such as linear transformation, similarity
transformation and affine transformation could be done easily.

Disadvantages
 Data structures are complex.
 Overlay analysis is difficult in processing. Often, this inherently limits the functionality
for large data sets, e.g., a large number of features.
 Data collection may be expensive.
 High resolution drawing, colouring, shading and also displaying may be time consuming
and unbearable.
 Technology of data preparation is expensive.
ATTRIBUTE DATA MANAGEMENT
Attribute data management in GIS involves organizing and maintaining the descriptive
information (non-spatial data) linked to spatial features in a GIS. This data, typically stored in
tables, provides context and properties about geographic entities, enriching the spatial
data. Effective attribute data management is crucial for data accuracy, consistency, and
efficient use in GIS applications.

Attributes data in DBMS

A Database Management System (DBMS) is a software system designed to manage and organize data in a
structured manner. It allows users to create, modify, and query a database, as well as manage the security
and access controls for that database. DBMS provides an environment to store and retrieve data in a
convenient and efficient manner.

Types of Attributes in DBMS

Simple Attributes: Simple attributes in an ER model diagram are independent attributes that can't be
classified further and also, can't be subdivided into any other component. These attributes are also
known as atomic attributes As we can see in the above example, the Student is an entity represented by
a rectangle, and it consists of attributes: Roll_no, class, and Age. Also, there is a point to be noted that
we can't further subdivide the Roll_no attribute and even the other two attributes into sub-attributes.
Hence, they are known as simple attributes of the Student entity.

Single-Valued Attributes: Single-valued attributes are those attributes that consist of a single value for
each entity instance and can't store more than one value. The value of these single-valued attributes
always remains the same, just like the name of a person. As we can see in the above example, Student is
an entity instance, and it consists of attributes: Roll_no, Age, DOB, and Gender. These attributes can
store only one value from a set of possible values. Each entity instance can have only one Roll_no, which
is a unique, single DOB by which we can calculate age and also fixed gender. Also, we can't further
subdivide these attributes, and hence, they are simple as well as single-valued attributes.

Complex Attributes: Complex attributes are rarely used in DBMS. They are formed by the combination
of multi-valued and composite attributes. These attributes always have many sub-sections in their
values. As we can see in the above example, Address_EmPhone (which represents Address, Email, and
Phone number altogether) is a complex attribute. Email and Phone number are multi-valued attributes
while Address is a composite attribute which is further subdivided as House number, Street, City &
State. This combination of multi-valued and composite attributes altogether forms a complex attribute.

Derived Attributes: Derived attributes in DBMS are those attributes whose values can be derived from
the values of other attributes. They are always dependent upon other attributes for their value. For
example, As we were discussing above, DOB is a single-valued attribute and remains constant for an
entity instance. From DOB, we can derive the Age attribute, which changes every year, and can easily
calculate the age of a person from his/her date of birth value. Hence, the Age attribute here is derived
attribute from the DOB single-valued attribute. Derived attributes are always represented by dashed or
dotted elliptical shapes.

Multi-Valued Attributes: Multi-valued attributes have opposite functionality to that of single-valued

attributes, and as the name suggests, multi-valued attributes can take up and store more than one value
at a time for an entity instance from a set of possible values. we need these attributes to be multi-
valued so that they can store multiple values at a time for an entity instance.

Composite Attributes: Composite attributes have opposite functionality to of simple attributes as we

can further subdivide composite attributes into different components or sub-parts that form simple
attributes. In simple terms, composite attributes are composed of one or more simple attributes. As we
can see in the above example, Address is a composite attribute represented by an elliptical shape, and it
can be further subdivided into many simple attributes like Street, City, State, Country, Landmark, etc.