Topic 1

CS314 Course Introduction

Chapman: I didn't expect a kind of Spanish Inquisition.
Cardinal Ximinez: NOBODY expects the Spanish Inquisition!
Our chief weapon is surprise...surprise and fear...fear and
surprise.... Our two weapons are fear and surprise...and
ruthless efficiency.... Our three weapons are fear, surprise,
and ruthless efficiency...and an almost fanatical devotion to the
Pope.... Our four...no... Amongst our weapons.... Amongst
our weaponry...are such diverse elements as fear, surprise....

In class: please close laptops

and put away mobile devices.
Mike Scott, Gates 6.304
[email protected]
www.cs.utexas.edu/~scottm/cs314/ 1
 Who Am I?
Professor of Instruction (lecturer)
in CS department since 2000
Undergrad Stanford, MSCS RPI
US Navy for 8 years, submarines
2 years Round Rock High School
prior to coming to UT

CS314 Course Overview 2

 Purpose of these Slides
Discuss
– course content
– procedures
– tools
For your TO DO list:
– complete items on the startup page

www.cs.utexas.edu/~scottm/cs314/handouts/startup.htm

CS314 Course Overview 3

 Course Goals
Analyze algorithms and code for efficiency
Be able to create and use canonical data
structures: lists (array and linked), stacks, queues,
trees, binary search trees, balanced binary search
trees, maps, sets, graphs, hash tables, heaps, tries
Know and use the following programming tools and
techniques: object oriented programming
(encapsulation, inheritance, polymorphism), Java
Interfaces, iterators, sorting, searching, recursion,
dynamic programming, functional programming

CS314 Course Overview 4

 Course Goals
After CS314 you can design and implement
medium size programs (several 100’s of lines
of code split between multiple classes) to
solve interesting problems
Recall, the three core areas of the UTCS
undergrad degree:
Programming, Theory, Systems
After this class your instructors shall expect
you can write complex programs given a
specification or problem statement.
– You have to design the algorithm in many cases.
CS314 Course Overview 5
 Prerequisites
Formal: CS312 with a grade of C- or higher
Informal: Ability to design and implement
programs in Java using the following:
•variables and data types •arrays (vectors, lists)
•expressions, order of •top down design (breaking big
operations rocks into little rocks)
•Conditionals (if statements) •algorithm and data design
•including boolean logic and •create and implement program of
boolean expressions at least 200 - 300 loc
•iteration (loops) •could you write a program to let
•Methods (functions, two people play connect 4?
procedures)
•Parameters
•structures or records or
objects Course Overview 6
 CS314 Topics
14. Searching, Simple Sorts
1. Introduction
15. Stacks
2. Algorithm Analysis
16. Queues
3. Encapsulation
17. Fast Sorting
4. Inheritance
18. Trees
5. Polymorphism
19. Binary Search Trees
6. Generics
20. Graphs
7. Interfaces
8. Iterators 21. Hash tables
22. Red-Black Trees
9. Abstract Classes
23. Huffman Code Trees
10. Maps, Sets
11. Linked Lists 24. Heaps
25. Tries
12. Recursion
26. Dynamic Programming
13. Recursive
Backtracking 27. Functional Programming
 Data Structures
simple definition:
– variables that store other
variables
We will learn a
toolbox full of
data structures …
… and how to
build them …
… and how to
use new ones.
CS314 Course Overview 8
 Clicker Question 1
Which of the following is a data structure?
A. a method
B. a try / catch block
C. a double
D. an array
E. more than one of A - D

CS314 Course Overview 9

 Resources
Class web site –
most course material
Class discussion
group – Ed Monday ->
Canvas -> Grades,
Program
Submissions
(GradeScope),
Access Zoom Links,
Recorded Lectures,
Wednesday ->
Help Videos
 Books
• books are recommended, not required
• free alternatives on the web, see schedule
• BJP (CS312 book) strongly recommended
• Thinking Recursively in Java - recursion

CS314 Course Overview 11

 Clicker Question 2
Which of these best describes you?
A. First year at UT and first year college student
B. First year at UT, transferring from another college
or university
C. Second year at UT
D. Third year at UT
E. Other

CS314 Course Overview 12

 Course Grades
 Exams 90% of grade, Non Exam Assessments 10% of grade
 Non Exam Components. Capped at 220 points,
40 points of "slack". 0 excuses for non exam assessments
– Syllabus Quiz, 10 points
– Extra credit: Background survey 10 points
– Academic Integrity Quiz, 10 points (100% or 0, multiple attempts)
– Programming projects, 11 projects, 20 points each,
220 points total
– Course Instructor Evals 10 points
 Exams 90% of grade: Outside of class
– Exam 1, Wednesday 9/25, 6:45 – 9:15 pm, 100 points
– Exam 2, Wednesday, 10/30, 6:45 - 9:15 pm, 100 points
– Exam 3, TBD, could be as late as 12/16, 100 points
 Section problems. +0.15 for each completed, 8 total
 Final Score = (exam 1 + exam 2 + exam 3) * 0.3
+ min(230, sum of non exam points) / 23 + SPs * 0.15
 Grades and Performance
Final grade determined by final point total and a
90 – 80 – 70 – 60 scale
– plusses and minuses if within 2.5 of cutoff:
A: [92.5 – 100] A-: [90 – 92.5) B+: [87.5 – 90)
B: [82.5 - 87.5), B-: [80.0 - 82.5), and so forth
Note the ")" indicates exclusive
No further rounding. 89.9999 -> B+
My CS314 Historical Grades
82% C- or higher:
– 28% A's, 34% B's, 20% C’s
8% D or F
10% Q or W (drop)
 WORK LOAD EVALUATED AS HIGH (but not
EXCESSIVE) ON COURSE SURVEYS 14
 Programming Assignments
Individual – do your own work (no copying
or use of LLMs / generative AIs)
Programs checked automatically with
plagiarism detection software (MOSS)
Turn in the right thing - correct name, correct
format or you will lose points / slip days
Graded on Correctness AND program hygiene
"Code is read more often than it is written."
- Guido Van Rossum, Creator of Python
Slip days: 8 for term, max 2 per assignment,
don’t use frivolously
 Succeeding in the Course
Randy Pausch,
CS Professor at CMU said:

 "When I got tenure a year

early at Virginia, other
Assistant Professors would come up to me and say, 'You
got tenure early!?!?! What's your secret?!?!?' and I
would tell them, 'Call me in my office at 10pm on Friday
night and I'll tell you.' "

 “A lot of people want a shortcut. I find the best

shortcut is the long way, which is basically two words:
work hard.”
16
 Succeeding in the Course - Meta
“Be the first penguin”
– Ask questions!!!
– lecture, section, Ed Discussion,
help hours, co-study
“It is impossible to be perfect”
– Mistakes are okay.
– That is how we learn.
– Trying to be perfect means not taking risks.
– no risks, no learning
“Find a Pack”
– Make friends.
– Study with them!
CS312 17
 How to Get Help
Ed Discussion Post
Help Hours
Class examples
Examples from book
Discuss with other students at a high level

18
Succeeding in the Course - Concrete
Former student:
– "I really like the boot camp nature of
your course."
 do the readings
 start on assignments early
 get help from the teaching staff when you get stuck on an
assignment
 attend lecture and discussion sections
 go to the extra study sessions, co-study
 participate on the class discussion group
 do extra problems - http://tinyurl.com/pnzp28f
 study for tests using the old tests
 study for tests in groups
 ask questions and get help 19
 Software
Java - Oracle or OpenJDK, limit ourselves to Java 8
IDE such as IntelliJ or Eclipse
Zoom, used occasionally

SSH into CS machines to test your programs

– CS department account
– SSH keys
– Ability to transfer files and login remotely
(WinSCP, Putty, Cyberduck, Filezilla, …)

CS314 Course Overview 20

 Clicker Question 3
Which computer programming language are
you most comfortable with?
A. Java
B. C or C++
C. Python
D. Javascript
E. Other
See: http://www.tiobe.com/index.php/content/paperinfo/tpci/index.html
and http://lang-index.sourceforge.net/

CS314 Course Overview 21

 Topic Number 2
Efficiency – Complexity -
Algorithm Analysis
"bit twiddling: 1. (pejorative) An exercise in tuning
(see tune) in which incredible amounts of time and
effort go to produce little noticeable improvement,
often with the result that the code
becomes incomprehensible."
- The Hackers Dictionary, version 4.4.7
 Clicker Question 1
“A program finds all the prime numbers
between 2 and 1,000,000,000 from scratch
in 0.37 seconds."
– Is this a fast solution?
A. no
B. yes
C. it depends

CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 2

 Efficiency
Computer Scientists don’t just write programs.
They also analyze them.
How efficient is a program?
– How much time does it take program to complete?
– How much memory does a program use?
– How do these change as the amount
of data changes?
– What is the difference between the average case
and worst case efficiency if any?

CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 3

 Technique
Informal approach for this class
– more formal techniques in theory classes, CS331
How many computations will this program
(method, algorithm) perform to get the answer?
Many simplifications
– view algorithms as Java programs
– determine by analysis the total number
executable statements (computations) in
program or method as a function of the amount
of data
– focus on the dominant term in the function
T(N) = 17N3 + 25N2 + 35N + 251 IS ORDER N3
 Counting Statements
int x; // one statement
x = 12; // one statement
int y = z * x + 3 % 5 * x / i; // 1
x++; // one statement
boolean p = x < y && y % 2 == 0 ||
z >= y * x; // 1
int[] data = new int[100]; // 100
data[50] = x * x + y * y; // 1

CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 5

 Clicker 2
What is output by the following code?
int total = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < 13; i++)
for (int j = 0; j < 11; j++)
total += 2;
System.out.println(total);

A. 24
B. 120
C. 143
D. 286
E. 338
CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 6
 Clicker 3
 What is output when method sample is called?
// pre: n >= 0, m >= 0
public static void sample(int n, int m) {
int total = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)
for (int j = 0; j < m; j++)
total += 5;
System.out.println(total);
}
A. 5 D. nm
B. n * m E. (n * m)5
C. n * m * 5
CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 7
 Example
public int total(int[] values) {
int result = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < values.length; i++)
result += values[i];
return result;
}

How many statements are executed by

method total as a function of
values.length
Let N = values.length
N is commonly used as a variable that denotes
the amount of data
CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 8
 Counting Up Statements
 int result = 0; 1
 int i = 0; 1
 i < values.length; N+1
 i++ N
 result += values[i]; N
 return total; 1
T(N) = 3N + 4
T(N) is the number of executable
statements in method total as function of
values.length
CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 9
 Another Simplification
When determining complexity of an
algorithm we want to simplify things
– ignore some details to make comparisons easier
Like assigning your grade for course
– At the end of CS314 your transcript won’t list all
the details of your performance in the course
– it won’t list scores on all assignments, quizzes,
and tests
– simply a letter grade, B- or A or D+
So we focus on the dominant term from the
function and ignore the coefficient
CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 10
 Big O
The most common method and notation for
discussing the execution time of algorithms is
Big O, also spoken Order
Big O is the asymptotic execution time
of the algorithm
– In other words, how does the running time of the
algorithm grow as a function of the amount of
input data?
Big O is an upper bounds
It is a mathematical tool
Hide a lot of unimportant details by assigning
a simple grade (function) to algorithms
 Formal Definition of Big O
T(N) is O( F(N) ) if there are positive
constants c and N0 such that T(N) < cF(N)
when N > N0
– N is the size of the data set the algorithm works on
– T(N) is a function that characterizes the actual
running time of the algorithm
– F(N) is a function that characterizes an upper
bounds on T(N). It is a limit on the running time of
the algorithm. (The typical Big functions table)
– c and N0 are constants

CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 12

 What it Means
T(N) is the actual growth rate of the
algorithm
– can be equated to the number of executable
statements in a program or chunk of code
F(N) is the function that bounds the growth
rate
– may be upper or lower bound
T(N) may not necessarily equal F(N)
– constants and lesser terms ignored because it is
a bounding function
CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 13
 Showing O(N) is Correct
Recall the formal definition of Big O
– T(N) is O( F(N) ) if there are positive constants c
and N0 such that T(N) < cF(N) when N > N0
Recall method total, T(N) = 3N + 4
– show method total is O(N).
– F(N) is N
We need to choose constants c and N0
how about c = 4, N0 = 5 ?

CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 14

vertical axis: time for algorithm to complete. (simplified to
number of executable statements)
c * F(N), in this case,
c = 4, c * F(N) = 4N

T(N), actual function of number of computations.

In this case 3N + 4

F(N), approximate function

of computations. In this case N

No = 5
horizontal axis: N, number of elements in data set
CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 15
 Typical Big O Functions – "Grades"
Function Common Name
N! factorial Running
time grows
2N Exponential 'quickly' with
Nd, d > 3 Polynomial more input.
N3 Cubic
N2 Quadratic
N N N Square root N
N log N N log N

N Linear
Running
N Root - n time grows
'slowly' with
log N Logarithmic
more input.
1 Constant
CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 16
 Clicker 4
Which of the following is true?
Recall T(N)total = 3N + 4
A. Method total is O(N1/2)
B. Method total is O(N)
C. Method total is O(N2)
D. Two of A – C are correct
E. All of three of A – C are correct

CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 17

 Showing Order More Formally …
Show 10N2 + 15N is O(N2)
Break into terms.

10N2 < 10N2

15N < 15N2 for N > 1 (Now add)
10N2 + 15N < 10N2 + 15N2 for N > 1
10N2 + 15N < 25N2 for N > 1
c = 25, N0 = 1
Note, the choices for c and N0 are not unique.
CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 18
 Dealing with other methods
What do I do about method calls?
double sum = 0.0;
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)
sum += Math.sqrt(i);
Long way
– go to that method or constructor and
count statements
Short way
– substitute the simplified Big O function for
that method.
– if Math.sqrt is constant time, O(1), simply count
sum += Math.sqrt(i); as one statement.
CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 19
 Dealing With Other Methods
public int foo(int[] data) {
int total = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < data.length; i++)
total += countDups(data[i], data);
return total;
}
// method countDups is O(N) where N is the
// length of the array it is passed

Clicker 5, What is the Big O of foo?

A. O(1) B. O(N) C. O(NlogN)
D. O(N2) E. O(N!)
CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 20
 Independent Loops
// from the Matrix class
public void scale(int factor) {
for (int r = 0; r < numRows(); r++)
for (int c = 0; c < numCols(); c++)
iCells[r][c] *= factor;
}
numRows() returns number of rows in the matrix iCells
numCols() returns number of columns in the matrix iCells
Assume iCells is an N by N square matrix.
Assume numRows and numCols are O(1)
What is the T(N)? Clicker 6, What is the Order?
A. O(1) B. O(N) C. O(NlogN)
D. O(N2) E. O(N!)
Bonus question. What if numRows is O(N)?
 Just Count Loops, Right?
// Assume mat is a 2d array of booleans.
// Assume mat is square with N rows,
// and N columns.
public static void count(boolean[][] mat,
int row, int col) {
int numThings = 0;
for (int r = row - 1; r <= row + 1; r++)
for (int c = col - 1; c <= col + 1; c++)
if (mat[r][c])
numThings++;
Clicker 7, What is the order of the method count?
A. O(1) B. O(N0.5) C. O(N) D. O(N2) E. O(N3)

CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 22

 It is Not Just Counting Loops
// "Unroll" the loop of method count:
int numThings = 0;
if (mat[r-1][c-1]) numThings++;
if (mat[r-1][c]) numThings++;
if (mat[r-1][c+1]) numThings++;
if (mat[r][c-1]) numThings++;
if (mat[r][c]) numThings++;
if (mat[r][c+1]) numThings++;
if (mat[r+1][c-1]) numThings++;
if (mat[r+1][c]) numThings++;
if (mat[r+1][c+1]) numThings++;

CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 23

 Just Count Loops, Right?
private static void mystery(int[] data) {
stopIndex = data.length – 1;
int j = 1;
while (stopIndex > 0) {
if (data[j – 1] > data[j]) {
int t = data[j];
data[j] = data[j – 1];
data[j – 1] = t;
}
if (j == stopIndex) {
stopIndex--;
j = 1;
} else {
j++;
}
} N = data.length
Clicker 8, What is the order of method mystery?
A. O(1) B. O(N0.5) C. O(N) D. O(N2) E. O(N3)
 Sidetrack, the logarithm
Thanks to Dr. Math
32 = 9
likewise log3 9 = 2
– "The log to the base 3 of 9 is 2."
The way to think about log is:
– "the log to the base x of y is the number you can
raise x to to get y."
– Say to yourself "The log is the exponent." (and say
it over and over until you believe it.)
– In CS we work with base 2 logs, a lot
 log2 32 = ? log2 8 = ? log2 1024 = ? log10 1000 = ?
CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 25
 When Do Logarithms Occur
Algorithms tend to have a logarithmic term when
they use a divide and conquer technique
the size of the data set keeps getting divided by 2
public int foo(int n) {
// pre n > 0
int total = 0;
while (n > 0) {
n = n / 2;
total++;
}
return total;
}
 Clicker 9, What is the order of the above code?
A. O(1) B. O(logN) C. O(N)
D. O(Nlog N) E. O(N2)
The base of the log is typically not included as we can switch from 26
one base to another by multiplying by a constant factor.
 Significant Improvement – Algorithm
with Smaller Big O function
Problem: Given an array of ints replace any
element equal to 0 with the maximum
positive value to the right of that element. (if
no positive value to the right, leave
unchanged.)
Given:
[0, 9, 0, 13, 0, 0, 7, 1, -1, 0, 1, 0]
Becomes:
[13, 9, 13, 13, 7, 7, 7, 1, -1, 1, 1, 0]
CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 27
 Replace Zeros – Typical Solution
public void replace0s(int[] data){
for(int i = 0; i < data.length; i++){
if (data[i] == 0) {
int max = 0;
for(int j = i+1; j<data.length; j++)
max = Math.max(max, data[j]);
data[i] = max;
}
}
}
Assume all values are zeros. (worst case)
Example of a dependent loops.
Clicker 10 - Number of times j < data.length evaluated?
A.O(1) B. O(N) C. O(NlogN)
D. O(N2) E. O(N!)
 Replace Zeros – Alternate Solution
public void replace0s(int[] data){
int max =
Math.max(0, data[data.length – 1]);
int start = data.length – 2;
for (int i = start; i >= 0; i--) {
if (data[i] == 0)
data[i] = max;
else
max = Math.max(max, data[i]);
}
}
Clicker 11 - Big O of this approach?
A.O(1) B. O(N) C. O(NlogN)
D. O(N2) E. O(N!)
CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 29
 Clicker 12
Is O(N) really that much faster than O(N2)?
A. never
B. always
C. typically
Depends on the actual functions and the
value of N.
1000N + 250 compared to N2 + 10
When do we use mechanized computation?
N = 100,000
100,000,250 < 10,000,000,010 (108 < 1010)
30
 A VERY Useful Proportion
Since F(N) is characterizes the running time
of an algorithm the following proportion
should hold true:
F(N0) / F(N1) ~= time0 / time1
An algorithm that is O(N2) takes 3 seconds
to run given 10,000 pieces of data.
– How long do you expect it to take when there are
30,000 pieces of data?
– common mistake
– logarithms?
CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 31
 Why Use Big O?
As we build data structures Big O is the tool we will
use to decide under what conditions one data
structure is better than another
Think about performance when there is a lot of
data.
– "It worked so well with small data sets..."
– Joel Spolsky, Schlemiel the painter's Algorithm
Lots of trade offs
– some data structures good for certain types of problems,
bad for other types
– often able to trade SPACE for TIME.
– Faster solution that uses more space
– Slower solution that uses less space
CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 32
 Big O Space
Big O could be used to specify how much
space is needed for a particular algorithm
– in other words how many variables are needed
Often there is a time – space tradeoff
– can often take less time if willing to use more
memory
– can often use less memory if willing to take
longer
– truly beautiful solutions take less time and space
The biggest difference between time and space is
that you can't reuse time. - Merrick Furst
CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 33
 Quantifiers on Big O
It is often useful to discuss different cases for
an algorithm
Best Case: what is the best we can hope for?
– least interesting, but a good exercise
– Don't assume no data. Amount of date is still
variable, possibly quite large
Average Case (a.k.a. expected running time):
what usually happens with the algorithm?
Worst Case: what is the worst we can expect
of the algorithm?
– very interesting to compare this to the average case
CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 34
 Best, Average, Worst Case
To Determine the best, average, and worst
case Big O we must make assumptions
about the data set
Best case -> what are the properties of the data set
that will lead to the fewest number of executable
statements (steps in the algorithm)
Worst case -> what are the properties of the data
set that will lead to the largest number of
executable statements
Average case -> Usually this means assuming the
data is randomly distributed
– or if I ran the algorithm a large number of times with different sets of
data what would the average amount of work be for those runs?
CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 35
 Another Example
public double minimum(double[] values) {
int n = values.length;
double minValue = values[0];
for (int i = 1; i < n; i++)
if (values[i] < minValue)
minValue = values[i];
return minValue;
}
T(N)? F(N)? Big O? Best case? Worst Case?
Average Case?
If no other information, assume asking average case
CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 36
 Example of Dominance
Look at an extreme example. Assume the
actual number as a function of the amount of
data is:
N2/10000 + 2Nlog10 N+ 100000
Is it plausible to say the N2 term dominates
even though it is divided by 10000 and that
the algorithm is O(N2)?
What if we separate the equation into
(N2/10000) and (2N log10 N + 100000) and
graph the results.
CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 37
 Summing Execution Times

red line is
2Nlog10 N + 100000

blue line is
N2/10000

For large values of N the N2 term dominates so the

algorithm is O(N2)
When does it make sense to use a computer?
CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 38
 Comparing Grades
Assume we have a problem
Algorithm A solves the problem correctly and
is O(N2)
Algorithm B solves the same problem
correctly and is O(N log2N )
Which algorithm is faster?
One of the assumptions of Big O is that the
data set is large.
The "grades" should be accurate tools if this
holds true.
CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 39
 Running Times
Assume N = 100,000 and processor speed
is 1,000,000,000 operations per second
Function Running Time
2N 3.2 x 1030,086 years
N4 3171 years
N3 11.6 days
N2 10 seconds
N N 0.032 seconds
N log N 0.0017 seconds
N 0.0001 seconds
N 3.2 x 10-7 seconds
log N 1.2 x 10-8 seconds

CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 40

 Theory to Practice OR
Dykstra says: "Pictures are for the Weak."
1000 2000 4000 8000 16000 32000 64000 128K

O(N) 2.2x10-5 2.7x10-5 5.4x10-5 4.2x10-5 6.8x10-5 1.2x10-4 2.3x10-4 5.1x10-4

O(NlogN) 8.5x10-5 1.9x10-4 3.7x10-4 4.7x10-4 1.0x10-3 2.1x10-3 4.6x10-3 1.2x10-2

O(N3/2) 3.5x10-5 6.9x10-4 1.7x10-3 5.0x10-3 1.4x10-2 3.8x10-2 0.11 0.30

O(N2) ind. 3.4x10-3 1.4x10-3 4.4x10-3 0.22 0.86 3.45 13.79 (55)

O(N2) (27.6)
1.8x10-3 7.1x10-3 2.7x10-2 0.11 0.43 1.73 6.90
dep.
(1745) (13,957) (112k) (896k) (7.2m)
O(N3) 3.40 27.26 (218)
29 min. 233 min 31 hrs 10 days 80 days

Times in Seconds. Red indicates predicated value.

CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 41
 Change between Data Points
1000 2000 4000 8000 16000 32000 64000 128K 256k 512k

1.21 2.02 0.78 1.62 1.76 1.89 2.24 2.11 1.62

O(N) -
O(NlogN) - 2.18 1.99 1.27 2.13 2.15 2.15 2.71 1.64 2.40

O(N3/2) - 1.98 2.48 2.87 2.79 2.76 2.85 2.79 2.82 2.81

O(N2) ind - 4.06 3.98 3.94 3.99 4.00 3.99 - - -

O(N2) - 4.00 3.82 3.97 4.00 4.01 3.98 - - -

dep

O(N3) - 8.03 - - - - - - - -

Value obtained by Timex / Timex-1

CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 42
 Okay, Pictures
Results on a 2GhZ laptop

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5 N
NlogN
Time

2.0 NsqrtN
N^2
1.5 N^2

1.0

0.5

0.0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000
Value of N

CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 43

 Put a Cap on Time
Results on a 2GhZ laptop

0.20

0.18

0.16

0.14
N
0.12
NlogN
Time

0.10 NsqrtN
N^2
0.08
N^2
0.06

0.04

0.02

0.00
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000
Value of N

CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 44

 No O(N^2) Data
Results on a 2GhZ laptop

3.00

2.50

2.00

N
Time

1.50 NlogN
NsqrtN

1.00

0.50

0.00
0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000 600000
Value of N

CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 45

 Just O(N) and O(NlogN)
Results on a 2GhZ laptop

0.06

0.05

0.04

N
Time

0.03
NlogN

0.02

0.01

0.00
0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000 600000
Value of N

CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 46

 Just O(N)
N

0.0020

0.0018

0.0016

0.0014

0.0012

0.0010 N

0.0008

0.0006

0.0004

0.0002

0.0000
0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000 600000

CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 47

 109 instructions/sec, runtimes
N O(log N) O(N) O(N log N) O(N2)
10 0.000000003 0.00000001 0.000000033 0.0000001

100 0.000000007 0.00000010 0.000000664 0.0001000

1,000 0.000000010 0.00000100 0.000010000 0.001

10,000 0.000000013 0.00001000 0.000132900 0.1 min

100,000 0.000000017 0.00010000 0.001661000 10 seconds

1,000,000 0.000000020 0.001 0.0199 16.7 minutes

1,000,000,000 0.000000030 1.0 second 30 seconds 31.7 years

CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 48

 Formal Definition of Big O (repeated)
T(N) is O( F(N) ) if there are positive
constants c and N0 such that T(N) < cF(N)
when N > N0
– N is the size of the data set the algorithm works on
– T(N) is a function that characterizes the actual
running time of the algorithm
– F(N) is a function that characterizes an upper
bounds on T(N). It is a limit on the running time of
the algorithm
– c and N0 are constants

CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 49

 More on the Formal Definition
There is a point N0 such that for all values of N that
are past this point, T(N) is bounded by some
multiple of F(N)
Thus if T(N) of the algorithm is O( N^2 ) then,
ignoring constants, at some point we can bound the
running time by a quadratic function.
given a linear algorithm it is technically correct to
say the running time is O(N ^ 2). O(N) is a more
precise answer as to the Big O of the linear
algorithm
– thus the caveat “pick the most restrictive function” in Big
O type questions.
CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 50
 What it All Means
T(N) is the actual growth rate of the
algorithm
– can be equated to the number of executable
statements in a program or chunk of code
F(N) is the function that bounds the growth
rate
– may be upper or lower bound
T(N) may not necessarily equal F(N)
– constants and lesser terms ignored because it is
a bounding function
CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 51
 Other Algorithmic Analysis Tools
Big Omega T(N) is ( F(N) ) if there are
positive constants c and N0 such that
T(N) > cF( N )) when N > N0
– Big O is similar to less than or equal, an upper
bounds
– Big Omega is similar to greater than or equal, a
lower bound
Big Theta T(N) is ( F(N) ) if and only if T(N)
is O( F(N) )and T( N ) is ( F(N) ).
– Big Theta is similar to equals

CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 52

 Relative Rates of Growth
Analysis Mathematical Relative
Type Expression Rates of
Growth
Big O T(N) = O( F(N) ) T(N) < F(N)

Big  T(N) = ( F(N) ) T(N) > F(N)

Big  T(N) = ( F(N) ) T(N) = F(N)

"In spite of the additional precision offered by Big Theta,

Big O is more commonly used, except by researchers
in the algorithms analysis field" - Mark Weiss
CS 314 Efficiency - Complexity 53
 Topic 3
Encapsulation - Implementing Classes

“And so, from Europe, we get things such

as ... object-oriented analysis and design
(a clever way of breaking up software
programming instructions and data into
small, reusable objects, based on certain
abstraction principles and design
hierarchies.)”
-Michael A. Cusumano,
The Business Of Software
 Object Oriented Programming
Creating large programs that work turns out
to be very difficult
– DIA Automated baggage handling system
– Ariane 5 Flight 501
– More
Object oriented programming is one way of
managing the complexity of programming
and software projects
Break up big problems into smaller, more
manageable problems
CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 2
 Object Oriented Programming
"Object-oriented programming is a method of
programming based on a hierarchy of classes, and
well-defined and cooperating objects. "
What is a class?
"A class is a structure that defines the data and the
methods to work on that data. When you write
programs in the Java language, all program data is
wrapped in a class, whether it is a class you write
or a class you use from the Java platform API
libraries."
– a new data type

CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 3

 Object Oriented Programming
In other words break the problem up based
on the things / data types that are part of the
problem
Not the only way
One of many different kinds of strategies or
paradigms for software development
– functional, procedural, event driven, data flow,
formal methods, agile or extreme, ...
In 314 we will do a lot of object based
programming
CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 4
 Example - Monopoly
If we had to start
from scratch what
classes would we
need to create?

CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 5

 Encapsulation
One of the features of object oriented
languages
Allows programmers to define
new data types
Hide the data of an object (variable)
Group operations and data together into a
new data type
Usually easier to use something than
understand exactly how it works
– microwave, car, computer, software, mp3 player
CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 6
 Data Structures
A data structure is a variable that stores
other variables. (overly simplified definition)
– aka Collection, Container
May be ordered or unordered (from client’s
perspective)
– Order a first element, second element,…
– Lists are ordered, sets are typically unordered
May allow duplicate values or not
– Lists allow duplicates, sets typically do not

CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 7

 The IntList Class
We will develop a class that models a list of ints
– initially a pale imitation of the Java ArrayList class
Improvement on an array of ints
– resize automatically
– insert easily
– remove easily
A list - our first data structure
– a variable that stores other variables
Lists maintain elements in a definite order and
duplicates are allowed
0 1 2 3 4 <- indices / positions
[5, 12, 5, 17, -5] <- elements
CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 8
 Clicker 1
Our IntList class has an array of ints instance
variable (int[] container). What should the
length of this internal array be?

A. less than or equal to the size of the list

B. greater than or equal to the size of the list
C. equal to the size of the list
D. some fixed amount that never changes
E. 0
CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 9
 Array length less than
the number of elements
in the list?!?

What if most elements are all

the same value? Only store the
elements (and their position) not
10
equal to the default? Sparse List
 Clicker 2
When adding a new element to a list,
where should the new element be
added by default?

A. The beginning
B. The end
C. The middle
D. A random location
E. Don’t bother to actually add
CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 11
 IntList Design
Create a new, empty IntList
new IntList -> []
The above is not code. It is a notation that shows
what the results of operations. [] is an empty list.
add to a list.
[].add(1) -> [1]
[1].add(5) -> [1, 5]
[1, 5].add(4) -> [1, 5, 4]
elements in a list have a definite order and a
position.
– zero based position or 1 based positioning?
CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 12
 IntList aList = new IntList();
aList.add(42);
aList.add(12);
aList.add(37);
aList

Abstract view of IntList

list of integers size 3

0 1 2 con
[42, 12, 37]

The wall of 42 12 37 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

abstraction. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 13

 Instance Variables
Internal data
– also called instance variables because every
instance (object) of this class has its own copy of
these
– something to store the elements of the list
– size of internal storage container?
– if not what else is needed
Must be clear on the difference between the
internal data of an IntList object and the
IntList that is being represented
Why make internal data private?
CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 14
 Constructors
For initialization of objects
IntList constructors
– default
– initial capacity?
redirecting to another constructor
this(10);
class constants
– what static means

CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 15

 Default add method
where to add?
what if not enough space?
[].add(3) -> [3]
[3].add(5) -> [3, 5]
[3, 5].add(3) -> [3, 5, 3]

Testing, testing, testing!

– a toString method would be useful

CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 16

 The IntList Class
instance variables
constructors
– default
– initial capacity
• preconditions, exceptions, postconditions, assert
– meaning of static
add method
get method
size method

CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 17

 toString method
return a Java String of list
empty list -> []
one element -> [12]
multiple elements -> [12, 0, 5, 4]

CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 18

 Clicker 3 - Timing Experiment
Add N elements to an initially empty IntList then call
toString. Time both events. How does the time to add
compare to the time to complete toString?
IntList list = new IntList();
for (int i = 0; i < N; i++)
list.add(i); // resize, cap * 2
String s = list.toString();
A. time to add << time for toString()
B. time to add < time for toString()
C. time to add ~= time for toString()
D. time to add > time for toString()
E. time to add >> time for toString()
 The IntList Class
testing!!!
toString
– “beware the performance of String
concatenation” – Joshua Bloch
insert method (int pos, int value)
remove method(int pos)
insertAll method
(int pos, IntList other)
– queens and kings of all the IntLists!!!

CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 20

 Clicker Question 4
What is output by the following code?
IntList list
list = new IntList(25);
System.out.println(list.size());
A. 25
B. 0
C. -1
D. unknown
E. No output due to runtime error.
CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 21
 get and size methods
get
– access element from list
– preconditions?
[3, 5, 2].get(0) returns 3
[3, 5, 2].get(1) returns 5
size
– number of elements in the list
– Do not confuse with the capacity of the internal
storage container
– The array is not the list!
[4, 5, 2].size() returns 3
CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 22
 insert method
add at someplace besides the end
[3, 5].insert(1, 4) -> [3, 4, 5]
where what

[3, 4, 5].insert(0, 4) -> [4, 3, 4, 5]

preconditions?
overload add?
chance for internal loose coupling

CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 23

 Clicker 5
What is output by the following code?
IntList list = new IntList();
list.add(3);
list.insert(0, 4); // position, value
list.insert(1, 1);
list.add(5);
list.insert(2, 9);
System.out.println(list);
A. [4, 1, 3, 9, 5]
B. [3, 4, 1, 5, 9]
C. [4, 1, 9, 3, 5]
D. [3, 1, 4, 9, 5]
E. Something else
CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 24
 remove method
remove an element from the list based on
location
[3, 4, 5].remove(0) -> [4, 5]
[3, 5, 6, 1, 2].remove(2) ->
[3, 5, 1, 2]
preconditions?
return value?
– accessor methods, mutator methods, and
mutator methods that return a value

CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 25

 Clicker Question 6
What is output by the following code?
IntList list = new IntList();
list.add(12);
list.add(15);
list.add(12);
list.add(17);
list.remove(1);
System.out.println(list);
A. [15, 17]
B. [12, 17]
C. [12, 0, 12, 17]
D. [12, 12, 17]
E. [15, 12, 17]

CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 26

 insertAll method
add all elements of one list to another
starting at a specified location
[5, 3, 7].insertAll(2, [2, 3]) ->
[5, 3, 2, 3, 7]
The parameter [2, 3] would be unchanged.
Working with other objects of the same type
– this?
– where is private private?
– loose coupling vs. performance
– queens and kings of all the IntLists!!!
CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 27
 Clicker 7 - InsertAll First Version
What is the order of the first version of
InsertAll? Assume both lists have N elements
and that the insert position is halfway through
the calling list.
A. O(1)
B. O(logN)
C. O(N0.5)
D. O(N)
E. O(N2)
CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 28
Class Design and Implementation –
Another Example
This example will not be covered
in class.
 The Die Class
Consider a class used
to model a die
What is the interface? What
actions should a die be able
to perform?

The methods or behaviors can be broken up

into constructors, mutators, accessors
CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 30
 The Die Class Interface
Constructors (used in creation of objects)
– default, single int parameter to specify the
number of sides, int and boolean to determine if
should roll
Mutators (change state of objects)
– roll
Accessors (do not change state of objects)
– getResult, getNumSides, toString
Public constants
– DEFAULT_SIDES
CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 31
 Visibility Modifiers
All parts of a class have visibility modifiers
– Java keywords
– public, protected, private, (no modifier means package
access)
– do not use these modifiers on local variables (syntax error)
public means that constructor, method, or field may
be accessed outside of the class.
– part of the interface
– constructors and methods are generally public
private means that part of the class is hidden and
inaccessible by code outside of the class
– part of the implementation
– data fields are generally private
CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 32
 The Die Class Implementation
Implementation is made up of constructor code,
method code, and private data members of the
class.
scope of data members / instance variables
– private data members may be used in any of the
constructors or methods of a class
Implementation is hidden from users of a class and
can be changed without changing the interface or
affecting clients (other classes that use this class)
– Example: Previous version of Die class,
DieVersion1.java
Once Die class completed can be used in anything
requiring a Die or situation requiring random
numbers between 1 and N
– DieTester class. What does it do?
CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 33
 DieTester method
public static void main(String[] args) {
final int NUM_ROLLS = 50;
final int TEN_SIDED = 10;
Die d1 = new Die();
Die d2 = new Die();
Die d3 = new Die(TEN_SIDED);
final int MAX_ROLL = d1.getNumSides() +
d2.getNumSides() + d3.getNumSides();

for(int i = 0; i < NUM_ROLLS; i++)

{ d1.roll();
d2.roll();
System.out.println("d1: " + d1.getResult()
+ " d2: " + d2.getResult() + " Total: "
+ (d1.getResult() + d2.getResult() ) );
}

CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 34

 DieTester continued
int total = 0;
int numRolls = 0;
do
{ d1.roll();
d2.roll();
d3.roll();
total = d1.getResult() + d2.getResult()
+ d3.getResult();
numRolls++;
}
while(total != MAX_ROLL);

System.out.println("\n\nNumber of rolls to get "

+ MAX_ROLL + " was " + numRolls);

CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 35

 Correctness Sidetrack
When creating the public interface of a class give
careful thought and consideration to the contract
you are creating between yourself and users (other
programmers) of your class
Use preconditions to state what you assume to be
true before a method is called
– caller of the method is responsible for making sure these
are true
Use postconditions to state what you guarantee to
be true after the method is done if the preconditions
are met
– implementer of the method is responsible for making
sure these are true
CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 36
 Precondition and
Postcondition Example
/* pre: numSides > 1
post: getResult() = 1, getNumSides() = sides
*/
public Die(int numSides)
{ assert (numSides > 1) : “Violation of precondition: Die(int)”;
iMyNumSides = numSides;
iMyResult = 1;
assert getResult() == 1 && getNumSides() == numSides;
}

CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 37

 Object Behavior - Instantiation
Consider the DieTester class
Die d1 = new Die();
Die d2 = new Die();
Die d3 = new Die(10);
When the new operator is invoked control is
transferred to the Die class and the specified
constructor is executed, based on parameter matching
Space(memory) is set aside for the new object's fields
The memory address of the new object is passed
back and stored in the object variable (pointer)
After creating the object, methods may be called on it.

CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 38

 Creating Dice Objects
memory a Die object
address
6 1
d1
DieTester class. Sees iMySides iMyResult Die class.
interface of Die class Sees
a Die object
implementation.
memory (of Die class.)
address
6 1
iMySides iMyResult
d2
a Die object
memory
address 10 1
d3 iMySides iMyResult
CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 39
 Objects
Every Die object created has its own
instance of the variables declared in the
class blueprint
private int iMySides;
private int iMyResult;
thus the term instance variable
the instance vars are part of the hidden
implementation and may be of any data type
– unless they are public, which is almost always a
bad idea if you follow the tenets of information
hiding and encapsulation

CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 40

 Complex Objects
What if one of the instance variables is itself
an object?
add to the Die class
private String myName;
memory a Die object
address 6 1 memory
address
d1 iMySides iMyResult myName

d1 can hold the memory address

of a Die object. The instance variable a String object
myName inside a Die object can hold implementation
the memory address of a String object details not shown
CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 41
 The Implicit Parameter
Consider this code from the Die class
public void roll()
{ iMyResult =
ourRandomNumGen.nextInt(iMySides) + 1;
}

Taken in isolation this code is rather confusing.

what is this iMyResult thing?
– It's not a parameter or local variable
– why does it exist?
– it belongs to the Die object that called this method
– if there are numerous Die objects in existence
– Which one is used depends on which object called
the method.
CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 42
 The this Keyword
When a method is called it may be necessary
for the calling object to be able to refer to itself
– most likely so it can pass itself somewhere as a
parameter
when an object calls a method an implicit
reference is assigned to the calling object
the name of this implicit reference is this
this is a reference to the current calling object
and may be used as an object variable (may not
declare it)

CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 43

 this Visually memory
// in some class other than Die address
Die d3 = new Die();
d3.roll(); d3
// in the Die class
public void roll()
{ iMyResult =
ourRandomNumGen.nextInt(iMySides) + 1;
/* OR
this.iMyResult…
*/ a Die object
} memory
address 6 1
this iMySides iMyResult

CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 44

 An equals method
working with objects of the same type in a
class can be confusing
write an equals method for the Die class.
assume every Die has a myName instance
variable as well as iMyNumber and iMySides

CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 45

 A Possible Equals Method
public boolean equals(Object otherObject)
{ Die other = (Die)otherObject;
return iMySides == other.iMySides
&& iMyResult== other.iMyResult
&& myName.equals( other.myName );
}
Declared Type of Parameter is Object not Die
override (replace) the equals method instead of
overload (present an alternate version)
– easier to create generic code
we will see the equals method is inherited from
the Object class
access to another object's private instance
variables?
CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 46
 Another equals Methods
public boolean equals(Object otherObject)
{ // dangerous! Not checking for null or type.
Die other = (Die)otherObject;
return this.iMySides == other.iMySides
&& this.iMyNumber == other.iMyNumber
&& this.myName.equals( other.myName );
}

Using the this keyword / reference to access the implicit parameters

instance variables is unnecessary.
If a method within the same class is called within a method, the
original calling object is still the calling object

CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 47

 A "Perfect" Equals Method
From Cay Horstmann's Core Java
public boolean equals(Object otherObject)
{ // check if objects identical
if( this == otherObject)
return true;
// must return false if explicit parameter null
if(otherObject == null)
return false;
// if objects not of same type they cannot be equal
if(getClass() != otherObject.getClass() )
return false;
// we know otherObject is a non null Die
Die other = (Die)otherObject;
return iMySides == other.iMySides
&& iMyNumber == other.iMyNumber
&& myName.equals( other.myName );
}
CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 48
 the instanceof Operator
instanceof is a Java keyword.
part of a boolean statement
public boolean equals(Object otherObj)
{ if otherObj instanceof Die
{ //now go and cast
// rest of equals method
}
}
Should not use instanceof in equals methods.
instanceof has its uses but not in equals
because of the contract of the equals method
CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 49
Class Variables and Class Methods
Sometimes every object of a class does not
need its own copy of a variable or constant
The keyword static is used to specify
class variables, constants, and methods
private static Random ourRandNumGen
= new Random();
public static final int DEFAULT_SIDES = 6;
The most prevalent use of static is for class
constants.
– if the value can't be changed why should every
object have a copy of this non changing value
CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 50
 Class Variables and Constants
the Die class
memory
6 address
DEFAULT_SIDES ourRandNumGen

a Random object
All objects of type Die have
access to the class variables implementation
and constants. details not shown

A public class variable or constant

may be referred to via the class name.

CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 51

Syntax for Accessing Class Variables
public class UseDieStatic
{ public static void main(String[] args)
{ System.out.println( "Die.DEFAULT_SIDES "
+ Die.DEFAULT_SIDES );
// Any attempt to access Die.ourRandNumGen
// would generate a syntax error

Die d1 = new Die(10);

System.out.println( "Die.DEFAULT_SIDES "

+ Die.DEFAULT_SIDES );
System.out.println( "d1.DEFAULT_SIDES "
+ d1.DEFAULT_SIDES );

// regardless of the number of Die objects in

// existence, there is only one copy of DEFAULT_SIDES
// in the Die class

} // end of main method

} // end of UseDieStatic class
CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 52
 Static Methods
static has a somewhat different
meaning when used in a method
declaration
static methods may not manipulate any
instance variables
in non static methods, some object
invokes the method
d3.roll();
the object that makes the method call is
an implicit parameter to the method

CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 53

 Static Methods Continued
Since there is no implicit object parameter
sent to the static method it does not have
access to a copy of any objects instance
variables
– unless of course that object is sent as an
explicit parameter
Static methods are normally utility methods
or used to manipulate static variables
( class variables )
The Math and System classes are nothing
but static methods
CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 54
 static and this
Why does this work (added to Die class)
public class Die
{
public void outputSelf()
{ System.out.println( this );
}
}

but this doesn't?

public class StaticThis
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{ System.out.println( this );
}
}
CS 314 Encapsulation - Implementing Classes 55
 Topic 4
Inheritance
"Question: What is the object oriented way of
getting rich?

Answer: Inheritance.“

1
 Features of OO Programming
Encapsulation
– abstraction, creating new data types
– information hiding
– breaking problem up based on data types
Inheritance
– code reuse
– specialization
– "New code using old code."

