Processing Unit – Summary

The Processing Unit, often referred to as the Central Processing Unit (CPU), is the brain of
the computer. It is responsible for executing instructions from software and performing
calculations and operations that allow the system to function.

🔧 Key Components:

1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

o Performs mathematical (addition, subtraction, etc.) and logical operations (AND,
OR, comparisons).
2. Control Unit (CU)
o Directs the flow of data within the CPU and between other components.
o Manages instruction decoding and execution.
3. Registers
o Small, fast memory locations inside the CPU used to store temporary data during
processing.
4. Cache Memory
o Very fast memory close to or within the CPU.
o Stores frequently accessed data and instructions to speed up processing.

🧠 Types of Processing Units:

 CPU (Central Processing Unit):

o Handles general-purpose processing.
o Common in all computers.
 GPU (Graphics Processing Unit):
o Specialized for handling graphics and visual data.
o Also used in high-performance computing and AI.

⚡ Performance Factors:

 Clock Speed (GHz): Determines how many operations the CPU can perform per second.
 Number of Cores: More cores allow for multitasking and parallel processing.
 Cache Size: Larger caches reduce the need to fetch data from slower memory.
Motherboard – Parts and Functions Summary

The motherboard is the main circuit board of a computer. It acts as the central hub that
connects all components of the system and allows them to communicate.

🧩 Main Parts and Their Functions:

1. CPU Socket
o Holds the Central Processing Unit (CPU).
o Provides electrical contact between the CPU and motherboard.
2. RAM Slots (DIMM Slots)
o Install Random Access Memory (RAM) modules.
o Temporarily stores data and instructions for quick access by the CPU.
3. Chipset (Northbridge and Southbridge)
o Manages data flow between CPU, RAM, storage, and peripherals.
o Northbridge: Connects high-speed components (CPU, RAM, GPU).
o Southbridge: Connects lower-speed components (USB, audio, BIOS).
4. BIOS/UEFI Chip
o Stores the firmware that starts the computer and configures hardware settings.
5. Expansion Slots (PCIe, PCI)
o Allow installation of graphics cards, sound cards, network cards, etc.
6. SATA and M.2 Connectors
o Connect storage devices (HDDs, SSDs, optical drives).
7. Power Connectors
o Distribute power from the power supply to the motherboard and its components.
8. CMOS Battery
 oPowers the Real-Time Clock (RTC) and retains BIOS settings when the system
is off.
9. I/O Ports and Connectors (Rear Panel)
o Allow external connections: USB, HDMI, audio, Ethernet, PS/2, etc.
10. VRMs (Voltage Regulator Modules)

 Regulate and deliver proper voltage to the CPU and other components.

11. Cooling Fan Headers

 Connect case or CPU cooling fans for temperature management.

12. Onboard Audio and Network Chips

 Provide basic sound and internet/LAN functionality.

13. Front Panel – Summary

The front panel of a computer case provides user-accessible input/output ports and controls,
allowing quick access to essential functions without opening the case or reaching the rear ports.

🔌 Common Front Panel Components & Their Functions:

1. Power Button
o Turns the computer on or off.
2. Reset Button
o Restarts the system without turning off the power completely.
3. Power LED
o Indicates whether the computer is powered on.
4. HDD LED (Hard Drive Activity Light)
o Blinks to show hard drive activity, signaling data is being read/written.

14. ROM (Read-Only Memory) – Summary

ROM is a type of non-volatile memory used in computers and other electronic devices. It retains its
contents even when the power is turned off and is primarily used to store firmware or permanent
instructions required for the computer to boot and operate.

🧠 Key Features:

 Non-volatile: Data is not lost when power is off.

 Read-only (mostly): Contents are pre-written and cannot be modified easily.
 Stores firmware: Includes BIOS/UEFI which starts the computer and checks hardware (POST).

🔍 Types of ROM:
 1. ROM (Original ROM):
o Permanently programmed during manufacturing. Cannot be changed.
2. PROM (Programmable ROM):
o Can be written once after manufacturing using a special device.
3. EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM):
o Can be erased using UV light and reprogrammed.
4. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM):
o Can be electrically erased and rewritten multiple times. Used in BIOS/UEFI.

Feature ROM (Read-Only Memory) RAM (Random Access Memory)

Type of
Non-volatile Volatile
Memory

Temporarily stores data for active

Purpose Stores firmware (e.g., BIOS/UEFI)
processes

Data Retention Retains data even when power is off Loses data when power is off

Modifiability Not easily modified (some types erasable) Easily modified and rewritten by programs

Speed Slower than RAM Very fast access speed

Size Usually small (few MBs) Larger (GBs or more)

Startup processes and low-level system

Used By Operating system, software applications
functions

Active documents, programs running in

Example BIOS/UEFI, firmware in appliances
Windows

. Power Supply Unit (PSU) – Summary

The Power Supply Unit (PSU) is a critical component of a computer that converts electrical power from
an outlet into a usable form for the internal components of the system.

🔋 Key Functions:

 Converts AC (Alternating Current) from the wall outlet to DC (Direct Current) used by computer
components.
 Supplies stable and consistent power to components like the motherboard, CPU, GPU, storage
devices, and fans.
 Helps regulate voltage and protect against power surges or overloads.