CS 314 Inheritance 2
 Encapsulation
Create a program to allow people to play the
game Monopoly
– Create classes for money, dice, players, the
bank, the board, chance cards, community chest
cards, pieces, etc.
Some classes use other classes. Are clients
– the board consists of spaces
– a player has properties they own
– a piece has a position
Also referred to as composition
CS 314 Inheritance 3
 Inheritance
Another kind of relationship exists between
things in the world and data types in programs
There are properties in Monopoly
– a street is a kind of property
– a railroad is a kind of property
– a utility is a kind of property

CS 314 Inheritance 4
 Inheritance
In Monopoly there is the concept of a
Property
All properties have some common traits
– they have a name
– they have a position on the board
– they can be owned by players
– they have a purchase price
But some things are different for each of the
three kinds of property
– How to determine rent when another player
lands on the Property
CS 314 Inheritance 5
 What to Do?
If we have a separate class for Street,
Railroad, and Utility there is going to be a lot
of code copied
– hard to maintain
– an anti-pattern
Inheritance is a programming feature to
allow data types to build on pre-existing data
types without repeating code

CS 314 Inheritance 6
 Mechanics of Inheritance
1. extends keyword
2. inheritance of instance methods
3. inheritance of instance variables
4. object initialization and constructors
5. calling a parent constructor with super()
6. overriding methods
7. partial overriding, super.parentMethod()
8. inheritance requirement in Java
9. the Object class
10. inheritance hierarchies
CS 314 Inheritance 7
 Inheritance in Java
 Java is designed to encourage object
oriented programming
 all classes, except one, must inherit from
exactly one other class
 The Object class is the cosmic super class
– The Object class does not inherit from any other class
– The Object class has several important methods:
toString, equals, hashCode, clone, getClass
 implications:
– all classes are descendants of Object
– all classes and thus all objects have a toString,
equals, hashCode, clone, and getClass method
• toString, equals, hashCode, clone normally overridden
CS 314 Inheritance 8
 Nomenclature of Inheritance
In Java the extends keyword is used in the
class header to specify which preexisting class
a new class is inheriting from
public class Student extends Person
 Person is said to be
– the parent class of Student
– the super class of Student
– the base class of Student
– an ancestor of Student
 Student is said to be
– a child class of Person
– a sub class of Person
– a derived class of Person
– a descendant of Person

CS 314 Inheritance 9
 Clicker 1
What is the primary reason for using
inheritance when programming?

A. To make a program more complicated

B. To copy and paste code between classes
C. To reuse pre-existing code
D. To hide implementation details of a class
E. To ensure pre conditions of methods are met.

CS 314 Inheritance 10
 Clicker 2
What is output when the main method is run?
public class Foo {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Foo f1 = new Foo();
System.out.println(f1.toString());
}
}
A. 0
B. null
C. Unknown until code is actually run.
D. No output due to a syntax error.
E. No output due to a runtime error. 11
 Overriding methods
any method that is not final may be
overridden by a descendant class
same signature as method in ancestor
may not reduce visibility
may use the original method if simply want to
add more behavior to existing
– super.originalMethod()

CS 314 Inheritance 12
 Constructors
 Constructors handle initialization of objects
 When creating an object with one or more ancestors (every
type except Object) a chain of constructor calls takes place
 The reserved word super may be used in a constructor to
call a one of the parent's constructors
– must be first line of constructor
 if no parent constructor is explicitly called the default, 0
parameter constructor of the parent is called
– if no default constructor exists a syntax error results
 If a parent constructor is called another constructor in the
same class may no be called
– no super();this(); allowed. One or the other, not both
– good place for an initialization method

CS 314 Inheritance 13
 The Keyword super
 super is used to access something (any protected or
public field or method) from the super class that has
been overridden
 Rectangle's toString makes use of the toString in
ClosedShape my calling super.toString()
 without the super calling toString would result in
infinite recursive calls
 Java does not allow nested supers
super.super.toString()
results in a syntax error even though technically this
refers to a valid method, Object's toString
 Rectangle partially overrides ClosedShapes toString

CS 314 Inheritance 14
Creating a SortedIntList
- A Cautionary Tale
of Inheritance
 A New Class
Assume we want to have a list of ints, but
that the ints must always be maintained in
ascending order
[-7, 12, 37, 212, 212, 313, 313, 500]
sortedList.get(0) returns the min
sortedList.get(list.size() – 1)
returns the max

CS 314 Inheritance 16
 Implementing SortedIntList
Do we have to write a whole new class?
Assume we have an IntList class.
Clicker 3 - Which of the following methods
have to be changed?
A. add(int value)
B. int get(int location)
C. String toString()
D. int remove(int location)
E. More than one of A – D.

CS 314 Inheritance 17
 Overriding the add Method
First attempt
Problem?
solving with insert method
– double edged sort
solving with protected
– What protected really means

CS 314 Inheritance 18
 Clicker 4
public class IntList {
private int size
private int[] con
}
public class SortedIntList extends IntList {
public SortedIntList() {
System.out.println(size); // Output?
}
}
A. 0
B. null
C. unknown until code is run
D. no output due to a compile error
E. no output due to a runtime error 19
 Problems
What about this method?
void insert(int location, int val)
What about this method?
void insertAll(int location,
IntList otherList)
SortedIntList is not a good application
of inheritance given all the behaviors
IntList provides.

CS 314 Inheritance 20
 More Example Code

ClosedShape and Rectangle classes

CS 314 Inheritance 21
 Simple Code Example
Create a class named Shape
– what class does Shape inherit from
– what methods can we call on Shape objects?
– add instance variables for a position
– override the toString method
Create a Circle class that extends Shape
– add instance variable for radius
– debug and look at contents
– try to access instance var from Shape
– constructor calls
– use of key word super

CS 314 Inheritance 22
 Shape Classes
Declare a class called ClosedShape
– assume all shapes have x and y coordinates
– override Object's version of toString
Possible sub classes of ClosedShape
– Rectangle
– Circle
– Ellipse
– Square
Possible hierarchy
ClosedShape <- Rectangle <- Square
CS 314 Inheritance 23
 A ClosedShape class
public class ClosedShape {

private double myX;

private double myY;

public ClosedShape() {
this(0,0);
}

public ClosedShape (double x, double y) {

myX = x;
myY = y;
}

public String toString() {

return "x: " + getX() + " y: " + getY(); }

public double getX(){ return myX; }

public double getY(){ return myY; }
}
// Other methods not shown
CS 314 Inheritance 24
 A Rectangle Constructor
public class Rectangle extends ClosedShape {
private double myWidth;
private double myHeight;

public Rectangle( double x, double y,

double width, double height ) {
super(x,y);
// calls the 2 double constructor in
// ClosedShape
myWidth = width;
myHeight = height;

// other methods not shown

}
CS 314 Inheritance 25
 A Rectangle Class
public class Rectangle extends ClosedShape {
private double myWidth;
private double myHeight;

public Rectangle() {
this(0, 0);
}

public Rectangle(double width, double height) {

myWidth = width;
myHeight = height;
}

public Rectangle(double x, double y,

double width, double height) {
super(x, y);
myWidth = width;
myHeight = height;
}

public String toString() {

return super.toString() + " width " + myWidth
+ " height " + myHeight;
}
}
CS 314 Inheritance 26
 Initialization method
public class Rectangle extends ClosedShape {
private double myWidth;
private double myHeight;

public Rectangle() {
init(0, 0);
}

public Rectangle(double width, double height) {

init(width, height);
}

public Rectangle(double x, double y,

double width, double height) {
super(x, y);
init(width, height);
}

private void init(double width, double height) {

myWidth = width;
myHeight = height;
}
CS 314 Inheritance 27
 Result of Inheritance
Do any of these cause a syntax error?
What is the output?
Rectangle r = new Rectangle(1, 2, 3, 4);
ClosedShape s = new CloseShape(2, 3);
System.out.println(s.getX());
System.out.println(s.getY());
System.out.println(s.toString());
System.out.println(r.getX());
System.out.println(r.getY());
System.out.println(r.toString());
System.out.println(r.getWidth());

CS 314 Inheritance 28
 The Real Picture
Fields from Object class
Instance variables
declared in Object
Fields from ClosedShape class
A
Rectangle Instance Variables declared in
object ClosedShape
Available
methods
Fields from Rectangle class
are all methods
from Object, Instance Variables declared in
ClosedShape,
and Rectangle
Rectangle
CS 314 Inheritance 29
 Access Modifiers and
Inheritance
public
– accessible to all classes
private
– accessible only within that class. Hidden from all sub
classes.
protected
– accessible by classes within the same package and all
descendant classes
Instance variables are typically private
protected methods are used to allow descendant
classes to modify instance variables in ways other
classes can't
CS 314 Inheritance 30
Why private Vars and not protected?
In general it is good practice to make
instance variables private
– hide them from your descendants
– if you think descendants will need to access
them or modify them provide protected methods
to do this
Why?
Consider the following example

CS 314 Inheritance 31
 Required update
public class GamePiece {
private Board myBoard;
private Position myPos;

// whenever my position changes I must

// update the board so it knows about the change

protected void alterPos(Position newPos) {

Position oldPos = myPos;
myPos = newPos;
myBoard.update(oldPos, myPos);
}

CS 314 Inheritance 32
 Topic 5
Polymorphism

"“Inheritance is new code that reuses old code.

Polymorphism is old code that reuses new code.”
- OOP Koan

1
 Polymorphism
Another feature of OOP
“having many forms”
object variables in Java are polymorphic
object variables can refer to objects of their
declared type AND any objects that are
descendants of the declared type
Property p = new Property();
p = new Railroad(); // legal!
p = new Utility(); //legal!
p = new Street();
Object obj1; // = what?
CS314 Polymorphism 2
 Data Type
object variables have:
– a declared type. Also called the static type.
– a dynamic type. What is the actual type of the
pointee at run time or when a particular
statement is executed.
Method calls are syntactically legal if the
method is in the declared type or any
ancestor of the declared type
The actual method that is executed at
runtime is based on the dynamic type
– dynamic dispatch
CS314 Polymorphism 3
 Clicker Question 1
Consider the following class declarations:
public class BoardSpace
public class Property extends BoardSpace
public class Street extends Property
public class Railroad extends Property
Which of the following statements would cause a syntax
error? (Assume all classes have a zero argument
constructor.)
A. Object obj = new Railroad();
B. Street s = new BoardSpace();
C. BoardSpace b = new Street();
D. Railroad r = new Street();
E. More than one of these
CS314 Polymorphism 4
 Method LookUp
 To determine if a method is legal the compiler looks in the
class of the declared type
– if it finds it great, if not go to the super class and look there
– continue until the method is found, or the Object class is reached
and the method was never found. (Compile error)
 To determine which method is actually executed the run
time system (abstractly):
– starts with the actual run time class of the object that is calling the
method
– search the class for that method
– if found, execute it, otherwise go to the super class and keep looking
– repeat until a version is found
 Is it possible the runtime system won’t find a method?

CS314 Polymorphism 5
 Clicker Question 2
What is output by the public class Animal {
public String bt(){ return "!"; }
code to the right when }
run?
A. !!live public class Mammal extends Animal {
public String bt(){ return "live"; }
B. !eggegg }

C. !egglive public class Platypus extends Mammal {

public String bt(){ return "egg";}
D. !!! }

E. Something else Animal a1 = new Animal();

Animal a2 = new Platypus();
Mammal m1 = new Platypus();
System.out.print( a1.bt() );
System.out.print( a2.bt() );
System.out.print( m1.bt() );

CS314 Polymorphism 6
 Clicker Question 3
public class Animal {
What is output by public void show() {
the code to the System.out.print(this.speak());
}
right when run? public String speak() { return "Em"; }
Think carefully }
about the dynamic
public class Dog extends Animal {
type. public String speak() { return "Woof"; }
A. MeowWoof }

B. MeowEm public class Cat extends Animal {

public void show(int x) {
C. EmWoof }
System.out.print("Meow");

D. EmEm }

E. Something else Cat patches = new Cat();

Dog velvet = new Dog();
patches.show();
velvet.show();
 Why Bother?
Inheritance allows programs to model
relationships in the real world
– if the program follows the model it may be easier
to write
Inheritance allows code reuse
– complete programs faster (especially
large programs)
Polymorphism allows code reuse
in another way
Inheritance and polymorphism allow
programmers to create generic algorithms
CS314 Polymorphism 8
 Genericity
One of the goals of OOP is the support of
code reuse to allow more efficient program
development
If a algorithm is essentially the same, but the
code would vary based on the data type
genericity allows only a single version of that
code to exist
in Java, there are 2 ways of doing this
1. polymorphism and the inheritance requirement
2. generics

CS314 Polymorphism 9
 A Generic List Class

CS314 Polymorphism 10
 Back to IntList
We may find IntList useful, but what if we
want a List of Strings? Rectangles?
Lists?
– What if I am not sure?
Are the List algorithms different if I am
storing Strings instead of ints?
How can we make a generic List class?

CS314 Polymorphism 11
 Generic List Class
required changes
How does toString have to change?
– why?!?!
– A good example of why keyword this is
necessary from toString
What can a List hold now?
How many List classes do I need?

CS314 Polymorphism 12
 Clicker 4
After altering the data type of the elements to
Object in our list class, how many lines of
code in the toString method, originally from
the IntList class, need to be changed?
A. 0
B. 1
C. 2
D. 3
E. >= 4
CS314 Polymorphism 13
 Writing an equals Method
How to check if two objects are equal?
if(objA == objA)
// does this work?
Why not this
public boolean equals(List other)
Because
public void foo(List a, Object b)
if( a.equals(b) )
System.out.println( same )
– what if b is really a List?
CS314 Polymorphism 14
 equals method
read the javadoc carefully!
Must handle null
Parameter must be Object
– otherwise overloading instead of overriding
– causes
must handle cases when parameter is not
same data type as calling object
– instanceof or getClass()
don't rely on toString and then String's
equals (efficiency)
CS314 Polymorphism 15
 the createASet example
public Object[] createASet(Object[] items)
{ /*
pre: items != null, no elements
of items = null
post: return an array of Objects
that represents a set of the elements
in items. (all duplicates removed)
*/

{5, 1, 2, 3, 2, 3, 1, 5} -> {5, 1, 2, 3}

CS314 Polymorphism 16
 createASet examples
String[] sList = {"Texas", "texas", "Texas",
"Texas", "UT", "texas"};
Object[] sSet = createASet(sList);
for(int i = 0; i < sSet.length; i++)
System.out.println( sSet[i] );

Object[] list = {"Hi", 1, 4, 3.3, true,

new ArrayList(), "Hi", 3.3, 4};
Object[] set = createASet(list);
for(int i = 0; i < set.length; i++)
System.out.println( set[i] );

CS314 Polymorphism 17
 Topic 6
Generic Type Parameters

"Get your data structures correct

first, and the rest of the program will
write itself."
- David Jones
 Back to our Array Based List
Started with a list of ints
Don't want to have to write a new list class
for every data type we want to store in lists
Moved to an array of Objects to store the
elements of the list
// from array based list
private Object[] con;

CS314 Generics 2
 Using Object
In Java, all classes inherit from exactly one
other class except Object which is at the top
of the class hierarchy
– therefore all classes are descendants of Object
object variables can refer to objects of their
declared type and any descendants
– polymorphism
Thus, if the internal storage container is of
type Object it can hold anything
– primitives handled by wrapping them in objects.
int – Integer, char - Character
CS314 Generics 3
 Difficulties with Object
Creating generic data structures using the
Object data type and polymorphism is
relatively straight forward
Using these generic data structrues leads to
some difficulties
– Casting
– Type checking
Code examples on the following slides

CS314 Generics 4
 Clicker 1
What is output by the following code?
GenericList list = new GenericList(); // 1
Street s = new Street("Boardwalk", 400,
Color.BLUE);
list.add(s); // 2
System.out.print(list.get(0).getPrice());// 3
A. 400
B. No output due to syntax error at line // 1
C. No output due to syntax error at line // 2
D. No output due to syntax error at line // 3
E. No output due to runtime error.
CS314 Generics 5
 Code Example - Casting
Assume a list class
GenericList li = new GenericList();
li.add("Hi");
System.out.println(li.get(0).charAt(0));
// previous line has syntax error
// return type of get is Object
// Object does not have a charAt method
// compiler relies on declared type
System.out.println(
((String) li.get(0)).charAt(0) );
// must cast to a String

CS314 Generics 6
 Code Example – type checking
//pre: all elements of li are Monopoly Properties
public void printPrices(GenericList li) {
for (int i = 0; i < li.size(); i++) {
Property temp = (Property) li.get(i);
System.out.println(temp.getPrice());
}
}
// what happens if pre condition not met?

CS314 Generics 7
 "Fixing" the Method
//pre: all elements of li are Monopoly Properties

public void printPrices(GenericList li) {

for(int i = 0; i < li.size(); i++) {
// GACK!!!!
if (li.get(i) instanceof Property) {
Property temp = (Property) li.get(i);
System.out.println(temp.getPrice());
}
}
}

CS314 Generics 8
 Clicker 2 - Too Generic?
Does this code compile?
GenericList list = new GenericList();
list.add("Olivia");
list.add(Integer.valueOf(12));
list.add(12); // autobox aka autowrap
list.add(new Rectangle(1, 2, 3, 4));
list.add(new GenericList());
A. No
B. Yes

CS314 Generics 9
 Is this a bug or a feature?

CS314 Generics 10
 Generic Types
Java has syntax for parameterized data types
Referred to as Generic Types in most of the
literature
A traditional parameter has a data type and can
store various values just like a variable
public void foo(int x)
Generic Types are like parameters, but the data
type for the parameter is data type
– like a variable that stores a data type
– this is an abstraction. Actually, all data type info is
erased at compile time and replaced with casts and,
typically, variables of type Object
CS314 Generics 11
 Making our Array List Generic
Data type variables declared in class header
public class GenericList<E> {
The <E> is the declaration of a data type
parameter for the class
– any legal identifier: Foo, AnyType, Element,
DataTypeThisListStores
– Java style guide recommends terse identifiers
The value E stores will be filled in whenever
a programmer creates a new GenericList
GenericList<String> li =
new GenericList<>();
CS314 Generics 12
 Modifications to GenericList
instance variable
private E[] myCon;
Parameters on
– add, insert, remove, insertAll
Return type on
– get
Changes to creation of internal storage
container
myCon = (E[]) new Object[DEFAULT_SIZE];
Constructor header does not change
CS314 Generics 13
 Modifications to GenericList
Careful with the equals method
Recall type information is actually erased at
compile time.
– At runtime not sure what data type of elements
are. (Unless we get into reflection.)
use of wildcard
rely on the elements equals methods

CS314 Generics 14
 Using Generic Types
Back to Java's ArrayList
ArrayList list1 = new ArrayList();
– still allowed, a "raw" ArrayList
– works just like our first pass at GenericList
– casting, lack of type safety

CS314 Generics 15
 Using Generic Types
ArrayList<String> list2 =
new ArrayList<String>();
– for list2 E stores String
list2.add( "Isabelle" );
System.out.println(
list2.get(0).charAt(2) ); //ok
list2.add( new Rectangle() );
// syntax error

CS314 Generics 16
 Parameters and Generic Types
Old version
//pre: all elements of li are Strings
public void printFirstChar(ArrayList li){
New version
//pre: none
public void printFirstChar(ArrayList<String> li){

Elsewhere
ArrayList<String> list3 = new ArrayList<String>();
printFirstChar( list3 ); // ok
ArrayList<Integer> list4 = new ArrayList<Integer>();
printFirstChar( list4 ); // syntax error
CS314 Generics 17
 Generic Types and Subclasses
ArrayList<Shape> list5 =
new ArrayList<Shape>();
list5.add(new Rectangle());
list5.add(new Square());
list5.add(new Circle());
// all okay
list5 can store Shape objects and any
descendants of Shape

CS314 Generics 18
 Topic 7
Interfaces
I once attended a Java user group meeting where James Gosling (one
of Java's creators) was the featured speaker. During the memorable
Q&A session, someone asked him: "If you could do Java over again,
what would you change?" "I'd leave out classes," he replied. After
the laughter died down, he explained that the real problem wasn't
classes per se, but rather implementation inheritance (the extends
relationship). Interface inheritance (the implements relationship)
is preferable.
- Allen Holub
 Clicker 1
How many sorts do you want to have to write?
public static void selSort(double[] data) {
for (int i = 0; i < data.length; i++) {
int small = i;
for(int j = i + 1; j < data.length; j++) {
if (data[j] < data[small])
small = j;
}
double temp = data[i];
A. 0
data[i] = data[small];
data[small] = temp; B. 1
} C. 2
} D. 3
CS314 Interfaces E. >= 4
 Why interfaces?
Interfaces allow the creation of abstract types
– "A set of data values and associated operations that are
precisely specified independent of any particular
implementation. "
– multiple implementations allowed
Interfaces allow a data type to be specified without
worrying about the implementation
– do design first
– What will this data type do?
– Don’t worry about implementation until design is done.
– separation of concerns.
– allow us to create generic algorithms
CS314 Interfaces 3
 Interfaces
public interface List<E> {
No constructors
No instance variables
abstract instance methods
public void add(E val);
default instance methods
static methods
class constants (prefer enums)
public static final int DEFAULT_CAP = 10;

an interface can (but does not have to)

extends other interfaces
 Implementing Interfaces
In Java, a class inherits (extends) exactly
one other class, but …
A class can implement as many interfaces as it likes
public class ArrayList implements List,
Serializable
A class that implements an interface must
provide implementations of all non default
method declared in the interface
or the class must be abstract
interfaces can extend other interfaces
– multiple in fact, unlike Java classes
CS314 Interfaces 5
 The Comparable Interface
The Java Standard Library
contains a number of interfaces
– names are italicized in the
class listing
One of the most important
interfaces is the Comparable
interface

CS314 Interfaces 6
 Comparable Interface
package java.lang;

public interface Comparable<T> {

public int compareTo(T other);
}
compareTo must return
– an int <0 if the calling object is less than the parameter,
– 0 if they are equal
– an int >0 if the calling object is greater than the
parameter other
compareTo should be consistent with equals
but this isn't required.
CS314 Interfaces 7
 Interfaces
"Use interfaces to ensure a class has
methods that other classes or methods will
use." (In other words, clients of your class.)
– Anthony, Spring 2013
The other classes or methods may already be
written.
The other methods or classes use interface
type for the parameters of methods.
POLYMORPHISM
– old code using new code
CS314 Interfaces 8
 Clicker Question 2
What is output by the following code?
Comparable c1 = new Comparable();
Comparable c2 = new Comparable();
System.out.println(c1.compareTo(c2));
A. A value < 0
B. 0
C. A value > 0
D. Unknown until program run
E. Compile error

CS314 Interfaces 9
 Example compareTo
Suppose we have a class to
model playing cards
– Ace of Spades, King of Hearts,
Two of Clubs
each card has a suit and a
value, represented by ints
this version of compareTo will
compare values first and then
break ties with suits

CS314 Interfaces 10
 compareTo in a Card class
public class Card implements Comparable<Card> {

public int compareTo(Card otherCard) {

return this.rank - other.rank;
}
// other methods not shown
}

Assume ints for ranks (2, 3, 4, 5, 6,...) and suits (0 is

clubs, 1 is diamonds, 2 is hearts, 3 is spades).

CS314 Interfaces 11
 Interfaces and Polymorphism
Interfaces may be used as the data type
for object variables
Can’t simply create objects of that type
Can refer to any objects that implement the
interface or descendants
Assume Card implements Comparable
Card c = new Card();
Comparable comp1 = new Card();
Comparable comp2 = c;
CS314 Interfaces 12
 Clicker Question 3
Which of the following lines of code causes a
syntax error?

Comparable c1; // A
c1 = "Ann"; // B
Comparable c2 = "Kelly"; // C
int x = c2.compareTo(c1); // D
// E No syntax errors.

// what is x after statement?

CS314 Interfaces 13
 Why Make More Work?
Why bother implementing an interface such
as Comparable
– objects can use method that expect an interface type
Example if I implement Comparable:
Arrays.sort(Object[] a)
public static void sort(Object[] a)
All elements in the array must implement the
Comparable interface. Furthermore, all elements in
the array must be mutually comparable
objects of my type can be stored in data
structures that accept Comparables
CS314 Interfaces 14
 A List Interface
What if we wanted to specify the operations
for a List, but no implementation?
Allow for multiple, different implementations.
Provides a way of creating abstractions.
– a central idea of computer science and
programming.
– specify "what" without specifying "how"
– "Abstraction is a mechanism and practice to
reduce and factor out details so that one can
focus on a few concepts at a time. "
CS314 Interfaces 15
 List Interface
public interface List <E> {
public void add(E val);
public int size();
public E get(int location);
public void insert(int location, E val);
public E remove(int location);
}

CS314 Interfaces 16
 One Sort
public static void sort(Comparable[] data) {
final int LIMIT = data.length – 1;
for(int i = 0; i < LIMIT; i++) {
int small = i;
for(int j = i + 1; j < data.length; j++) {
int d = data[j].compareTo(data[small]);
if (d < 0)
small = j;
}
Comparable temp = data[i];
data[i] = data[small];
data[small] = temp;
} // end of i loop
}
CS314 Interfaces 17
 Topic 8
Iterators
"First things first, but not necessarily
in that order "
-Dr. Who

1
 Iterators
ArrayList is part of the Java Collections
Framework
Collection is an interface that specifies the
basic operations every collection (data
structure) shall have
Some Collections don’t have a definite order
– Sets, Maps, Graphs
How to access all the items in a Collection
with no specified order?

CS314 2
Iterators
 Iterator Interface
An iterator object is a "one shot" object
– it is designed to go through all the
elements of a Collection once
– if you want to go through the
elements of a Collection again you
have to get another iterator object
Iterators are obtained by calling
a method from the Collection

CS314 3
Iterators
 Iterator Iterface Methods
The Iterator interface 3 methods we will use:
boolean hasNext()
//returns true if this iteration has more elements

E next()
//returns the next element in this iteration
//pre: hastNext()

void remove()
/*Removes from the underlying collection the last element
returned by the iterator.
pre: This method can be called only once per call to next.
After calling, must call next again before calling remove
again.
*/
CS314 4
Iterators
 Clicker 1
Which of the following produces a syntax error?
ArrayList<String> list = new ArrayList<>();
Iterator<String> it1 = new Iterator(); // I
Iterator<String> it2 = new Iterator(list); // II
Iterator<String> it3 = list.iterator(); // III
A. I
B. II
C. III
D. I and II
E. II and III

CS314 5
Iterators
 Iterator
Imagine a fence made up of fence posts and
rail sections
rails

fenceposts

CS314 6
Iterators
 Fence Analogy
The iterator lives on the fence posts
The data in the collection are the rails
Iterator created at the far left post
As long as a rail exists to the right of the
Iterator, hasNext() is true
iterator object

CS314 7
Iterators
 Fence Analogy
ArrayList<String> names = new ArrayList<>();
names.add("Jan");
names.add("Levi");
names.add("Tom");
names.add("Jose");
Iterator<String> it = names.iterator();
int i = 0;

"Jan" "Levi" "Tom" "Jose"

CS314 8
Iterators
 Fence Analogy
while(it.hasNext()) {
i++;
System.out.println(it.next());
}
// when i == 1, prints out Jan
first call to next moves iterator to
next post and returns "Jan"
"Jan" "Levi" "Tom" "Jose"

CS314 9
Iterators
 Fence Analogy
while(it.hasNext()) {
i++;
System.out.println(it.next());
}
// when i == 2, prints out Levi

"Jan" "Levi" "Tom" "Jose"

CS314 10
Iterators
 Fence Analogy
while(it.hasNext()) {
i++;
System.out.println(it.next());
}
// when i == 3, prints out Tom

"Jan" "Levi" "Tom" "Jose"

CS314 11
Iterators
 Fence Analogy
while(it.hasNext()) {
i++;
System.out.println(it.next());
}
// when i == 4, prints out Jose

"Jan" "Levi" "Tom" "Jose"

CS314 12
Iterators
 Fence Analogy
while(it.hasNext()) {
i++;
System.out.println(it.next());
}
// call to hasNext returns false
// while loop stops

"Jan" "Levi" "Tom" "Jose"

CS314 13
Iterators
 Typical Iterator Pattern
public void printAll(Collection<String> col) {
Iterator<String> it = col.iterator();
while (it.hasNext()) {
String temp = it.next();
System.out.println(temp);
}
}
OR……
for (String temp : col) {
System.out.println(temp);
}
CS314 14
Iterators
 Clicker Question 2
What is output by the following code?
ArrayList<Integer> list = new ArrayList<>();
list.add(3);
list.add(3);
list.add(5);
Iterator<Integer> it = list.iterator();
System.out.print(it.next() + " ");
System.out.print(it.next() + " ");
System.out.print(it.next());
A. 3 B. 3 5 C. 3 3 5
D. 3 3 E. 3 3 then a runtime error
15
 remove method
An Iterator can be used to remove things from
the Collection
Can only be called once per call to next()
public void removeWordsOfLength(int len) {
Iterator<String> it = myList.iterator
while(it.hasNext()) {
String temp = it.next();
if (temp.length() == len) {
it.remove();
}
}
}
// original list = ["dog", "cat", "hat", "sat"]
// resulting list after removeWordsOfLength(3) ?

CS314 16
Iterators
 Clicker 3
public void printTarget(Collection<String>
names, int len) {
Iterator<String> it = names.iterator();
while(it.hasNext())
if(it.next().length() == len)
System.out.println(it.next());
}
Given names = ["Jan", "Ivan", "Tom", "George"] and len = 3 what is output
by the printTarget method?
A. Jan Ivan Tom George
B. Jan Tom
C. Ivan George
D. No output due to syntax error
E. No output due to runtime error 17
 The Iterable Interface
A related interface is Iterable
The method of interest to us in the interface:
public Iterator<T> iterator()
Why?
Anything that implements the Iterable
interface can be used in the for each loop.
ArrayList<Integer> list;
//code to create and fill list
int total = 0;
for (int x : list) {
total += x;
}
CS314 18
Iterators
 Iterable
If you simply want to go through all the
elements of a Collection (or Iterable thing)
use the for each loop
– hides creation of the Iterator
public void printAllOfLength(ArrayList<String> names,
int len){
//pre: names != null, names only contains Strings
//post: print out all elements of names equal in
// length to len
for (String s : names)
if (s.length() == len)
System.out.println(s);
}

CS314 19
Iterators
 Implementing an Iterator
Implement an Iterator for our GenericList
class
– Nested Classes
– Inner Classes
– Example of encapsulation
– checking precondition on remove
– does our GenricList need an Iterator?

CS314 20
Iterators
Madilyn L. 2019
 Comodification
If a Collection (ArrayList) is changed
while an iteration via an iterator is in progress
an Exception will be thrown the next time the
next() or remove() methods are called
via the iterator
ArrayList<String> names = new ArrayList<>();
names.add("Jan");
Iterator<String> it = names.iterator();
names.add("Andy");
it.next(); // exception occurs here

CS314 21
Iterators
 Topic 9
Using Maps

"He's off the map!"

-Stan (Mark Ruffalo) Eternal Sunshine of the
Spotless Mind

1
 Data Structures
More than arrays and lists
Write a program to determine the frequency
of all the "words" in a file.

CS 314 Maps 2
 Performance using ArrayList
Title Size Total Distinct Time
(kb) Words Words (sec)
small sample 0.6 89 25 0.001
2BR02B 34 5,638 1,975 0.051
Alice in 120 29,460 6,017 0.741
Wonderland
Adventures of 581 107,533 15,213 4.144
Sherlock Holmes
2008 CIA Factbook 10,030 1,330,100 74,042 173.000

CS 314 Maps 3
 Order?
Express change of value as factor of previous file
Title Size Total Distinct Time
Words Words
small sample 0.6 89 25 0.001
2BR02B 57x 63x 79x 51x
Alice in 3.5x 5.2x 3.0x 14.5x
Wonderland
Adventures of 4.8x 3.7x 2.5x 6.0x
Sherlock Holmes
2008 CIA Factbook 17x 12.3x 5x 42x

O(Total Words * Distinct Words) ??

CS 314 Maps 4
 Clicker 1
Given 10 seconds for the 2008 CIA Factbook
with 1,330,100 total words and 74,042
distinct words, how long for 1,000x total
words and 100x distinct words?
A. an hour
B. a day
C. a week
D. a month
E. half a year

CS 314 Maps 5
 Why So Slow??
Write a contains method for an array based list

public boolean indexOf(Object o) {

CS 314 Maps 6
 A Faster Way - Maps
Also known as:
– table, search table, dictionary, associative array, or
associative container
A data structure optimized for a very specific kind
of search / access
In a map we access by asking "give me the value
associated with this key."

CS 314 Maps 7
 Keys and Values
Dictionary Analogy:
– The key in a dictionary is a word:
foo
– The value in a dictionary is the definition:
First on the standard list of metasyntactic
variables used in syntax examples
A key and its associated value form a pair
that is stored in a map
To retrieve a value the key for that value
must be supplied
– A List can be viewed as a Map with integer keys

CS 314 Maps 8
 More on Keys and Values
Keys must be unique, meaning a given key
can only represent one value
– but one value may be represented by multiple
keys
– like synonyms in the dictionary.
Example:
factor: n.See coefficient of X
– factor is a key associated with the same value
(definition) as the key coefficient of X

CS 314 Maps 9
 Clicker 2
Is it required that the keys and values of a
map be the same data type?
A. No
B. Yes
C. It Depends

CS 314 Maps 10
 Map <String, List<String>>
Movie Characters

Wizard of Oz Dorothy, Toto, Scarecrow, Tin

Man, Cowardly Lion
Iron Man Tony Stark, Pepper Potts, Phil
Coulson, Obadiah Stane
Pride and Elizabeth Bennet, Jane Bennet,
Prejudice Mr. Darcy, Mr. Bingley
The Avengers Tony Stark, Pepper Potts, Steve
Rogers, Bruce Banner, Phil Coulson
Sense and Elinor Dashwood, Marianne
Sensibility Dashwood, Edward Ferrars, John
CS 314 Maps 11
Willoughby, Colonel Brandon
 The Map<K, V> Interface in Java
void clear()
– Removes all mappings from this map (optional operation).
 boolean containsKey(Object key)
– Returns true if this map contains a mapping for the
specified key.
 boolean containsValue(Object value)
– Returns true if this map maps one or more keys to the
specified value.
 Set<K> keySet()
– Returns a Set view of the keys contained in this map.

CS 314 Maps 12
 The Map Interface Continued
 V get(Object key)
– Returns the value to which this map maps the
specified key. Returns null if key not present.
 boolean isEmpty()
– Returns true if this map contains no key-value
mappings.
V put(K key, V value)
– Associates the specified value with the specified
key in this map

CS 314 Maps 13
 The Map Interface Continued
 V remove(Object key)
– Removes the mapping for this key from this map
if it is present
 int size()
– Returns the number of key-value mappings in
this map.
Collection<V> values()
– Returns a collection view of the values contained
in this map.

CS 314 Maps 14
 Results with HashMap
Title Size Total Distinct Time Time
(kb) Words Words List Map
small sample 0.6 89 25 0.001 0.0008
2BR02B 34 5,638 1,975 0.051 0.0140
Alice in 120 29,460 6,017 0.741 0.0720
Wonderland
Adventures of 581 107,533 15,213 4.144 0.2500
Sherlock Holmes
2008 CIA Factbook 10,030 1,330,100 74,042 173.000 4.0000

CS 314 Maps 15
 Order?
Title Size Total Distinct Time Time
Words Words List Map
small sample 0.6 89 25 0.001 0.0008
2BR02B 57x 63x 79x 51x 18x
Alice in 3.5x 5.2x 3.0x 14.5x 5x
Wonderland
Adventures of 4.8x 3.7x 2.5x 5.6x 3.5x
Sherlock Holmes
2008 CIA 17x 12.3x 5x 42x 16x
Factbook

O(Total Words)?

CS 314 Maps 16
 Topic 10
Abstract Classes
“I prefer Agassiz in the
abstract, rather than in
the concrete.”
- Statue of Biologist
Louis Agassiz that fell from
a ledge on the Stanford
Quad during the 1906
San Francisco earthquake.
1
 Back to the Monopoly Property Example
There are properties on a
monopoly board
Railroads, Utilities, and Streets are
kinds of properties
Property

Street Railroad Utility

 A getRent Behavior
One behavior we want in Property
is the getRent method
problem: How do I get the rent of
something that is “just a Property”?

CS314 Abstract Classes 3

 The Property class
public class Property {

private int cost;

private String name;

public int getRent() {

return hmmmmm??????;
}

Doesn’t seem like we have enough information to

get the rent if all we know is it is a Property.

CS314 Abstract Classes 4

 Potential Solutions
1. Just leave it for the sub classes.
 Have each sub class define getRent()
2. Define getRent() in Property and simply
return -1.
 Sub classes override the method with more
meaningful behavior.

CS314 Abstract Classes 5

 Leave it to the Sub - Classes
// no getRent() in Property
// Railroad and Utility DO have getRent() methods

public void printRents(Property[] props) {

for (Property p : props)
System.out.println(p.getRent());

Property[] props = new Property[2];

props[0] = new Railroad("NP", 200, 1);
props[1] = new Utility("Electric", 150, false);
printRents(props);

Clicker 1 - What is result of above code?

A. 200150 B. different every time
C. Syntax error D. Class Cast Exception
E. Null Pointer Exception

CS314 Abstract Classes 6

 "Fix" by Casting
// no getRent() in Property
public void printRents(Property[] props) {
for (Property p : props) {
if (p instanceof Railroad)
System.out.println(((Railroad) p).getRent());
else if (p instanceof Utility)
System.out.println(((Utility) p).getRent());
else if (p instanceof Street)
System.out.println(((Street) p).getRent())
} // GACK!!!!
}
Property[] props= new Property[2];
props[0] = new Railroad("NP", 200, 1);
props[1] = new Utility("Electric", 150, false);
printRents( props);

What happens as we add more sub classes of Property?

What happens if one of the objects is just a Property?

CS314 Abstract Classes 7
 Fix with Placeholder Return
// getRent() in Property returns -1

public void printRents(Property[] props) {

for (Property p : props)
System.out.println(p.getRent());
}
Property[] props= new Property[2];
props[0] = new Railroad("NP", 200, 1);
props[1] = new Utility("Electric", 150, false);
printRents(props);

What happens if sub classes don’t override

getRent()?
Is that a good answer?
CS314 Abstract Classes 8
 A Better Fix
We know we want to be able to get the rent
of objects that are instances of Property
The problem is we don’t know how to do that
if all we know is it a Property
Make getRent an abstract method
Java keyword

CS314 Abstract Classes 9

 Making getRent Abstract
public class Property {

private int cost;

private String name;

public abstract int getRent();

// I know I want it.
// Just don’t know how, yet…

}
Methods that are declared abstract have no body
an undefined behavior.
All non-default methods in a Java interface are
abstract.
CS314 Abstract Classes 10
Problems with Abstract Methods
Given getRent() is now an abstract method
what is wrong with the following code?

Property p = new Property();

System.out.println(p.getRent());

If things can go wrong with a tool, provide

safeguards to prevent that from happening.
 Undefined Behavior = Bad
Not good to have undefined behaviors
If a class has 1 or more abstract methods,
the class must also be declared abstract.
– version of Property shown would cause a
compile error
Even if a class has zero abstract methods a
programmer can still choose to make it
abstract
– if it models some abstract thing
– is there anything that is just a “Mammal”?
CS314 Abstract Classes 12
 Abstract Classes Safety
1. A class with one or more abstract methods must be
declared abstract.
- Syntax error if not done.
- Can still decide to make class abstract even if no
abstract methods.
2. Objects of an abstract type cannot be instantiated.
- Just like interfaces
- Can still declare variables of this type
3. A subclass must implement all inherited abstract
methods or be abstract itself.

CS314 Abstract Classes 13

 Abstract Classes
public abstract class Property {

private int cost;

private String name;

public abstract double getRent();

// I know I want it.
// Just don’t know how, yet…

}
// Other methods not shown

if a class is abstract the compiler will not allow

constructors of that class to be called
Property s = new Property(1, 2);
//syntax error
CS314 Abstract Classes 14
 Abstract Classes
In other words you can’t create instances of
objects where the lowest or most specific
class type is an abstract class
Prevents having an object with an undefined
behavior
Why would you still want to have
constructors in an abstract class?
Object variables of classes that are abstract
types may still be declared
Property p; //okay
CS314 Abstract Classes 15
 Sub Classes of Abstract Classes
Classes that extend an abstract class must
provided a working version of any and all
abstract methods from the parent class
– or they must be declared to be abstract as well
– could still decide to keep a class abstract
regardless of status of abstract methods

CS314 Abstract Classes 16

 Implementing getRent()
public class Railroad extends Property {

private static int[] rents

= {25, 50, 100, 200};

private int numOtherRailroadsOwned;

public double getRent() {

return rents[numOtherRailroadsOwned];}

// other methods not shown

}

CS314 Abstract Classes 17

 A Utility Class

CS314 Abstract Classes 18

 Polymorphism in Action
// getRent() in Property is abstract
public void printRents(Property[] props) {
for (Property p : props)
System.out.println(p.getRent());
}
• Add the Street class. What needs to change in
printRents method?
• Inheritance is can be described as new code using
old code.
• Koan of Polymorphism: Polymorphism can be
described as old code reusing new code.
CS314 Abstract Classes 19
 Comparable in Property
public abstract class Property
implements Comparable<Property> {
private int cost;
private String name;

public abstract int getRent();

public int compareTo(Property other) {

return this.getRent()
– otherProperty.getRent();
}
}

CS314 Abstract Classes 20

 Back to Lists
 We suggested having a list interface
public interface IList<E> extends Iterable<E> {
public void add(E value);
public int size();
public E get(int location);
public E remove(int location);
public boolean contains(E value);
public void addAll(IList<E> other);
public boolean containsAll(IList<E> other);
}

CS314 Abstract Classes 21

 Data Structures
When implementing data structures:
- Specify an interface
- Create an abstract class that is skeletal
implementation interface
- Create classes that extend the skeletal
interface
public boolean contains(E val) {
for (E e : this)
if val.equals(e)
return true;
return
CS314
false Abstract Classes 22
 Topic 11
Linked Lists
"All the kids who did great in high school writing
pong games in BASIC for their Apple II would get to
college, take CompSci 101, a data structures
course, and when they hit the pointers business their
brains would just totally explode, and the next thing
you knew, they were majoring in Political Science
because law school seemed like a better idea."

-Joel Spolsky

Thanks to Don Slater of CMU for use of his slides.

1
 Sam G. - Fall 2023

CS314 2
Linked Lists
 Clicker 1
What is output by the following code?
ArrayList<Integer> a1 = new ArrayList<>();
ArrayList<Integer> a2 = new ArrayList<>();
a1.add(12);
a2.add(12);
System.out.println(a1 == a2);

A. false
B. true
C. No output due to syntax error
D. No output due to runtime error
E. Varies from one run of the program to the next
CS314 3
Linked Lists
 Dynamic Data Structures
Dynamic data structures
– They grow and shrink one element at a time,
normally without some of the inefficiencies of
arrays
– as opposed to a static container such as an array
Big O of Array Manipulations
– Access the kth element
– Add or delete an element in the middle of the
array while maintaining relative order
– adding element at the end of array? space
avail? no space avail?
– add element at beginning of an array
CS314 4
Linked Lists
 Object References
Recall that an object reference is a variable
that stores the address of an object

A reference can also be called a pointer

They are often depicted graphically:

student
John Smith
40725
3.57

CS314 5
Linked Lists
 References as Links
Object references can be used to create
links between objects

Suppose a Student class contained a

reference to another Student object

John Smith Jane Jones

40725 58821
3.57 3.72

CS314 6
Linked Lists
 References as Links
References can be used to create a variety
of linked structures, such as a linked list:

studentList

CS314 7
Linked Lists
 Linked Lists
A linear collection of self-referential objects,
typically called nodes, connected by other links
– linear: for every node in the list, there is one and only one node
that precedes it (except for possibly the first node, which may
have no predecessor,) and there is one and only one node that
succeeds it, (except for possibly the last node, which may have
no successor)

– self-referential: a node that has the ability to refer to another

node of the same type, or even to refer to itself

– node: contains data of any type, including a reference to another

node of the same data type, or to nodes of different data types

– Usually a list will have a beginning and an end; the first element
in the list is accessed by a reference to that class, and the last
node in the list will have a reference that is set to null
CS314 8
Linked Lists
 Advantages of linked lists
Linked lists are dynamic, they can grow or shrink
as necessary

Linked lists are non-contiguous; the logical

sequence of items in the structure is decoupled
from any physical ordering in memory

CS314 9
Linked Lists
 Nodes and Lists
A different way of implementing a list
Each element of a Linked List is a separate
Node object.
Each Node tracks a single piece of data plus
a reference (pointer) to the next
Create a new Node very time we add
something to the List
Remove nodes when item removed from list
and allow garbage collector to reclaim that
memory
CS314 10
Linked Lists
 A Node Class
public class Node<E> {
private E myData;
private Node<E> myNext;

public Node()
{ myData = null; myNext = null; }

public Node(E data, Node<E> next)

{ myData = data; myNext = next; }

public E getData()
{ return myData; }

public Node<E> getNext()

{ return myNext; }

public void setData(E data)

{ myData = data; }

public void setNext(Node<E> next)

{ myNext = next; }
}

CS314 11
Linked Lists
 One Implementation of a Linked List
The Nodes show on the previous slide are
singly linked
– a node refers only to the next node in the
structure
– it is also possible to have doubly linked nodes.
– The node has a reference to the next node in the
structure and the previous node in the structure
as well
How is the end of the list indicated
– myNext = null for last node
– a separate dummy node class / object

CS314 12
Linked Lists
 A Linked List Implementation
public class LinkedList<E> implements IList<E>
private Node<E> head;
private Node<E> tail;
private int size;

public LinkedList(){
head = null;
tail = null;
size = 0;
}
}
LinkedList<String> list = new LinkedList<String>();

LinkedList
myHead null iMySize 0

myTail null
CS314 13
Linked Lists
 Writing Methods
When trying to code methods for Linked
Lists draw pictures!
– If you don't draw pictures of what you are trying
to do it is very easy to make mistakes!