🔌 Common Power Connectors:

 1. 24-pin ATX Connector – Powers the motherboard.
2. 4/8-pin CPU Connector (EPS) – Powers the CPU.
3. 6/8-pin PCIe Connectors – Power for graphics cards.
4. SATA Power Connectors – For SSDs, HDDs, and optical drives.
5. Molex Connectors – Legacy power for older devices like fans or IDE drives.

⚠️Important Specifications:

 Wattage (e.g., 500W, 750W): Total power it can supply.

 Efficiency Rating (80 PLUS Bronze, Silver, Gold, etc.): Measures power efficiency.
 Modular Design (Modular, Semi-Modular, Non-Modular): Affects cable management and
airflow.

The Power Supply Unit (PSU) in a computer provides the necessary electrical power to the internal
components, converting the incoming AC (alternating current) into DC (direct current) power that the
system can use. It includes various connectors that supply different components with the appropriate
voltages (e.g., 12V, 5V, and 3.3V).

Common PSU Connectors and Their Functions:

1. 24-pin ATX Connector (Main Power Connector):

o Function: Supplies power to the motherboard.
o Pin Breakdown:
 12V (Yellow)
 5V (Red)
 3.3V (Orange)
 Ground (Black)
 Power-On (Green, a signal to start the PSU when activated)
 +5V Standby (Purple, powers certain motherboard components when the PC is
off)
2. 4/8-pin CPU Power Connector (12V Power Connector):
o Function: Powers the CPU from the PSU to the motherboard.
o Provides a 12V supply to the CPU socket.
3. 6/8-pin PCIe Power Connector:
o Function: Supplies power to high-performance graphics cards (GPUs).
o Provides 12V power required for demanding components like GPUs.
4. SATA Power Connector:
o Function: Supplies power to SATA devices like hard drives and SSDs.
o Typically provides 3.3V, 5V, and 12V (in some configurations, a 15-pin connector).
5. Molex Power Connector:
o Function: Provides power to older hardware (like optical drives, some fans, etc.).
o Supplies 5V and 12V via a 4-pin connector.
6. Floppy Power Connector:
o Function: Supplies power to legacy floppy drives.
o Supplies 5V and 12V in a 4-pin format (rarely used now).

Random Access Memory (RAM) Summary:

Definition:

 RAM is a type of volatile memory used by computers and other devices to store data that is
actively being used or processed. It allows quick read and write access to a storage medium that
is faster than other forms of storage like hard drives or SSDs.

Key Characteristics:

1. Volatility:
o RAM is volatile, meaning it loses all stored data when power is turned off.
2. Temporary Storage:
o RAM stores data temporarily to facilitate fast access by the CPU during operation, which
boosts overall system performance.
3. Speed:
o RAM is much faster than hard drives or SSDs. It allows the CPU to retrieve data more
efficiently than from permanent storage.
4. Capacity:
o RAM is usually available in various sizes, typically ranging from 4GB to 64GB or more in
modern computers, depending on the application needs.
5. Form Factors:
o RAM modules come in different physical sizes and configurations, the most common
being DIMM (Dual In-line Memory Module) for desktops and SO-DIMM (Small Outline
DIMM) for laptops.

Types of RAM:

1. Dynamic RAM (DRAM):

o Most Common Type: DRAM needs to be refreshed thousands of times per second to
retain data. It's slower than other types but more cost-effective.
2. Static RAM (SRAM):
o Faster and More Expensive: SRAM does not require refreshing, making it faster and
more reliable, but it's also more costly and used less frequently in consumer products.
3. Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM):
o Synchronized with CPU Clock: SDRAM works in sync with the CPU's clock speed,
improving performance compared to traditional DRAM.
4. Double Data Rate (DDR) SDRAM:
o High-Performance DDR: This variant of SDRAM can transfer data on both the rising and
falling edges of the clock signal, effectively doubling the data rate. DDR has multiple
versions:
 DDR1, DDR2, DDR3, DDR4, DDR5 (each generation offers better speed and
efficiency).

RAM's Role in a Computer System:

 1. Active Processes:
o When a program or file is opened, it's loaded from the storage (HDD/SSD) into RAM so
the CPU can process it efficiently.
2. Temporary Data Storage:
o RAM is used for temporary storage of data the CPU is actively working on, such as
calculations, active web pages, and files in use.
3. Multitasking:
o More RAM allows a system to handle more tasks or applications simultaneously,
reducing slowdowns and crashes due to insufficient memory.

RAM vs. Other Storage:

Feature RAM Hard Drive (HDD) / SSD

Speed Very fast (Access time: ns) Slower (Access time: ms)

Volatility Volatile (Data is lost on shutdown) Non-volatile (Data remains)

Purpose Temporary, active data Long-term storage

Capacity Smaller (GB range) Larger (GB to TB range)

Common Issues Related to RAM:

1. Insufficient RAM:
o If a computer has too little RAM for the tasks at hand (e.g., gaming or video editing), it
can cause slowdowns and performance bottlenecks.
2. RAM Failure:
o Faulty RAM can cause system instability, crashes, and application errors. Tools like
MemTest86 are used to check for errors.
3. Upgrade:
o Adding more RAM can enhance system performance, especially when running multiple
applications or dealing with resource-intensive tasks.