CS314 14
Linked Lists
 add method
add to the end of list
special case if empty
steps on following slides
public void add(E obj)

CS314 15
Linked Lists
 Add Element - List Empty (Before)
head tail size
null null 0

Object

item

CS314 16
Linked Lists
 Add Element - List Empty (After)
head tail size
1

Node
String
myData myNext
null

CS314 17
Linked Lists
 Add Element - List Not Empty (Before)
head tail size
1

Node
myData myNext
null

String String
item

CS314 18
Linked Lists
 Add Element - List Not Empty (After)
head tail size
2

Node Node
myData myNext myData myNext
null

String String

CS314 19
Linked Lists
 Code for default add
public void add(E obj)

CS314 20
Linked Lists
 Clicker 2
What is the worst case Big O for adding to
the end of an array based list and our
LinkedList314 class? The lists already
contain N items.
Array based Linked
A. O(1) O(1)
B. O(N) O(N)
C. O(logN) O(1)
D. O(1) O(N)
E. O(N) O(1)
21
 Contains method
Implement a contains method for our Linked
List class
public boolean contains(E val) // val != null

CS314 22
Linked Lists
 Code for addFront
add to front of list
public void addFront(E obj)
How does this compare to adding at the front
of an array based list?

CS314 23
Linked Lists
 Clicker 3
What is the Big O for adding to the front of
an array based list and a linked list? The lists
already contain N items.
Array based Linked
A. O(1) O(1)
B. O(N) O(1)
C. O(logN) O(1)
D. O(1) O(N)
E. O(N) O(N)
CS314 24
Linked Lists
 Code for Insert
public void insert(int pos, E obj)
Must be careful not to break the chain!
Where do we need to go?
Special cases?

CS314 25
Linked Lists
 Clicker 4
What is the Big O for inserting an element
into the middle of an array based list and into
the middle of a linked list? Each list already
contains N items.
Array based Linked
A. O(1) O(1)
B. O(1) O(N)
C. O(N) O(1)
D. O(N) O(N)
E. O(N) O(logN)
CS314 26
Linked Lists
 Clicker Question 5
What is the Big O for getting an element
based on position from an array based list
and from a linked list? Each list contains N
items. In other words E get(int pos)
Array based Linked
A. O(1) O(1)
B. O(1) O(N)
C. O(N) O(1)
D. O(logN) O(N)
E. O(N) O(N)
27
Linked Lists
 Code for get
public E get(int pos)
The downside of Linked Lists

CS314 28
Linked Lists
 Code for remove
public E remove(int pos)

CS314 29
Linked Lists
 Clicker 6
What is the order to remove the last element
of a singly linked list with references to the
first and last nodes of the linked structure of
nodes?
The list contains N elements
A. O(1)
B. O(logN)
C. O(N^0.5)
D. O(N)
E. O(NlogN))
CS314 30
Linked Lists
 Why Use Linked List
What operations with a Linked List faster
than the version from ArrayList?

CS314 31
Linked Lists
 Clicker 7 - Getting All Elements in
Order From a Linked List
What is the Order (Big O) of the following code?
LinkedList314<Integer> list;
list = new LinkedList314<Integer>();
// code to fill list with N elements
int total = 0;
//Big O of following code?
for(int i = 0; i < list.size(); i++)
total += list.get(i);
A. O(N) B. O(2N) C. O(NlogN)
D. O(N2) E. O(N3)
CS314 32
Linked Lists
 Iterators to the Rescue

CS314 33
Linked Lists
 Other Possible Features of
Linked Lists
Doubly Linked
Circular
Dummy Nodes for first and last node in list
public class DLNode<E> {
private E myData;
private DLNode<E> myNext;
private DLNode<E> myPrevious;

CS314 34
Linked Lists
 Dummy Nodes
Use of Dummy Nodes for a Doubly Linked
List removes most special cases
Also could make the Double Linked List
circular

CS314 35
Linked Lists
 Doubly Linked List add

public void add(E obj)

CS314 36
Linked Lists
 Insert for Doubly Linked List
public void insert(int pos, E obj)

CS314 37
Linked Lists
 Topic 12
Introduction to Recursion
"To a man with a hammer,
everything looks like a nail"
-Mark Twain
 Underneath the Hood.

CS314 Recursion 2
 The Program Stack
When you invoke a method in your code
what happens when that method is done?
public class Mice {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int x = 37;
int y = 12;
method1(x, y);
int z = 73;
int m1 = method1(z, x);
method2(x, x);
}

// method1 and method2

// on next slide
CS314 Recursion 3
 method1 and method2
// in class Mice
public static int method1(int a, int b) {
int r = 0;
if (b != 0) {
int x = a / b;
int y = a % b;
r = x + y;
}
return r;
}
public static void method2(int x, int y) {
x++;
y--;
int z = method1(y, x);
System.out.print(z);
}
CS314 Recursion 4
 The Program Stack
When your program is run on a processor, the
commands are converted into another set of
instructions and assigned memory locations.
– normally a great deal of expansion takes place
public static void main(String[] args) {
int x = 37; // 0
int y = 12; // 1
method1(x, y); // 2
int z = 73; // 3
int m1 = method1(z, x); // 4
method2(x, x); // 7
} CS314 Recursion 5
 Basic CPU Operations
A CPU works via a fetch
command / execute command
loop and a program counter
Instructions stored in memory
(Instructions are data!)
int x = 37; // 0
int y = 12; // 1
method1(x, y); // 2
int z = 73; // 3
int m1 = method1(z, x); // 4
method2(x, x); // 5
What if the first instruction of the method1 is
stored at memory location 50? 6
// in class Mice
public static int method1(int a, int b) {
int r = 0; // 51
if (b != 0) { // 52
int x = a / b; // 53
int y = a % b; // 54
r = x + y; // 55
}
return r; // 56
}
public static void method2(int x, int y) {
x++; // 60
y--; // 61
int z = method1(y, x); // 62
System.out.print(z); // 63
}
CS314 Recursion 7
 Clicker 1 - The Program Stack
int x = 37; // 1
int y = 12; // 2
method1(x, y); // 3
int z = 73; // 4
int m1 = method1(z, x); // 5
method2(x, x); // 6
Instruction 3 is really saying jump to instruction
50 with parameters x and y
In general what happens when method1 finishes?
A. program ends B. goes to instruction 4
C. goes back to whatever method called it
CS314
8
Recursion
 Activation Records and the
Program Stack
When a method is invoked all the relevant
information about the current method
(variables, values of variables, next line of
code to be executed) is placed in an
activation record
The activation record is pushed onto the
program stack
A stack is a data structure with a single
access point, the top.
CS314 Recursion 9
 The Program Stack
Data may either be
added (pushed) or
removed (popped) from top
a stack but it is always
from the top.
– A stack of dishes
– which dish do we have
easy access to?

CS314 Recursion 10
Using Recursion
 A Problem
Write a method that determines how much
space is take up by the files in a directory
A directory can contain files and
directories
How many directories does our code have
to examine?
How would you add up the space taken
up by the files in a single directory
– Hint: don't worry about any sub directories at
first
CS314 Recursion 12
 Clicker 2
How many levels of directories have to be
visited?
A. 0
B. 1
C. 8
D. Infinite
E. Unknown

CS314 Recursion 13
 Sample Directory Structure
scottm

cs314 AP

m1.txt m2.txt
A.pdf
AB.pdf
hw

a1.htm a2.htm a3.htm a4.htm

CS314 Recursion 14
 Java File Class
File(String pathname) Creates a new
File instance by converting the given
pathname.
boolean isDirectory() Tests whether
the file denoted by this abstract pathname is
a directory.
File[] listFiles() Returns an array
of abstract pathnames denoting the files in
the directory denoted by this abstract
pathname.
CS314 Recursion 15
Code for getDirectorySpace()
// pre: dir is a directory and dir != null
public static long spaceUsed(File dir) {
if( dir == null || !dir.isDirectory())
throw new IllegalArgumentException();
long spaceUsed = 0;
File[] subFilesAndDirs = dir.listFiles();
if(subFilesAndDirs != null)
for(File sub : subFilesAndDirs)
if(sub != null)
if(sub.isFile()) // sub is a plain old file
spaceUsed += sub.length();
else if (sub.isDirectory())
// else sub is a directory
spaceUsed += spaceUsed(sub);
return spaceUsed;
} 16
 Clicker 3
Is it possible to write a non recursive method
to determine space taken up by files in a
directory, including its subdirectories, and
their subdirectories, and their subdirectories,
and so forth?
A. No
B. Yes
C. It Depends

CS314 Recursion 17
 Iterative getDirectorySpace()
public long getDirectorySpace(File d) {
ArrayList<File> dirs = new ArrayList<>();
dirs.add(d);
long total = 0;
while (dirs.size() > 0) {
File temp = dirs.remove(dirs.size() – 1);
File[] filesAndSubs = temp.listFiles();
if (filesAndSubs != null) {
for (File f : filesAndSubs) {
if (f != null) {
if (f.isFile())
total += f.length();
else if (f.isDirectory())
dirs.add(f);
}
}
}
return total;
}
CS314 Recursion 18
Wisdom for Writing Recursive
Methods
 The 3 plus 1 rules of Recursion
1. Know when to stop
2. Decide how to take one step
3. Break the journey down into that step and a
smaller journey
4. Have faith

From Common Lisp: A Gentle

Introduction to
Symbolic Computation
by David Touretzky

CS314 Recursion 20
 Writing Recursive Methods
 Rules of Recursion
1. Base Case: Always have at least one case that
can be solved without using recursion
2. Make Progress: Any recursive call must
progress toward a base case.
3. "You gotta believe." Always assume that the
recursive call works. (Of course you will have to
design it and test it to see if it works or prove
that it always works.)
A recursive solution solves a small part of
the problem and leaves the rest of the
problem in the same form as the original
CS314 Recursion 21
 N!
the classic first recursion problem / example
N!
5! = 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1 = 120
int res = 1;
for(int i = 2; i <= n; i++)
res *= i;

CS314 Recursion 22
 Factorial Recursively
Mathematical Definition of Factorial
for N >= 0, N! is:
0! = 1
N! = N * (N - 1)! (for N > 0)
The definition is recursive.
// pre n >= 0
public int fact(int n) {
if(n == 0)
return 1;
else
return n * fact(n-1);
} // return (n == 0) ? 1 : n * fact(n - 1);
CS314 Recursion 23
 Tracing Fact With the
Program Stack
System.out.println( fact(4) );

top System.out.println( fact(4) );

CS314 Recursion 24
 Calling fact with 4

n 4 in method fact
partial result = n * fact(n-1)
top System.out.println( fact(4) );
CS314 Recursion 25
 Calling fact with 3

n 3 in method fact
partial result = n * fact(n-1)

top n 4 in method fact

partial result = n * fact(n-1)
System.out.println( fact(4) );
CS314 Recursion 26
 Calling fact with 2

n 2 in method fact
partial result = n * fact(n-1)

top n 3 in method fact

partial result = n * fact(n-1)

n 4 in method fact
partial result = n * fact(n-1)
System.out.println( fact(4) );
CS314 Recursion 27
 Calling fact with 1
n 1 in method fact
partial result = n * fact(n-1)

top n 2 in method fact

partial result = n * fact(n-1)

n 3 in method fact
partial result = n * fact(n-1)

n 4 in method fact
partial result = n * fact(n-1)
System.out.println( fact(4) );
CS314 Recursion 28
 Calling fact with 0 and returning 1
n 0 in method fact
returning 1 to whatever method called me

top n 1 in method fact

partial result = n * fact(n-1)
n 2 in method fact
partial result = n * fact(n-1)

n 3 in method fact
partial result = n * fact(n-1)

n 4 in method fact
partial result = n * fact(n-1)
CS314 Recursion 29
System.out.println( fact(4) );
 Returning 1 from fact(1)
n 1 in method fact
partial result = n * 1,
return 1 to whatever method called me

top n 2 in method fact

partial result = n * fact(n-1)

n 3 in method fact
partial result = n * fact(n-1)

n 4 in method fact
partial result = n * fact(n-1)
System.out.println( fact(4) );
CS314 Recursion 30
 Returning 2 from fact(2)

n 2 in method fact
partial result = 2 * 1,
return 2 to whatever method called me

top n 3 in method fact

partial result = n * fact(n-1)

n 4 in method fact
partial result = n * fact(n-1)
System.out.println( fact(4) );

CS314 Recursion 31
 Returning 6 from fact(3)

n 3 in method fact
partial result = 3 * 2,
return 6 to whatever method called me

top n 4 in method fact

partial result = n * fact(n-1)
System.out.println( fact(4) );

CS314 Recursion 32
 Returning 24 from fact(4)

n 4 in method fact
partial result = 4 * 6,
return 24 to whatever method called me
top System.out.println( fact(4) );

CS314 Recursion 33
 Calling System.out.println

System.out.println( 24 );
top ??

CS314 Recursion 34
Evaluating Recursive Methods
 Evaluating Recursive Methods
you must be able to evaluate recursive
methods
public static int mystery (int n){
if(n == 0)
return 2;
else
return 3 * mystery(n-1);
}
// what is returned by mystery(3)
CS314 Recursion 36
 Evaluating Recursive Methods
Draw the program stack!
m(3) = 3 * m(2) -> 3 * 18 = 54
m(2) = 3 * m(1) -> 3 * 6 = 18
m(1) = 3 * m(0) -> 3 * 2 = 6
m(0) = 2
-> 54

with practice you can see the result

CS314 Recursion 37
 Clicker 4
What is returned by fact(-3) ?
A. 0
B. 1
C. Infinite loop
D. Syntax error
E. Runtime error
public static int fact(int n) {
if (n == 0) {
return 1;
} else {
return n * fact(n - 1);
}
38
}
 Evaluating Recursive Methods
What about multiple recursive calls?
public static int bar(int n){
if (n <= 0)
return 2;
else
return 3 + bar(n-1) + bar(n-2);
}
Clicker 5 - What does bar(4) return?
A. 2 B. 3 C. 12 D. 22 E. 37

CS314 Recursion 39
 Evaluating Recursive Methods
What is returned by bar(4)?
b(4) = 3 + b(3) + b(2)
b(3) = 3 + b(2) + b(1)
b(2) = 3 + b(1) + b(0)
b(1) = 3 + b(0) + b(-1)
b(0) = 2
b(-1) = 2

CS314 Recursion 40
 Evaluating Recursive Methods
What is returned by bar(4)?
b(4) = 3 + b(3) + b(2)
b(3) = 3 + b(2) + b(1)
b(2) = 3 + b(1) + b(0) //substitute in results
b(1) = 3 + 2 + 2 = 7
b(0) = 2
b(-1) = 2

CS314 Recursion 41
 Evaluating Recursive Methods
What is returned by bar(4)?
b(4) = 3 + b(3) + b(2)
b(3) = 3 + b(2) + b(1)
b(2) = 3 + 7 + 2 =12
b(1) = 7
b(0) = 2
b(-1) = 2

CS314 Recursion 42
 Evaluating Recursive Methods
What is returned by bar(4)?
b(4) = 3 + b(3) + b(2)
b(3) = 3 + 12 + 7 = 22
b(2) = 12
b(1) = 7
b(0) = 2
b(-1) = 2

CS314 Recursion 43
 Evaluating Recursive Methods
What is returned by bar(4)?
b(4) = 3 + 22 + 12 = 37
b(3) = 22
b(2) = 12
b(1) = 7
b(0) = 2
b(-1) = 2

CS314 Recursion 44
 Recursion Practice
Write a method raiseToPower(int base,
int power)
//pre: power >= 0

Simple recursion (also called tail recursion)

CS314 Recursion 45
 Finding the Maximum in an Array
public int max(int[] data) {
Helper method or create smaller arrays each
time

CS314 Recursion 46
 Clicker 6
When writing recursive methods what should
be done first?
A. Determine recursive case
B. Determine recursive step
C. Make a recursive call
D. Determine base case(s)
E. Determine the Big O

CS314 Recursion 47
 Your Meta Cognitive State
Remember we are learning to use a tool.
It is not a good tool for all problems.
– In fact we will implement several algorithms and
methods where an iterative (looping without
recursion) solution would work just fine
After learning the mechanics and basics of
recursion the real skill is knowing what
problems or class of problems to apply it to

CS314 Recursion 48
 Big O and Recursion
Determining the Big O of recursive methods
can be tricky.
A recurrence relation exits if the function is
defined recursively.
The T(N), actual running time, for N! is
recursive
T(N)fact = T(N-1)fact + O(1)
This turns out to be O(N)
– There are N steps involved

CS314 Recursion 49
 Common Recurrence Relations
T(N) = T(N/2) + O(1) -> O(logN)
– binary search
T(N) = T(N-1) + O(1) -> O(N)
– sequential search, factorial
T(N) = T(N/2) + T(N/2) + O(1) -> O(N),
– tree traversal
T(N) = T(N-1) + O(N) -> O(N^2)
– selection sort
T(N) = T(N/2) + T(N/2) + O(N) -> O(NlogN)
– merge sort
T(N) = T(N-1) + T(N-1) + O(1) -> O(2^N)
– Fibonacci
CS314 Recursion 50
 Topic 13
Recursive Backtracking
"In ancient times, before computers were invented,
alchemists studied the mystical properties of
numbers. Lacking computers, they had to rely on
dragons to do their work for them. The dragons
were clever beasts, but also lazy and bad-tempered.
The worst ones would sometimes burn their keeper
to a crisp with a single fiery belch. But most dragons
were merely uncooperative, as violence required too
much energy. This is the story of how Martin, an
alchemist’s apprentice, discovered recursion by
outsmarting a lazy dragon."
- David S. Touretzky, Common Lisp: A Gentle Introduction to
Symbolic Computation

Devon: 2022 - 2023

 Backtracking
Start
Success!

Success!

Failure
Problem space consists of states (nodes) and actions
(paths that lead to new states). When in a node can
can only see paths to connected nodes

If a node only leads to failure go back to its "parent"

node. Try other alternatives. If these all lead to failure
then more backtracking may be necessary.
CS314 2
Recursive Backtracking
 Escaping a Maze
Which door should we take?
A view from above Doors

Current
Room

Exit out there,

some where …
we hope

CS314 3
Recursive Backtracking
 Escaping a Maze
Try door to the east
Doors

First Current
room Room

Exit out there,

some where … A dead end!
we hope

CS314 4
Recursive Backtracking
 Escaping a Maze
Back we go
Doors

Current
Room
A dead end!

Exit out there,

some where …
we hope

CS314 5
Recursive Backtracking
 Escaping a Maze
What if we knew the exit was to the south?
Doors

Current
Room

Exit out there,

some where
to the south!

CS314 6
Recursive Backtracking
 Escaping a Maze
Start over. What if we knew the exit was to
the south?
Doors

Exit out there,

some where Current
to the south! Room A dead end!
CS314 7
Recursive Backtracking
 Escaping a Maze
What if we knew the exit was to the south?
Doors

Current
Room
Exit out there,
some where
to the south!

A dead end!

CS314 8
Recursive Backtracking
 Escaping a Maze
What if we knew the exit was to the south?
Doors

Exit out there,

some where
to the south!
A dead end!

CS314 9
Recursive Backtracking
 Escaping a Maze
What if we knew the exit was to the south?
Doors

Current
Exit out there, Room
some where
to the south!
A dead end!

CS314 10
Recursive Backtracking
 Escaping a Maze

Doors

Current A dead end!

Room

Exit out there,

A dead end! some where
to the south!
CS314 11
Recursive Backtracking
 Escaping a Maze
Current
Room Doors

A dead end!

Exit out there,

A dead end!
some where
CS314
to the south!
12
Recursive Backtracking
 Escaping a Maze

Doors

Current
A dead end!
Room

Exit out there,

A dead end! some where
to the south!
CS314 13
Recursive Backtracking
 Escaping a Maze

Doors

A dead end!

OUT!! A dead end! Exit out there,

some where
CS314 to the south! 14
Recursive Backtracking
 Recursive Backtracking
Pseudo code for recursive backtracking
algorithms – looking for a solution

If at a solution, report success

for (every possible choice from current state)
Make that choice and take one step along path
Use recursion to try to solve the problem for the new state
If the recursive call succeeds, report the success to the
previous level
Otherwise Back out of the current choice to restore the
state at the start of the loop.
Report failure

CS314 15
Recursive Backtracking
 Another Concrete Example
Sudoku
9 by 9 matrix with some
numbers filled in
all numbers must be between
1 and 9
Goal: Each row, each column,
and each mini matrix must
contain the numbers between
1 and 9 once each
– no duplicates in rows, columns,
or mini matrices

CS314 16
Recursive Backtracking
 Solving Sudoku – Brute Force
A brute force algorithm is a
simple but generally
inefficient approach
Try all combinations until
you find one that works
This approach isn’t clever,
but computers are fast
Then try and improve on
the brute force results

CS314 17
Recursive Backtracking
 Solving Sudoku
Brute force Sudoku Soluton
– if not open cells, solved 1
– scan cells from left to right,
top to bottom for first open
cell
– When an open cell is found
start cycling through digits 1
to 9.
– When a digit is placed check
that the set up is legal
– now solve the board
CS314 18
Recursive Backtracking
 Clicker 1
After placing a number in a cell is the
remaining problem very similar to the original
problem?
A. No
B. Yes

CS314 19
Recursive Backtracking
 Solving Sudoku – Later Steps
1 1 2 1 2 4

1 2 4 8 1 2 4 8 9

uh oh!

CS314 20
Recursive Backtracking
 Sudoku – A Dead End
We have reached a dead end in our search
1 2 4 8 9

With the current set up none of the nine

digits work in the top right corner
CS314 21
Recursive Backtracking
 Backing Up
When the search reaches a dead 1 2 4 8 9
end in backs up to the previous
cell it was trying to fill and goes
onto to the next digit
We would back up to the cell with
a 9 and that turns out to be a dead
end as well so we back up again
1 2 4 9
– so the algorithm needs to remember
what digit to try next
Now in the cell with the 8. We try
and 9 and move forward again.

CS314 22
Recursive Backtracking
 Characteristics of Brute Force
and Backtracking
Brute force algorithms are slow
The first pass attempts typically don't employ
a lot of logic
But, brute force algorithms are fairly easy to
implement as a first pass solution
– many backtracking algorithms are brute force
algorithms

CS314 23
Recursive Backtracking
 Key Insights
After trying placing a digit in a cell we want to solve
the new sudoku board
– Isn't that a smaller (or simpler version) of the same
problem we started with?!?!?!?
After placing a number in a cell the we need to
remember the next number to try in case things
don't work out.
We need to know if things worked out (found a
solution) or they didn't, and if they didn't try the next
number
If we try all numbers and none of them work in our
cell we need to report back that things didn't work
CS314 24
Recursive Backtracking
 Clicker 2
Grace 2019 Asked: When we reach the base
case in the solveSudoku method (9 x 9
board) and before we return true, how many
stack frames are on the program stack of the
solveSudoku method? Pick the closest
answer.
A. <= 9
B. 82
C. 819
D. 981
E. cannot determine 25
 Recursive Backtracking
Problems such as Suduko can be solved
using recursive backtracking
recursive because later versions of the
problem are just slightly simpler versions of
the original
backtracking because we may have to try
different alternatives

CS314 26
Recursive Backtracking
 Recursive Backtracking - Repeated
Pseudo code for recursive backtracking
algorithms – looking for a solution

If at a solution, report success

for (every possible choice from current state)
Make that choice and take one step along path
Use recursion to try to solve the problem for the new state
If the recursive call succeeds, report the success to the
previous level
Otherwise Back out of the current choice to restore the
state at the start of the loop.
Report failure

CS314 27
Recursive Backtracking
 Goals of Backtracking
Possible goals
– Find a path to success
– Find all paths to success
– Find the best path to success
Not all problems are exactly alike, and
finding one success node may not be the
end of the search
Start
Success!

Success!

CS314 28
Recursive Backtracking
 The 8 N Queens Problem

CS314 29
Recursive Backtracking
 The 8 Queens Problem
A classic chess puzzle
– Place 8 queen pieces on a chess board so that
none of them can attack one another

CS314 30
Recursive Backtracking
 The N Queens Problem
Place N Queens on an N by N chessboard so that
none of them can attack each other
Number of possible placements?
In 8 x 8
64 * 63 * 62 * 61 * 60 * 59 * 58 * 57
= 178,462, 987, 637, 760 / 8!
= 4,426,165,368

n choose k
– How many ways can you choose k things from a
set of n items?
– In this case there are 64 squares and we want to choose
8 of them to put queens on
CS314 31
Recursive Backtracking
 Clicker 3
For a safe solution, how many queens can
be placed in a given column?
A. 0
B. 1
C. 2
D. 3
E. Any number

CS314 32
Recursive Backtracking
 Reducing the Search Space
The previous calculation includes set ups like this
one Q
Q

Includes lots of set ups with Q

Q
multiple queens in the same Q
column Q
How many queens can there be Q
in one column? Q

Number of set ups

8 * 8 * 8 * 8 * 8 * 8 * 8 * 8 = 16,777,216
We have reduced search space by two orders of
magnitude by applying some logic
CS314 33
Recursive Backtracking
 Solving N Queens Approach

CS314 34
Recursive Backtracking
 A Solution to 8 Queens
 If number of queens is fixed and I realize there can't be
more than one queen per column I can iterate through the
rows for each column
for(int r0 = 0; r0 < 8; r0++){
board[r0][0] = 'q';
for(int r1 = 0; r1 < 8; r1++){
board[r1][1] = 'q';
for(int r2 = 0; r2 < 8; r2++){
board[r2][2] = 'q';
// a little later
for(int r7 = 0; r7 < 8; r7++){
board[r7][7] = 'q';
if( queensAreSafe(board) )
printSolution(board);
board[r7][7] = ' '; //pick up queen
}
board[r6][6] = ' '; // pick up queen
CS314 35
Recursive Backtracking
 N Queens
The problem with N queens is you don't
know how many for loops to write.
Do the problem recursively
Write recursive code with class and demo
– show backtracking with breakpoint and
debugging option

CS314 36
Recursive Backtracking
 Recursive Backtracking
You must practice!!!
Learn to recognize problems that fit the
pattern
Is a kickoff method needed?
All solutions or a solution?
Reporting results and acting on results

CS314 37
Recursive Backtracking
 Minesweeper

CS314 38
Recursive Backtracking
 Minesweeper Reveal
Algorithm
Minesweeper
click a cell
– if bomb game over
– if cell that has 1 or more bombs on border
then reveal the number of bombs that border cell
– if a cell that has 0 bombs on border
then reveal that cell as a blank and click on the 8
surrounding cells

CS314 39
Recursive Backtracking
 Another Backtracking Problem
A Simple Maze
Search maze until way
out is found. If no way
out possible report that.

CS314 40
Recursive Backtracking
 The Local View
Which way do
I go to get
out?
North
West
East

Behind me, to the South

CS314
is a door leading South
41
Recursive Backtracking
 Modified Backtracking
Algorithm for Maze
 If the current square is outside, return TRUE to indicate that a solution has been
found.
If the current square is marked, return FALSE to indicate that this path has been
tried.
Mark the current square.
for (each of the four compass directions)
{ if ( this direction is not blocked by a wall )
{ Move one step in the indicated direction from the current square.
Try to solve the maze from there by making a recursive call.
If this call shows the maze to be solvable, return TRUE to indicate that
fact.
}
}
Unmark the current square.
Return FALSE to indicate that none of the four directions led to a solution.

CS314 42
Recursive Backtracking
 Backtracking in Action
The crucial part of the
algorithm is the for loop
that takes us through the
alternatives from the current
square. Here we have moved
to the North.

for (dir = North; dir <= West; dir++)

{ if (!WallExists(pt, dir))
{if (SolveMaze(AdjacentPoint(pt, dir)))
return(TRUE);
}
CS314 43
Recursive Backtracking
 Backtracking in Action

Here we have moved

North again, but there is
a wall to the North .
East is also
blocked, so we try South.
That call discovers that
the square is marked, so
it just returns.

CS314 44
Recursive Backtracking
 So the next move we
can make is West.

Where is this leading?

CS314 45
Recursive Backtracking
 This path reaches
a dead end.

Time to backtrack!

Remember the
program stack!

CS314 46
Recursive Backtracking
 The recursive calls
end and return until
we find
ourselves back here.

CS314 47
Recursive Backtracking
 And now we try
South

CS314 48
Recursive Backtracking
 Path Eventually Found

CS314 49
Recursive Backtracking
 More Backtracking Problems

CS314 50
Recursive Backtracking
 Other Backtracking Problems
Knight's Tour
Regular Expressions
Knapsack problem / Exhaustive Search
– Filling a knapsack. Given a choice of items with
various weights and a limited carrying capacity
find the optimal load out. 50 lb. knapsack. items
are 1 40 lb, 1 32 lb. 2 22 lbs, 1 15 lb, 1 5 lb. A
greedy algorithm would choose the 40 lb item
first. Then the 5 lb. Load out = 45lb. Exhaustive
search 22 + 22 + 5 = 49.

CS314 51
Recursive Backtracking
 The CD problem
We want to put songs on a Compact Disc.
650MB CD and a bunch of songs of various
sizes.
If there are no more songs to consider return result
else{
Consider the next song in the list.
Try not adding it to the CD so far and use recursion to evaluate best
without it.
Try adding it to the CD, and use recursion to evaluate best with it
Whichever is better is returned as absolute best from here
}

CS314 52
Recursive Backtracking
 Another Backtracking Problem
Airlines give out frequent flier miles as a way to get
people to always fly on their airline.
Airlines also have partner airlines. Assume if you
have miles on one airline you can redeem those
miles on any of its partners.
Further assume if you can redeem miles on a
partner airline you can redeem miles on any of its
partners and so forth...
– Airlines don't usually allow this sort of thing.
Given a list of airlines and each airlines partners
determine if it is possible to redeem miles on a
given airline A on another airline B.
CS314 53
Recursive Backtracking
 Airline List – Part 1
 Delta
– partners: Air Canada, Aero Mexico, OceanAir
 United
– partners: Aria, Lufthansa, OceanAir, Quantas, British Airways
 Northwest
– partners: Air Alaska, BMI, Avolar, EVA Air
 Canjet
– partners: Girjet
 Air Canda
– partners: Areo Mexico, Delta, Air Alaska
 Aero Mexico
– partners: Delta, Air Canda, British Airways

CS314 54
Recursive Backtracking
 Airline List - Part 2
 Ocean Air
– partners: Delta, United, Quantas, Avolar
 AlohaAir
– partners: Quantas
 Aria
– partners: United, Lufthansa
 Lufthansa
– partners: United, Aria, EVA Air
 Quantas
– partners: United, OceanAir, AlohaAir
 BMI
– partners: Northwest, Avolar
 Maxair
– partners: Southwest, Girjet

CS314 55
Recursive Backtracking
 Airline List - Part 3
Girjet
– partners: Southwest, Canjet, Maxair
British Airways
– partners: United, Aero Mexico
Air Alaska
– partners: Northwest, Air Canada
Avolar
– partners: Northwest, Ocean Air, BMI
EVA Air
– partners: Northwest, Luftansa
Southwest
– partners: Girjet, Maxair
CS314 56
Recursive Backtracking
 Problem Example
 If I have miles on Northwest can I redeem them on Aria?
 Partial graph:

Ocean Air

BMI Avolar

Northwest

Air Alaska
EVA Air

CS314 57
Recursive Backtracking
 Topic 14
Searching and Simple Sorts
"There's nothing in your head the
sorting hat can't see. So try me
on and I will tell you where you
ought to be."
-The Sorting Hat, Harry Potter
and the Sorcerer's Stone
 Sorting and Searching
Fundamental problems in computer science
and programming
Sorting done to make searching easier
Multiple different algorithms to solve the
same problem
– How do we know which algorithm is "better"?
Look at searching first
Examples use arrays of ints to illustrate
algorithms

CS314 Searching and Simple Sorts 2

Searching
 Searching
Given an array or list of data find the location
of a particular value or report that value is not
present
linear search
– intuitive approach?
– start at first item
– is it the one I am looking for?
– if not go to next item
– repeat until found or all items checked
If items not sorted or unsortable this
approach is necessary
CS314 Searching and Simple Sorts 4
 Linear Search
/* pre: data != null
post: return the index of the first occurrence
of target in data or -1 if target not present in
data
*/
public int linearSearch(int[] data, int target) {
for (int i = 0; i < data.length; i++) {
if (data[i] == target) {
return i;
}
}
return -1;
}

CS314 Searching and Simple Sorts 5

 Linear Search, Generic
/* pre: data != null, no elements of data == null
target != null
post: return the index of the first occurrence
of target in data or -1 if target not present in
data
*/
public int linearSearch(Object[] data, Object target) {
for (int i = 0; i < data.length; i++)
if (target.equals(data[i]))
return i;
return -1;
}

T(N)? Big O? Best case, worst case, average case?

CS314 Searching and Simple Sorts 6

 Clicker 1
What is the average case Big O of linear
search in an array with N items, if an item is
present once?
A. O(1)
B. O(logN)
C. O(N)
D. O(NlogN)
E. O(N2)

CS314 Searching and Simple Sorts 7

 Searching in a Sorted Array or List
If items are sorted then we can divide and
conquer
dividing your work in half with each step
– generally a good thing
The Binary Search with array in ascending order
– Start at middle of list
– is that the item?
– If not is it less than or greater than the item?
– less than, move to second half of list
– greater than, move to first half of list
– repeat until found or sub list size = 0
CS314 Searching and Simple Sorts 8
 Binary Search
data

low item middle item high item

Is middle item what we are looking for? If not is it
more or less than the target item? (Assume lower)

data

low middle high

item item item
and so forth…
CS314 Searching and Simple Sorts 9
 Binary Search in Action
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29 31 37 41 43 47 53
public static int bsearch(int[] data, int target) {
int indexOfTarget = -1;
int low = 0;
int high = data.length - 1;
while(indexOfTarget == -1 && low <= high ) {
int mid = low + ((high - low) / 2);
if( data[mid] == target )
indexOfTarget = mid;
else if( data[mid] < target)
low = mid + 1;
else.
high = mid - 1;
}
return indexOfTarget;
}
// mid = (low + high) / 2; // may overflow!!!
// or mid = (low + high) >>> 1; using bitwise op

CS314 Searching and Simple Sorts 10

 Trace When Key == 3
Trace When Key == 30

Variables of Interest?

CS314 Searching and Simple Sorts 11

 Clicker 2
What is the worst case Big O of binary search in
an array with N items, if an item is present?
A.O(1)
B.O(logN)
C.O(N)
D.O(NlogN)
E.O(N2)

CS314 Searching and Simple Sorts 12

 Generic Binary Search
public static <T extends Comparable<? super T>> int
bsearch(T[] data, T target) {

int result = -1;

int low = 0;
int high = data.length - 1;
while( result == -1 && low <= high ) {
int mid = low + ((high - low) / 2);
int compareResult = target.compareTo(data[mid]);
if(compareResult == 0)
result = mid;
else if(compareResult > 0)
low = mid + 1;
else
high = mid - 1; // compareResult < 0
}
return result;
}

CS314 Searching and Simple Sorts 13

 Recursive Binary Search
public static int bsearch(int[] data, int target) {
return bsearch(data, target, 0, data.length – 1);
}

public static int bsearch(int[] data, int target,

int low, int high) {
if(low <= high){
int mid = low + ((high - low) / 2);
if( data[mid] == target )
return mid;
else if(data[mid] > target)
return bsearch(data, target, low, mid – 1);
else
return bsearch(data, target, mid + 1, high);
}
return -1;
}
// Clicker 3 Is this a recursive backtracking algorithm?
A. NO
B. YES
CS314 Searching and Simple Sorts 14
 Other Searching Algorithms
Interpolation Search
– more like what people really do
Indexed Searching
Binary Search Trees
Hash Table Searching
best-first
A*

CS314 Searching and Simple Sorts 15

Sorting
 Sorting
A fundamental application for computation
Done to make finding data (searching) faster
Many different algorithms for sorting
One of the difficulties with sorting is working
with a fixed size storage container (array)
– if resize, that is expensive (slow)
The simple sorts are slow
– bubble sort
– selection sort
– insertion sort

CS314 Searching and Simple Sorts 17

Algorithm
Selection sort
– Search through the data and find the smallest element
– swap the smallest element with the first element
– repeat starting at second element and find the second
smallest element
public static void selectionSort(int[] data) {

for (int i = 0; i < data.length - 1; i++) {

int min = i;
for (int j = i + 1; j < data.length; j++)
if (data[j] < data[min])
min = j;
int temp = data[i];
data[i] = data[min];
data[min] = temp;
}
}

CS314 Searching and Simple Sorts 18

 Insertion Sort in Practice
44 68 191 119 119 37 83 82

What is the T(N), actual number of

statements executed, of the selection sort
code, given an array of N elements?
What is the Big O?
CS314 Searching and Simple Sorts 19
 Generic Selection Sort
public static <T extends Comparable<? super T>>
void selectionSort(T[] data) {

for(int i = 0; i < data.length - 1; i++) {

int min = i;
for(int j = i + 1; j < data.length; j++)
if( data[min].compareTo(data[j]) > 0 )
min = j;
T temp = data[i];
data[i] = data[min];
data[min] = temp;
}
}

CS314 Searching and Simple Sorts 20

 Insertion Sort
Another of the O(N2) sorts
The first item is sorted
Compare the second item to the first
– if smaller swap
Third item, compare to item next to it
– need to swap
– after swap compare again
And so forth…

CS314 Searching and Simple Sorts 21

 Insertion Sort Code
public void insertionSort(int[] data) {
for (int i = 1; i < data.length; i++) {
int temp = data[i];
int j = i;
while (j > 0 && temp < data[j - 1]) {
// swap elements
data[j] = data[j - 1];
data[j - 1] = temp;
j--;
}
}
}
Best case, worst case, average case Big O?

CS314 Searching and Simple Sorts 22

 Clicker 4 - Comparing Algorithms
Which algorithm do you think has a smaller
T(N) given random data, selection sort or
insertion sort?
A. Insertion Sort
B. Selection Sort
C. About the same

CS314 Searching and Simple Sorts 23

 Topic 15
Implementing and Using Stacks
"stack n.
The set of things a person has to do in the future. "I haven't
done it yet because every time I pop my stack something new
gets pushed." If you are interrupted several times in the
middle of a conversation, "My stack overflowed" means
"I forget what we were talking about."

-The Hacker's Dictionary

Friedrich L. Bauer
German computer scientist
who proposed "stack method
of expression evaluation"
in 1955.
 Sharper Tools

Stacks
Lists

CS314 2
Stacks
 Stacks
Access is allowed only at one point of the structure,
normally termed the top of the stack
– access to the most recently added item only
 Operations are limited:
– push (add item to stack)
– pop (remove top item from stack)
– top (get top item without removing it)
– isEmpty
Described as a "Last In First Out"
(LIFO) data structure

CS314 3
Stacks
 Implementing a stack
need an underlying collection to hold the elements
of the stack
3 obvious choices?
– native array
– linked structure of nodes
– a list!!!
Adding a layer of abstraction.
A HUGE idea.
array implementation
linked list implementation
https://xkcd.com/2347/
CS314 4
Stacks
 Uses of Stacks
The runtime stack used by a
process (running program) to
keep track of methods in
progress
Search problems
Undo, redo, back, forward

CS314 5
Stacks
 Stack Operations
Assume a simple stack for integers.
Stack<Integer> s = new Stack<>();
s.push(12);
s.push(4);
s.push( s.top() + 2 );
s.pop();
s.push( s.top() );
//what are contents of stack?

CS314 6
Stacks
 Clicker 1 - What is Output?
Stack<Integer> s = new Stack<>();
// put stuff in stack
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++)
s.push(i);
// Print out contents of stack.
// Assume there is a size method.
for (int i = 0; i < s.size(); i++)
System.out.print(s.pop() + " ");
A 0 1 2 3 4 D 2 3 4
B 4 3 2 1 0 E No output due
C 4 3 2 to runtime error

CS314 7
Stacks
 Corrected Version
Stack<Integer> s = new Stack<Integer>();
// put stuff in stack
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++)
s.push(i);
// print out contents of stack
// while emptying it
final int LIMIT = s.size();
for (int i = 0; i < LIMIT; i++)
System.out.print(s.pop() + " ");
//or
// while (!s.isEmpty())
// System.out.println(s.pop());
CS314 8
Stacks
 Stack Operations
Write a method to print out contents of stack
in reverse order.

CS314 9
Stacks
Applications of Stacks
 Mathematical Calculations
What does 3 + 2 * 4 equal?
2 * 4 + 3? 3 * 2 + 4?
The precedence of operators affects the
order of operations.
A mathematical expression cannot simply be
evaluated left to right.
A challenge when evaluating a program.
Lexical analysis is the process of
interpreting a program.

What about 1 - 2 - 4 ^ 5 * 3 * 6 / 7 ^ 2 ^ 3
CS314 11
Stacks
 Infix and Postfix Expressions
The way we are use to writing
expressions is known as infix
notation
Postfix expression does not
require any precedence rules
3 2 * 1 + is postfix of 3 * 2 + 1
evaluate the following postfix
expressions and write out a
corresponding infix expression:
2324*+* 1234^*+
12-32^3*6/+ 25^1-
CS314 12
Stacks
 Clicker Question 2
What does the following postfix expression
evaluate to?
632+*
A. 11
B. 18
C. 24
D. 30
E. 36

CS314 13
Stacks
 Evaluation of Postfix Expressions
Easy to do with a stack
given a proper postfix expression:
– get the next token
– if it is an operand push it onto the stack
– else if it is an operator
• pop the stack for the right hand operand
• pop the stack for the left hand operand
• apply the operator to the two operands
• push the result onto the stack
– when the expression has been exhausted the
result is the top (and only element) of the stack
CS314 14
Stacks
 Infix to Postfix
Convert the following equations from infix to
postfix:
2^3^3+5*1
11 + 2 - 1 * 3 / 3 + 2 ^ 2 / 3
Problems:
Negative numbers?
parentheses in expression

CS314 15
Stacks
 Infix to Postfix Conversion
Requires operator precedence parsing algorithm
– parse v. To determine the syntactic structure of a
sentence or other utterance
Operands: add to expression
Close parenthesis: pop stack symbols until an open
parenthesis appears
Operators:
Have an on stack and off stack precedence
Pop all stack symbols until a symbol of lower
precedence appears. Then push the operator
End of input: Pop all remaining stack symbols and
add to the expression
CS314 16
Stacks
 Simple Example
Infix Expression: 3+2*4
PostFix Expression:
Operator Stack:
Precedence Table
Symbol Off Stack On Stack
Precedence Precedence
+ 1 1
- 1 1
* 2 2
/ 2 2
^ 10 9
( 20 0

CS314 17
Stacks
 Simple Example
Infix Expression: +2*4
PostFix Expression: 3
Operator Stack:
Precedence Table
Symbol Off Stack On Stack
Precedence Precedence
+ 1 1
- 1 1
* 2 2
/ 2 2
^ 10 9
( 20 0

CS314 18
Stacks
 Simple Example
Infix Expression: 2*4
PostFix Expression: 3
Operator Stack: +
Precedence Table
Symbol Off Stack On Stack
Precedence Precedence
+ 1 1
- 1 1
* 2 2
/ 2 2
^ 10 9
( 20 0

CS314 19
Stacks
 Simple Example
Infix Expression: *4
PostFix Expression: 3 2
Operator Stack: +
Precedence Table
Symbol Off Stack On Stack
Precedence Precedence
+ 1 1
- 1 1
* 2 2
/ 2 2
^ 10 9
( 20 0

CS314 20
Stacks
 Simple Example
Infix Expression: 4
PostFix Expression: 3 2
Operator Stack: +*
Precedence Table
Symbol Off Stack On Stack
Precedence Precedence
+ 1 1
- 1 1
* 2 2
/ 2 2
^ 10 9
( 20 0

CS314 21
Stacks
 Simple Example
Infix Expression:
PostFix Expression: 3 2 4
Operator Stack: +*
Precedence Table
Symbol Off Stack On Stack
Precedence Precedence
+ 1 1
- 1 1
* 2 2
/ 2 2
^ 10 9
( 20 0

CS314 22
Stacks
 Simple Example
Infix Expression:
PostFix Expression: 3 2 4 *
Operator Stack: +
Precedence Table
Symbol Off Stack On Stack
Precedence Precedence
+ 1 1
- 1 1
* 2 2
/ 2 2
^ 10 9
( 20 0

CS314 23
Stacks
 Simple Example
Infix Expression:
PostFix Expression: 3 2 4 * +
Operator Stack:
Precedence Table
Symbol Off Stack On Stack
Precedence Precedence
+ 1 1
- 1 1
* 2 2
/ 2 2
^ 10 9
( 20 0

CS314 24
Stacks
 Example
11 + 2 ^ 4 ^ 3 - ((4 + 5) * 6 ) ^ 2
Show algorithm in action on above equation

CS314 25
Stacks
 Balanced Symbol Checking
In processing programs and working with
computer languages there are many
instances when symbols must be balanced
{},[],()

A stack is useful for checking symbol balance.