Hard Disk Drive (HDD), M.2, and Solid State Drive (SSD) Summary

Hard Disk Drive (HDD), M.2, and Solid State Drive (SSD) are all types of storage devices, but they differ
in technology, performance, and physical form factors. Here's a breakdown of each:
1. Hard Disk Drive (HDD):

Definition:

 An HDD is a traditional mechanical storage device that uses spinning magnetic platters to store
data. The data is read or written by moving heads across the platters' surfaces.

Key Characteristics:

1. Mechanical Operation:
o Has moving parts, which makes it slower and more vulnerable to physical damage.
2. Capacity:
o Offers large storage capacities (typically ranging from 500GB to several terabytes),
making it a cost-effective solution for mass storage.
3. Speed:
o Slower read/write speeds compared to SSDs (100-200 MB/s), as it relies on mechanical
movement.
4. Durability:
o Prone to failure from physical shocks or vibrations due to its mechanical parts.
5. Cost:
o Relatively cheaper per GB than SSDs.
6. Noise and Heat:
o Generates noise due to the spinning disks and moving read/write heads and produces
more heat than SSDs.

2. M.2:

Definition:

 M.2 refers to a form factor and interface specification for storage devices, often used for SSDs.
It's not a storage technology itself but a physical slot and connection standard that supports
both SATA and NVMe SSDs.

Key Characteristics:

1. Form Factor:
o M.2 drives are small and thin, often used in laptops and ultra-thin PCs. They have no
moving parts, so they are faster, more durable, and more compact than traditional
drives like HDDs or 2.5-inch SSDs.
2. Interface:
o M.2 can support SATA (older, slower) or NVMe (newer, faster) protocols. NVMe drives
use PCIe lanes, which provide significantly faster speeds than SATA-based M.2 SSDs.
3. Speed:
 M.2 drives can be SATA-based (up to 600 MB/s) or NVMe-based (up to 7,000 MB/s or
o
higher in newer models like PCIe Gen 4 and Gen 5).
4. Capacity:
o M.2 SSDs come in a range of capacities, typically from 120GB to 2TB or more, depending
on the technology and model.
5. Form Factor Sizes:
o M.2 drives typically come in sizes like 2280, which refers to the dimensions (22mm wide,
80mm long).

3. Solid State Drive (SSD):

Definition:

 An SSD is a non-mechanical storage device that stores data in flash memory chips (NAND). It
offers faster speeds and greater durability than traditional HDDs due to the absence of moving
parts.

Key Characteristics:

1. No Moving Parts:
o SSDs are purely electronic, making them faster and more reliable than HDDs, with no
moving parts susceptible to physical damage.
2. Speed:
o SATA SSDs: Speed range from 500 MB/s to 600 MB/s (using the SATA interface).
o NVMe SSDs: Speed range from 1,000 MB/s to 7,000 MB/s (using the NVMe protocol
over PCIe lanes).
3. Durability:
o Resistant to physical shocks, making SSDs ideal for portable devices and laptops.
4. Capacity:
o SSDs come in capacities typically ranging from 120GB to several terabytes, with prices
dropping over time.
5. Form Factor:
o SSDs are available in several form factors, with 2.5-inch being the most common for
consumer SSDs. M.2 SSDs are more compact and used in modern laptops, while NVMe
M.2 SSDs offer the best speed performance.
6. Cost:
o SSDs are more expensive than HDDs per GB, though the price difference is decreasing.

Comparison: HDD vs M.2 vs SSD

Feature HDD M.2 (Form Factor) SSD (SATA or NVMe)

Technology Mechanical (spinning Form Factor, can be SATA or Flash memory (no moving parts)
 Feature HDD M.2 (Form Factor) SSD (SATA or NVMe)

platters) NVMe

Depends on SSD type (SATA or SATA: 500-600 MB/s, NVMe: up

Speed Slower (100-200 MB/s)
NVMe) to 7,000 MB/s

Vulnerable to physical Durable (depends on SSD

Durability Very durable, no moving parts
damage used)

More expensive per GB (NVMe

Cost Cheapest per GB Cost depends on SSD used
more costly)

Larger capacities (500GB

Capacity Typically 120GB to 2TB 120GB to 4TB+
to 10TB+)

Noise from moving parts,

Noise/Heat Silent, low heat Silent, low heat
more heat

Common Laptops, ultrabooks, high-

Bulk storage, backups OS, gaming, applications
Uses performance PCs

Key Takeaways:

 HDD is best for mass storage at a low cost but suffers from slower speeds and potential for
physical failure.
 M.2 is a form factor for SSDs, especially for modern devices requiring fast speeds and compact
size. M.2 SSDs can be either SATA-based (slower) or NVMe-based (faster).
 SSD offers the best performance with no moving parts. SATA SSDs are slower and cheaper, while
NVMe SSDs deliver high performance and are ideal for gaming, video editing, and other high-
demand applications.