When a closing symbol is found it must match
the most recent opening symbol of the same
type.
Applicable to checking html and xml tags!
CS314 26
Stacks
 Algorithm for Balanced
Symbol Checking
Make an empty stack
read symbols until end of file
– if the symbol is an opening symbol push it onto
the stack
– if it is a closing symbol do the following
• if the stack is empty report an error
• otherwise pop the stack. If the symbol popped does
not match the closing symbol report an error
At the end of the file if the stack is not empty
report an error
CS314 27
Stacks
 Algorithm in practice
list[i] = 3 * ( 44 - method( foo( list[ 2 * (i + 1) + foo(
list[i - 1] ) ) / 2 * ) - list[ method(list[0])];

Complications
– when is it not an error to have non matching symbols?

Processing a file
– Tokenization: the process of scanning an input stream.
Each independent chunk is a token.
Tokens may be made up of 1 or more characters

CS314 28
Stacks
 Topic 16
Queues
"FISH queue: n.
[acronym, by analogy with FIFO (First In,
First Out)] ‘First In, Still Here’. A joking way of
pointing out that processing of a particular
sequence of events or requests has stopped
dead. Also FISH mode and FISHnet; the
latter may be applied to any network that is
running really slowly or exhibiting extreme
flakiness."
-The Jargon File 4.4.7
 Queues
A sharp tool, like stacks
A line
–In England people don’t “get in line”
they “queue up”.

CS314 2
Queues
 Queue Properties
Queues are a first in first out data
structure
– FIFO (or LILO, but I guess that sounds a
bit silly)
Add items to the end of the queue
Access and remove from the front
– Access to the element that has been in the
structure the longest amount of time
Used extensively in operating systems
– Queues of processes, I/O requests, and
much more
CS314 3
Queues
 Queues in Operating Systems
On a computer with N cores on the CPU, but more
than N processes, how many processes can actually
be executing at one time?
One job of OS, schedule the processes for the CPU

CS314 4
Queues
 Queue operations
void enqueue(E item)
– a.k.a. add(E item)
E front()
– a.k.a. E peek()
E dequeue()
– a.k.a. E remove()
boolean isEmpty()
Specify methods in an interface, allow multiple
implementations.

CS314 5
Queues
 Queue interface, version 1
public interface Queue314<E> {
//place item at back of this queue
public void enqueue(E item);

//access item at front of this queue

//pre: !isEmpty()
public E front();

//remove item at front of this queue

//pre: !isEmpty()
public E dequeue();

public boolean isEmpty();

}
CS314 6
Queues
 Implementing a Queue
Given the internal storage container and
choice for front and back of queue what are
the Big O of the queue operations?
ArrayList LinkedList LinkedList
(Singly Linked) (Doubly Linked)
enqueue
front
dequeue
isEmpty

CS314 7
Queues
 Clicker 1
If implementing a queue with a singly linked list
with references to the first and last nodes (head
and tail) which end of the list should be the front
of the queue in order to have all queue
operations O(1)?
A. The front of the list should be the front of the queue.
B. The back of the list should be the front of the queue.
C. Either end will work to make all ops O(1).
D. Neither end will allow all ops to be O(1).

CS314 8
Queues
 Alternate Implementation
How about implementing a Queue with a
native array?
– Seems like a step backwards

CS314 9
Queues
 Application of Queues
Radix Sort
– radix is a synonym for base. base 10, base 2
Multi pass sorting algorithm that only looks
at individual digits during each pass
Use queues as buckets to store elements
Create an array of 10 queues
Starting with the least significant digit place
value in queue that matches digit
empty queues back into array
repeat, moving to next least significant digit
CS314 10
Queues
 Radix Sort in Action: 1s place
original values in array
9, 113, 70, 86, 12, 93, 37, 40, 252, 7, 79, 12
Look at ones place
9, 113, 70, 86, 12, 93, 37, 40, 252, 7, 79, 12
Array of Queues (all empty initially):
0 5
1 6
2 7
3 8
4 9
CS314 11
Queues
 Radix Sort in Action: 1s
original values in array
9, 113, 70, 86, 12, 93, 37, 40, 252, 7, 79, 12
Look at ones place
9, 113, 70, 86, 12, 93, 37, 40, 252, 7, 79, 12
Queues:
0 70, 40 5
1 6 86
2 12, 252, 12 7 37, 7
3 113, 93 8
4 9 9, 79
CS314 12
Queues
 Radix Sort in Action: 10s
Empty queues in order from 0 to 9 back into
array
70, 40, 12, 252, 12, 113, 93, 86, 37, 7, 9, 79
Now look at 10's place
70, 40, 12, 252, 12, 113, 93, 86, 37, 7, 9, 79
Queues:
0 7, 9 5 252
1 12, 12, 113 6
2 7 70, 79
3 37 8 86
4 40 9 93
CS314 13
Queues
 Radix Sort in Action: 100s
Empty queues in order from 0 to 9 back into array
7, 9, 12, 12, 113, 37, 40, 252, 70, 79, 86, 93
Now look at 100's place
__7, __9, _12, _12, 113, _37, _40, 252, _70, _79, _86, _93
Queues:
0 7, 9, _12, _12, _37, _40, _70, _79, _86, _93 5

1 113 6
2 252 7
3 8
4 9

CS314 14
Queues
 Radix Sort in Action: Final Step
Empty queues in order from 0 to 9 back into
array
7, 9, 12, 12, 40, 70, 79, 86, 93, 113, 252

CS314 15
Queues
 Radix Sort Code
public static void sort(int[] data){
ArrayList<Queue<Integer>> queues
= new ArrayList<Queue<Integer>>();
for(int i = 0; i < 10; i++)
queues.add(new LinkedList<Integer>());
int passes = numDigits(getMax(data));// helper methods

for(int i = 0; i < passes; i++){

for(int j = 0; j < data.length; j++) {
int digit = valueOfDigit(data[j], i);
queues.get(digit).add(data[j]);
}
int pos = 0;
for(Queue<Integer> q : queues){
while(!q.isEmpty())
data[pos++] = q.remove();
}
}
}CS314 16
Queues
 Topic 17
Faster Sorting
"The bubble sort seems to have
nothing to recommend it, except
a catchy name and the fact that it
leads to some interesting
theoretical problems."
- Don Knuth
 Previous Sorts
Insertion Sort and Selection Sort are both
average case O(N2)
Today we will look at two faster sorting
algorithms.
– quicksort
– mergesort

CS314 Fast Sorting 2

 Properties of Sorting Algorithms
In place?
– Do we use another data structure or not?
– Program stack typically not considered another
data structure if only using O(log N) space
Comparison?
– Works by comparing the items to be sorted to
each other?
– How could we not?
Stable?
– Next slide!
CS314 Fast Sorting 3
 Stable Sorting
A property of sorts
If a sort guarantees the relative order of
equal items stays the same then it is a stable
sort
[71, 6, 72, 5, 1, 2, 73, -5] original data
– subscripts added for clarity
[-5, 1, 2, 5, 6, 71, 72, 73] sorted data
– result of stable sort
Real world example:
– sort a table in Wikipedia by one criteria, then another
– sort by country, then by major wins
CS314 Fast Sorting 4
 Quicksort
 Invented by C.A.R. (Tony) Hoare
 A divide and conquer approach
that uses recursion
1. If the list has 0 or 1 elements it is sorted
2. otherwise, pick any element p in the list. This is
called the pivot value
3. Partition the list minus the pivot into two sub lists
according to values less than or greater than the
pivot. (equal values go to either)
4. return the quicksort of the first list followed by the
quicksort of the second list
CS314 Fast Sorting 5
 Quicksort in Action
39 23 17 90 33 72 46 79 11 52 64 5 71
Pick middle element as pivot: 46
Partition list
23 17 5 33 39 11 46 79 72 52 64 90 71
quick sort the less than list
Pick middle element as pivot: 33
23 17 5 11 33 39
quicksort the less than list, pivot now 5
{} 5 23 17 11
quicksort the less than list, base case
quicksort the greater than list
Pick middle element as pivot: 17
and so on….
CS314 Fast Sorting 6
 Quicksort on Another Data Set
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
44 68 191 119 119 37 83 95 191 45 158 130 76 153 39 25

Big O of Quicksort?
CS314 Fast Sorting 7
 private static void swapReferences(Object[] a, int index1, int index2) {
Object tmp = a[index1];
a[index1] = a[index2];
a[index2] = tmp;
}
private void quicksort(Comparable[] data, int start, int stop) {
if(start < stop) {
int pivotIndex = (start + stop) / 2;
// Place pivot at start position
swapReferences(data, pivotIndex, start);
Comparable pivot = data[start];
// Begin partitioning
int j = start;
// from first to j are elements less than or equal to pivot
// from j to i are elements greater than pivot
// elements beyond i have not been checked yet
for(int i = start + 1; i <= stop; i++ ) {
//is current element less than or equal to pivot
if (data[i].compareTo(pivot) <= 0) {
// if so move it to the less than or equal portion
j++;
swapReferences(data, i, j);
}
}
//restore pivot to correct spot
swapReferences(data, start, j);
quicksort( data, start, j - 1 ); // Sort small elements
quicksort( data, j + 1, stop ); // Sort large elements
} // else start >= stop, 0 or 1 element, base case, do nothing
}

CS314 Fast Sorting 8

 Clicker 1
What are the best case and worst case
Orders (Big O) for quicksort?

Best Worst
A. O(NlogN) O(N2)
B. O(N2) O(N2)
C. O(N2) O(N!)
D. O(NlogN) O(NlogN)
E. O(N) O(NlogN)
CS314 Fast Sorting 9
 Clicker 2
Is quicksort always stable?
A. No
B. Yes

CS314 Fast Sorting 10

 Merge Sort Algorithm
Don Knuth cites John von Neumann as the creator
of this algorithm
1. If a list has 1 element or 0
elements it is sorted
2. If a list has more than 1 split
into 2 separate lists
3. Perform this algorithm on each
of those smaller lists
4. Take the 2 sorted lists and
merge them together
CS314 Fast Sorting 11
 Merge Sort

When implementing
one temporary array
is used instead of
multiple temporary
arrays.

Why?

CS314 Fast Sorting 12

/**
Merge Sort code
* perform a merge sort on the elements of data
* @param data data != null, all elements of data
* are the same data type
*/
public static void mergeSort(Comparable[] data) {
Comparable[] temp = new Comparable[data.length];
sort(data, temp, 0, data.length - 1);
}

private static void sort(Comparable[] data, Comparable[] temp,

int low, int high) {
if(low < high) {
int center = (low + high) / 2;
sort(data, temp, low, center);
sort(data, temp, center + 1, high);
merge(data, temp, low, center + 1, high);
}
}
CS314 Fast Sorting 13
 Merge Sort Code
private static void merge( Comparable[] data, Comparable[] temp,
int leftPos, int rightPos, int rightEnd) {
int leftEnd = rightPos - 1;
int tempPos = leftPos;
int numElements = rightEnd - leftPos + 1;
//main loop
while(leftPos <= leftEnd && rightPos <= rightEnd){
if( data[leftPos].compareTo(data[rightPos]) <= 0) {
temp[tempPos] = data[leftPos];
leftPos++;
} else {
temp[tempPos] = data[rightPos];
rightPos++;
}
tempPos++;
}
//copy rest of left half
while (leftPos <= leftEnd) {
temp[tempPos] = data[leftPos];
tempPos++;
leftPos++;
}
//copy rest of right half
while (rightPos <= rightEnd) {
temp[tempPos] = data[rightPos];
tempPos++;
rightPos++;
}
//Copy temp back into data
for (int i = 0; i < numElements; i++, rightEnd--)
data[rightEnd] = temp[rightEnd];
}

CS314 Fast Sorting 14

 Clicker 3
What are the best case and worst case
Orders (Big O) for mergesort?
Best Worst
A. O(NlogN) O(N2)
B. O(N2) O(N2)
C. O(N2) O(N!)
D. O(NlogN) O(NlogN)
E. O(N) O(NlogN)

CS314 Fast Sorting 15

 Clicker 4
Is mergesort always stable?
A. No
B. Yes

CS314 Fast Sorting 16

 Clicker 5
You have 1,000,000 distinct items in random
order that you will be searching. How many
searches need to be performed before the
data is changed to make it worthwhile to sort
the data before searching?
A. ~40
B. ~100
C. ~500
D. ~2,000
E. ~500,000
CS314 Fast Sorting 17
 Comparison of Various Sorts (2001)
Num Items Selection Insertion Quicksort
1000 0.016 0.005 0 ??
2000 0.059 0.049 0.006
4000 0.271 0.175 0.005
8000 1.056 0.686 0??
16000 4.203 2.754 0.011
32000 16.852 11.039 0.045
64000 expected? expected? 0.068
128000 expected? expected? 0.158
256000 expected? expected? 0.335
512000 expected? expected? 0.722
1024000 expected? expected? 1.550

times in seconds
CS314 Fast Sorting 18
Comparison of Various Sorts (2011)
Num Items Selection Insertion Quicksort Merge Arrays.sort
1000 0.002 0.001 - - -
2000 0.002 0.001 - - -
4000 0.006 0.004 - - -
8000 0.022 0.018 - - -
16000 0.086 0.070 0.002 0.002 0.002
32000 0.341 0.280 0.004 0.005 0.003
64000 1.352 1.123 0.008 0.010 0.007
128000 5.394 4.499 0.017 0.022 0.015
256000 21.560 18.060 0.035 0.047 0.031
512000 86.083 72.303 0.072 0.099 0.066
1024000 ??? ??? 0.152 0.206 0.138
2048000 0.317 0.434 0.287
4096000 0.663 0.911 0.601
8192000 1.375 1.885 1.246
Comparison of Various Sorts (2020)
Num Selection Insertion Quicksort Mergesort Arrays. Arrays.so Arrays.
rt(Integer) parallelSort
Items sort(int)
1,000 <0.001 <0.001 - - - - -
2,000 0.001 <0.001 - - - - -
4,000 0.004 0.003 - - - - Speeds
8,000 0.017 0.010 - - - - up????
16,000 0.065 0.040 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.011 0.007
32,000 0.258 0.160 0.002 0.003 0.002 0.008 0.003
64,000 1.110 0.696 0.005 0.008 0.004 0.011 0.001
128,000 4.172 2.645 0.011 0.015 0.009 0.024 0.002
256,000 16.48 10.76 0.024 0.034 0.018 0.051 0.004
512,000 70.38 47.18 0.049 0.068 0.040 0.114 0.008
1,024,000 - - 0.098 0.143 0.082 0.259 0.017
2,048,000 - - 0.205 0.296 0.184 0.637 0.035
4,096,000 - - 0.450 0.659 0.383 1.452 0.079
8,192,000 - - 0.941 1.372 0.786 3.354 0.148
 Concluding Thoughts
Language libraries often have sorting
algorithms in them
– Java Arrays and Collections classes
– C++ Standard Template Library
– Python sort and sorted functions
Hybrid sorts
– when size of unsorted list or portion of array is
small use insertion sort, otherwise use
O(N log N) sort like Quicksort or Mergesort

Fast Sorting 21
 Concluding Thoughts
Sorts still being created!
Timsort (2002)
– created for python version 2.3
– now used in Java version 7.0+
– takes advantage of real world data
– real world data is usually partially sorted,
not totally random
Library Sort (2006)
– Like insertion sort,
but leaves gaps for later elements
Fast Sorting 22
CS314 Fast Sorting 23
 Topic 18
Binary Trees
"A tree may grow a
thousand feet tall, but
its leaves will return to
its roots."
-Chinese Proverb
 Definitions
A tree is an abstract data type root node
internal
– one entry point, the root nodes
– Each node is either a leaf or an
internal node
– An internal node has 1 or more
children, nodes that can be
reached directly from that
internal node.
– The internal node is said to be
the parent of its child nodes leaf nodes

CS314 Binary Trees 2

 Properties of Trees
Only access point is the root
All nodes, except the root, have one parent
– like the inheritance hierarchy in Java
Traditionally trees drawn upside down
root

CS314 Binary Trees leaves 3

 Properties of Trees and Nodes
siblings: two nodes that root
have the same parent edge
0
edge: the link from one
node to another 1 2
path length: the number of
edges that must be siblings
traversed to get from one 3
node to another
path length from root to this 4 5
node is 3

CS314 Binary Trees 4

 More Properties of Trees
depth: the path length from the root of the
tree to this node
height of a node: The maximum distance
(path length) of any leaf from this node
– a leaf has a height of 0
– the height of a tree is the height of the root of that
tree
descendants: any nodes that can be reached
via 1 or more edges from this node
ancestors: any nodes for which this node is a
descendant
CS314 Binary Trees 5
 Tree Visualization
A

B C D

E F G H I J

K L M

N O
CS314 Binary Trees 6
 Clicker 1
What is the depth of the node that contains
M on the previous slide?
A. 0
B. 1
C. 2
D. 3
E. 4
Clicker 2 - Same tree, same choices
What is the height of the node
that contains D?
CS314 Binary Trees 7
 Binary Trees
There are many variations on trees but we
will start with binary trees
binary tree: each node has at most two
children
– the possible children are usually referred to as
the left child and the right child
parent

left child right child

CS314 Binary Trees 8

 Full Binary Tree
full binary tree: a binary tree in which each
node has 2 or 0 children

CS314 Binary Trees 9

 Clicker 3
What is the maximum height of a full binary
tree with 11 nodes?
A. 3
B. 5
C. 7
D. 10
E. Not possible to have full binary tree with 11
nodes.

CS314 Binary Trees 10

 Complete Binary Tree
complete binary tree: a binary tree in which
every level, except possibly the deepest is
completely filled. At depth n, the height of the
tree, all nodes are as far left as possible

Where would the next node go

to maintain a complete tree?
CS314 Binary Trees 11
 Clicker 4
What is the height of a complete binary tree
that contains N nodes?
A. O(1)
B. O(logN)
C. O(N1/2)
D. O(N)
E. O(NlogN)
Recall, order can be applied to any function.
It doesn't just apply to running time.
CS314 Binary Trees 12
 Perfect Binary Tree
perfect binary tree: a binary tree with all leaf
nodes at the same depth. All internal nodes
have exactly two children.
a perfect binary tree has the maximum
number of nodes for a given height
a perfect binary tree has (2(n+1) - 1) nodes
where n is the height of the tree
– height = 0 -> 1 node
– height = 1 -> 3 nodes
– height = 2 -> 7 nodes
– height = 3 -> 15 nodes

CS314 Binary Trees 13

 A Binary Node class
public class Bnode<E> {
private E myData;
private Bnode<E> myLeft;
private Bnode<E> myRight;

public BNode();
public BNode(Bnode<E> left, E data,
Bnode<E> right)
public E getData()
public Bnode<E> getLeft()
public Bnode<E> getRight()

public void setData(E data)

public void setLeft(Bnode<E> left)
public void setRight(Bnode<E> right)
}
CS314 Binary Trees 14
 Binary Tree Traversals
Many algorithms require all nodes of a binary tree
be visited and the contents of each node processed
or examined.
There are 4 traditional types of traversals
– preorder traversal: process the root, then process all sub
trees (left to right)
– in order traversal: process the left sub tree, process the
root, process the right sub tree
– post order traversal: process the left sub tree, process
the right sub tree, then process the root
– level order traversal: starting from the root of a tree,
process all nodes at the same depth from left to right,
then proceed to the nodes at the next depth.
CS314 Binary Trees 15
 Results of Traversals
To determine the results of a traversal on a
given tree draw a path around the tree.
– start on the left side of the root and trace around
the tree. The path should stay close to the tree.
12 pre order: process when
pass down left side of node
12 49 13 5 42
49 42 in order: process when pass
underneath node
13 49 5 12 42
13 5 post order: process when
pass up right side of node
CS314 Binary Trees 13 5 49 42 12 16
 Clicker 5 - Tree Traversals
A What is a the result of a
post order traversal of
C D the tree to the left?
A. Z C G A Q H L D J
B. Z G C Q L H J D A
Z G H J C. A C Z G D H Q L J
D. A C D Z G H J Q L
Q L E. None of these

Binary Trees 17
 Implement Traversals
Implement preorder, inorder, and post order
traversal
– Big O time and space?
Implement a level order traversal using a
queue
– Big O time and space?
Implement a level order traversal without a
queue
– target depth

CS314 Binary Trees 18

 Breadth First Search
Depth First Search
from NIST - DADS
breadth first search: Any search algorithm that
considers neighbors of a vertex (node), that is,
outgoing edges (links) of the vertex's predecessor
in the search, before any outgoing edges of the
vertex
depth first search: Any search algorithm that
considers outgoing edges (links of children) of a
vertex (node) before any of the vertex's (node)
siblings, that is, outgoing edges of the vertex's
predecessor in the search. Extremes are searched
first.
 Clicker 6
Which traversal of a tree is a breadth first
search?
A. Level order traversal
B. Pre order traversal
C. In order traversal
D. Post order traversal
E. More than one of these

CS314 Binary Trees 20

 Breadth First
A level order traversal of a tree could be
used as a breadth first search
Search all nodes in a level before going
down to the next level

CS314 Binary Trees 21

 Breadth First Search of Tree
C

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 22

 Breadth First Search
C search level 0 first
Find Node with B

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 23

 Breadth First Search
C search level 1
Find Node with B

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 24

 Breadth First Search
C search level 1
Find Node with B

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 25

 Breadth First Search
C search level 1
Find Node with B

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 26

 Breadth First Search
C search level 1
Find Node with B

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 27

 Breadth First Search
Find Node with B C search level 1 next

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 28

 Breadth First Search
Find Node with B C search level 2 next

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 29

 Breadth First Search
Find Node with B C search level 2 next

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 30

 Breadth First Search
Find Node with B C search level 2 next

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 31

 Breadth First Search
Find Node with B C search level 2 next

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 32

 Breadth First Search
Find Node with B C search level 2 next

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 33

 Breadth First Search
Find Node with B C search level 3 next

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 34

 Breadth First Search
Find Node with B C search level 3 next

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 35

 Breadth First Search
Find Node with B C search level 3 next

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 36

 BFS - DFS
Breadth first search typically implemented
with a Queue
Depth first search typically implemented with
a stack, implicit with recursion or iteratively
with an explicit stack
which technique do I use?
– depends on the problem

CS314 Binary Trees 37

 Depth First Search of Tree
Find B C

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 38

 Depth First Search of Tree
Find B C

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 39

 Depth First Search of Tree
Find B C

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 40

 Depth First Search of Tree
Find B C

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 41

 Depth First Search of Tree
Find B C

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 42

 Depth First Search of Tree
Find B C

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 43

 Depth First Search of Tree
Find B C

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 44

 Depth First Search of Tree
Find B C

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 45

 Depth First Search of Tree
Find B C

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 46

 Depth First Search of Tree
Find B C

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 47

 Depth First Search of Tree
Find B C

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 48

 Depth First Search of Tree
Find B C

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 49

 Depth First Search of Tree
Find B C

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 50

 Depth First Search of Tree
Find B C

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 51

 Depth First Search of Tree
Find B C

A G X Z

W Q P O U

L K B Z

M R

CS314 Binary Trees 52

 Topic 19
Binary Search Trees
"Yes. Shrubberies are my trade. I am a
shrubber. My name is 'Roger the Shrubber'. I
arrange, design, and sell shrubberies."
-Monty Python and The Holy Grail
 The Problem with Linked Lists
Accessing a item from a linked list takes
O(N) time for an arbitrary element
Binary trees can improve upon this and
reduce access to O(log N) time for the
average case
Expands on the binary search technique and
allows insertions and deletions
Worst case degenerates to O(N) but this can
be avoided by using balanced trees (AVL,
Red-Black)
CS314 Binary Search Trees 2
 Binary Search Trees
A binary search tree is a binary tree in which every
node's left subtree holds values less than the
node's value, and every right subtree holds values
greater than the node's value.
A new node is added as a leaf.

root
parent
17
< 17 > 17
left child 11 19 right child

CS314 Binary Search Trees 3

 BST Insertion
Add the following values one at a time to an
initially empty binary search tree using the
simple algorithm:

50 90 20 78 10 20 28 -25

What is the resulting tree?

CS314 Binary Search Trees 4

 Traversals
What is the result of an inorder traversal of
the resulting tree?
How could a preorder traversal be useful?

CS314 Binary Search Trees 5

 Clicker 1
After adding N distinct elements in random
order to a Binary Search Tree what is the
expected height of the tree? (using the
simple insertion algorithm)
A. O(logN)
B. O(N1/2)
C. O(N)
D. O(NlogN)
E. O(N2)
CS314 Binary Search Trees 6
 Clicker 2
After adding N distinct elements to a Binary
Search Tree what is the worst case height
of the tree? (using the simple insertion
algorithm)
A. O(logN)
B. O(N1/2)
C. O(N)
D. O(NlogN)
E. O(N2) `
CS314 Binary Search Trees 7
 Worst Case Performance
Insert the following values into an initially
empty binary search tree using the simple,
naïve algorithm:

2 3 5 7 11 13 17

What is the height of the tree?

What is the worst case height of a BST?

CS314 Binary Search Trees 8

 Node for Binary Search Trees
public class BSTNode<E extends Comparable<E> {
private Comparable<E> myData;
private BSTNode<E> myLeft;
private BSTNode<E> myRightC;

public BinaryNode(E item)

{ myData = item; }

public E getValue()
{ return myData; }

public BinaryNode<E> getLeft()

{ return myLeft; }

public BinaryNode<E> getRight()

{ return myRight; }

public void setLeft(BSTNode<E> b)

{ myLeft = b; }
// setRight not shown
CS314 } Binary Search Trees 9
 More on Implementation
Many ways to implement BSTs
Using nodes is just one and even then many
options and choices

public class BinarySearchTree<E extends Comparable<E>> {

private BSTNode<E> root;

private int size;

CS314 Binary Search Trees 10

 Add an Element, Recursive

CS314 Binary Search Trees 11

 Add an Element, Iterative

CS314 Binary Search Trees 12

 Clicker 3
What are the best case and worst case order
to add N distinct elements, one at a time, to
an initially empty binary search tree using the
simple add algorithm?
// given int[] data
Best Worst // no duplicates in
A. O(N) O(N) // data
BST<Integer> b =
B. O(NlogN) O(NlogN) new BST<Integer>();
for(int x : data)
C. O(N) O(NlogN) b.add(x);
D. O(NlogN) O(N2)
E. O(N) O(N2)
13
 Performance of Binary Trees
For the three core operations (add, access,
remove) a binary search tree (BST) has an
average case performance of O(log N)
Even when using the naïve insertion /
removal algorithms
– no checks to maintain balance
– balance achieved based on the randomness of
the data inserted

CS314 Binary Search Trees 14

 Remove an Element
Five (four?) cases
– not present
– node is a leaf, 0 children (easy)
– node has 1 child, left or right (easy)
– node has 2 children ("interesting")

CS314 Binary Search Trees 15

 Properties of a BST
The minimum value is in the left
most node
The maximum value is in the right
most node
–useful when removing an element
from the BST

CS314 Binary Search Trees 16

 Alternate Implementation
In class examples of dynamic data structures
have relied on null terminated ends.
– Use null to show end of list or no children
Alternative form
– use structural recursion and polymorphism

CS314 Binary Search Trees 17

 BST Interface

public interface BST<E extends

Comparable<? super E>> {

public int size();

public boolean contains(E obj);
public BST<E> add(E obj);
}

CS314 Binary Search Trees 18

 EmptyBST
public class EmptyBST<E extends Comparable<? super E>>
implements BST<E> {

private static final EmptyBST theOne = new EmptyBST();

private EmptyBST() {}

public static EmptyBST getEmptyBST(){ return theOne; }

public BST<E> add(E obj) { return new NEBST(obj); }

public boolean contains(E obj) { return false; }

public int size() { return 0; }

} CS314 Binary Search Trees 19
 Non Empty BST – Part 1
public class NEBST <E extends Comparable<? super E>> implements BST<E> {

private E data;
private BST left;
private BST right;

public NEBST(E d) {
data = d;
right = EmptyBST.getEmptyBST();
left = EmptyBST.getEmptyBST();
}

public BST add(E obj) {

int direction = obj.compareTo( data );
if ( direction < 0 )
left = left.add( obj );
else if ( direction > 0 )
right = right.add ( obj );
return this;
}
CS314 Binary Search Trees 20
 Non Empty BST – Part 2
public boolean contains(E obj){
int dir = obj.compareTo(data);
if( dir == 0 )
return true;
else if (dir < 0)
return left.contains(obj);
else
return right.contains(obj);
}

public int size() {

return 1 + left.size() + right.size();
}
CS314 Binary Search Trees 21
}
 Topic 20: Huffman Coding

The author should gaze at Noah, and ...

learn, as they did in the Ark, to crowd a
great deal of matter into a very small
compass.
Sydney Smith, Edinburgh Review
 Agenda

• Encoding
• Compression
• Huffman Coding

2
 Encoding
• UTCS
• 85 84 67 83
• 01010101 01010100 01000011 01010011

• What is stored in a jpg file? A text file? A Java file?

A png file? A pdf file? An mp3 file? An mp4 file? An
excel spreadsheet file? A zip file?
• open a bitmap in a text editor

3
ASCII - UNICODE

4
Text File

5
Text File???

6
Bitmap and JPEG File

7
Bitmap File????

8
JPEG File

9
 JPEG VS BITMAP

• JPEG File

10
 Encoding Schemes

• "It's all 1s and 0s"

• What do the 1s and 0s mean?
• 50 121 109
• ASCII -> 2ym
• Red Green Blue->
dark teal?

11
 Why So Many Encoding /
Decoding Schemes?
• Image file formats: bmp, png, jpg, gif, tiff,
svg, cgm, pgm

• XKCD, Standards: https://xkcd.com/927/ 12

 Agenda

• Encoding
• Compression
• Huffman Coding

13
 Compression
• Compression: Storing the same information
but in a form that takes less memory
• lossless and lossy compression
• Recall:

14
Lossy Artifacts

15
 Compression

• 00000000000000000000000000000000
111111111111111111111111111111

• 0 00100000 1 00011110

16
 Why Bother?
• Is compression really necessary?

5 Terabytes.
~5,000,000,000,0000 bytes 17
 Clicker 1

• With computer storage so cheap, is

compression really necessary?
A. No
B. Yes
C. It Depends

18
 Little Pipes and Big Pumps
Home Internet Access CPU Capability
• 400 Mbps roughly $115 • $2,000 for a good laptop
per month or desktop
• 12 months * 3 years * • Intel® Core™ i9-7900X
$115 = • Assume it lasts 3 years.
• 400,000,000 bits /second • Memory bandwidth
= 5 * 107 bytes / sec 40 GB / sec
= 4.0 * 1010 bytes / sec
• on the order of
6.4 * 1011 instructions /
second
19
 Mobile Devices?
Cellular Network iPhone CPU
• Your mileage may vary … • Apple A6 System on a
• Mega bits per second Chip
• AT&T • Coy about IPS
17 mbps download, 7 mbps • 2 cores
upload • Rough estimates:
• T-Mobile & Verizon 1 x 1010 instructions per
12 mbps download, 7 mbps second
upload
• 17,000,000 bits per
second = 2.125 x 106
bytes per second
20
http://tinyurl.com/q6o7wan
 Little Pipes and Big Pumps

CPU

Data In
From Network

21
 Agenda

• Encoding
• Compression
• Huffman Coding

22
 Huffman Coding
• Proposed by Dr. David A. Huffman
– Graduate class in 1951 at MIT with Robert Fano
– term paper or final
– term paper: prove min bits needed for binary
coding of data
– A Method for the Construction of Minimum
Redundancy Codes
• Applicable to many forms of data transmission
– Our example: text files
– still used in fax machines, mp3 encoding, others 23
 The Basic Algorithm

• Huffman coding is a form of statistical coding

• Not all characters occur with the same
frequency, in typical text files. (can be true
when reading raw bytes as well)
• Yet in ASCII all characters are allocated the
same amount of space
– 1 char = 1 byte, be it e or x

–fixed width encoding

24
 The Basic Algorithm
• Any savings in tailoring codes to
frequency of character?
• Code word lengths are no longer fixed like
ASCII or Unicode
• Code word lengths vary and will be
shorter for the more frequently used
characters
• Examples use characters for clarity, but in
reality just read raw bytes from file.
25
 The Basic Algorithm
1. Scan file to be compressed and determine
frequency of all values.
2. Sort or prioritize values based on
frequency in file.
3. Build Huffman code tree based on
prioritized values.
4. Perform a traversal of tree to determine
new codes for values.
5. Scan file again to create new file
using the new Huffman codes
26
 Building a Tree
Scan the original text

• Consider the following short text

Eerie eyes seen near lake.

• Determine frequency of all numbers (values

or in this case characters) in the text

27
 Building a Tree
Scan the original text

Eerie eyes seen near lake.

• What characters are present?

E e r i space
y s n a r l k .

28
 Building a Tree
Scan the original text
Eerie eyes seen near lake.
• What is the frequency of each character in the
text?

Char Freq. Char Freq. Char Freq.

E 1 y 1 k 1
e 8 s 2 . 1
r 2 n 2
i 1 a 2
space 4 l 1

29
 Building a Tree
Prioritize values from file

• Create binary tree nodes with a value

and the frequency for each value
• Place nodes in a priority queue
– The lower the frequency, the higher the
priority in the queue

30
 Building a Tree
• The queue after enqueueing all nodes
front back

E i k l y . a n r s sp e
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 4 8

• Null Pointers are not shown

• sp = space
31
 Building a Tree
• While priority queue contains two or more
nodes
– Create new node
– Dequeue node and make it left child
– Dequeue next node and make it right child
– Frequency of new node equals sum of frequency of
left and right children
• New node does not contain value
– Enqueue new node back into the priority queue
32
 Building a Tree

E i k l y . a n r s sp e
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 4 8

33
 Building a Tree

k l y . a n r s sp e
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 4 8

E i
1 1

34
 Building a Tree

k l y . a n r s sp e
2
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 4 8
E i
1 1

35
 Building a Tree

y . a n r s sp e
2
1 1 2 2 2 2 4 8
E i
1 1

k l
1 1

36
 Building a Tree

2
y . a n r s 2 sp e
1 1 2 2 2 2 4 8
k l
E i 1 1
1 1

37
 Building a Tree

a n r s 2 2 sp e
2 2 2 2 4 8
k l
E i 1 1
1 1

y .
1 1

38
 Building a Tree

a n r s 2 2 sp e
2
2 2 2 2 4 8
E i k l y .
1 1 1 1 1 1

39
 Building a Tree

r s 2 sp e
2 2
2 2 4 8
E i k l y .
1 1 1 1 1 1

a n
2 2

40
 Building a Tree

r s 2 sp e
2 2 4
2 2 4 8

E i k l y . a n
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2

41
 Building a Tree

2 4 e
2 2 sp
8
4
k l y . a n
E i 1 1 1 1 2 2
1 1

r s
2 2

42
 Building a Tree

2 4 4 e
2 2 sp
8
4
k l y . a n r s
E i 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
1 1

43
 Building a Tree

4 4 e
2 sp
8
4
y . a n r s
1 1 2 2 2 2

2 2

E i k l
1 1 1 1

44
 Building a Tree

4 4 4
2 sp e
4 2 2 8
y . a n r s
1 1 2 2 2 2
E i k l
1 1 1 1

45
 Building a Tree

4 4 4
e
2 2 8
a n r s
2 2 2 2
E i k l
1 1 1 1

2 sp
4
y .
1 1

46
 Building a Tree

4 4 4 6 e
2 sp 8
a n r s 2 2
4
2 2 2 2 y .
E i k l 1 1
1 1 1 1

47
 Building a Tree

4 6 e
2 2 2 8
sp
4
E i k l y .
1 1 1 1 1 1
8

4 4

a n r s
2 2 2 2

48
 Building a Tree

4 6 e 8
2 2 2 8
sp
4 4 4
E i k l r .
1 1 1 1 1 1
a n r s
2 2 2 2

49
 Building a Tree

8
e
8
4 4
10
a n r s
2 2 2 2 4
6
2 2 2 sp
4
E i k l y .
1 1 1 1 1 1

50
 Building a Tree

8 10
e
8 4
4 4
6
2 2
a n r s 2 sp
2 2 2 2 4
E i k l y .
1 1 1 1 1 1
Clicker 2 - What is happening to the values with a
low frequency compared to values with a high freq.?
A. Smaller Depth B. Larger Depth
C. Something else
51
 Building a Tree

10
16
4
6
2 2 e 8
2 sp 8
4
E i k l y . 4 4
1 1 1 1 1 1

a n r s
2 2 2 2

52
 Building a Tree

10 16

4
6
e 8
2 2 8
2 sp
4 4 4
E i k l y .
1 1 1 1 1 1
a n r s
2 2 2 2

53
 Building a Tree

26

16
10

4 e 8
6 8
2 2 2 sp 4 4
4
E i k l y .
1 1 1 1 1 1 a n r s
2 2 2 2

54
 Building a Tree
•After
enqueueing
26 this node
there is only
16
10 one node left
4 e 8
in priority
6 8 queue.
2 2 2 sp 4 4
4
E i k l y .
1 1 1 1 1 1 a n r s
2 2 2 2

55
 Building a Tree
Dequeue the single node
left in the queue. 26

16
This tree contains the 10
new code words for each 4 e 8
character. 6 8
2 2 2 sp 4 4
4
Frequency of root node E i k l y .
a n r s
1 1 1 1 1 1
should equal number of 2 2 2 2
characters in text.

Eerie eyes seen near lake. 4 spaces,

26 characters total
56
 Encoding the File
Traverse Tree for Codes
• Perform a traversal of the tree
to obtain new code words
(sequence of 0's and 1's)
• left, append a 0 to code word 26
• right append a 1 to code word
16
• code word is only complete 10
when a leaf node is reached
4 e 8
6 8
2 2 2 sp 4 4
4
E i k l y .
1 1 1 1 1 1 a n r s
2 2 2 2

57
 Encoding the File
Traverse Tree for Codes
Original Value New Code
E (0100 0101) 0000
i (0110 1001) 0001
k (0110 1011) 0010
l (0110 1100) 0011 26
y (0111 1001) 0100
. (0010 1110) 0101 16
10
space (0010 0000) 011
e (0110 0101) 10 4 e 8
a (0110 0001) 1100 6 8
n (0110 1110) 1101 2 2 2 sp 4 4
r (0111 0010) 1110 4
s (0111 0011) 1111 E i k l y .
1 1 1 1 1 1 a n r s
2 2 2 2
Prefix free codes. The code for a value in never the prefix
of another code.
58
 Encoding the File
• Rescan original file and Char New Code
encode file using new code E 0000
words i 0001
Eerie eyes seen near lake. k 0010
l 0011
000010111000011001110 y 0100
010010111101111111010 . 0101
110101111011011001110 space 011
011001111000010100101 e 10
a 1100
n 1101
r 1110
s 1111
59
 Encoding the File
Results

• Have we made things any

better? 000010111000011001110
010010111101111111010
• 84 bits to encode the file 110101111011011001110
• ASCII would take 8 * 26 = 011001111000010100101
208 bits

If modified code used 4 bits per

character are needed. Total bits
4 * 26 = 104. Savings not as great.
60
 Decoding the File

• How does receiver know what the codes are?

• Tree constructed for each file.
– Considers frequency for each file
– Big hit on compression, especially for smaller files
• Tree predetermined
– based on statistical analysis of text files
or other file types

61
 Clicker 3 - Decoding the File
• Once receiver has tree it
scans incoming bit stream
26
• 0  go left
• 1  go right 10
16

1010001001111000111111
4 e 8
11011100001010 6 8
2 2 2 sp 4 4
A. elk nay sir 4
E i k l y .
1 1 1 1 1 1 a n r s
B. eek a snake 2 2 2 2
C. eek kin sly
D. eek snarl nil
E. eel a snarl
62
Alex Fall 2022

63
 Assignment Hints

• reading chunks not chars

• header format
• the pseudo eof value
• the GUI

64
 Assignment Example
• "Eerie eyes seen near lake." will result in different
codes than those shown in slides due to:
– adding elements in order to PriorityQueue
– required pseudo eof value (PEOF)

65
 Assignment Example

Char Freq. Char Freq. Char Freq.

E 1 y 1 k 1
e 8 s 2 . 1
r 2 n 2 PEOF 1
i 1 a 2
space 4 l 1

66
 Assignment Example

. E i k l y PEOF a n r s SP e
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 4 8

67
Assignment Example

i k l y PEOF a n r s SP e
1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 4 8

. E
1 1
68
 Assignment Example

i k l y PEOF a n r s 2 SP e
1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 4 8
. E
1 1

69
 Assignment Example

l y PEOF a n r s 2 2 SP e
1 1 1 2 2 2 2 4 8
i k
. E 1 1
1 1

70
 Assignment Example

PEOF a n r s 2 2 2 SP e
1 2 2 2 2 4 8
i k l y
. E 1 1 1 1
1 1

71
 Assignment Example

n r s 2 2 2 SP e
3
2 2 2 4 8
i k l y
. E
PEOF a
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 2

72
 Assignment Example

s 2 2 2 SP
3 4 e
2 4
i k 8
l y PEOF a
. E 1 1 n r
1 1 1
2
1 1 2 2

73
 Assignment Example

2 2 SP
3 4 4 e
4
i k 8
l y PEOF a
1 1 n r s 2
1 1 1
2
2 2 2

. E
1 1

74
 4 4 7 e
4
8
n r s 2
2 2 2
2 2 SP
3
4
. E i k l y
1 1 1 1 1 1 PEOF a
1
2

75
 7
4 e 8
8
2 2 SP 4 4
3
4
i k l y n r s
PEOF a 2
1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
2

. E
1 1

76
e 8 11
8
4 4 4 7

n r s 2 2 2
SP
2 2 2 3 4
i k l y
. E 1 1 1 1 PEOF a
1 1 1 2

77
 11 16

e
4 7 8
8

2 2 4 4
SP
3 4
i k l y n r s 2
1 1 1 1 2 2 2
PEOF a
1 2
. E
1 1
78
 27

11 16

e
4 7 8
8

2 2 4 4
SP
3 4
i k l y n r s 2
1 1 1 1 2 2 2
PEOF a
1 2
. E
1 1
79
 Codes
value: 32, equivalent char: , frequency: 4, new code 011
value: 46, equivalent char: ., frequency: 1, new code 11110
value: 69, equivalent char: E, frequency: 1, new code 11111
value: 97, equivalent char: a, frequency: 2, new code 0101
value: 101, equivalent char: e, frequency: 8, new code 10
value: 105, equivalent char: i, frequency: 1, new code 0000
value: 107, equivalent char: k, frequency: 1, new code 0001
value: 108, equivalent char: l, frequency: 1, new code 0010
value: 110, equivalent char: n, frequency: 2, new code 1100
value: 114, equivalent char: r, frequency: 2, new code 1101
value: 115, equivalent char: s, frequency: 2, new code 1110
value: 121, equivalent char: y, frequency: 1, new code 0011
value: 256, equivalent char: ?, frequency: 1, new code 0100

80
 Altering files
• Tower bit map (Eclipse/Huffman/Data).
Alter the first 300 characters of line
16765 to this
~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00
~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00
~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00
~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00
~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00
~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00
~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00
~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00~00 xxx 81
 Compression - Why Bother?
• Apostolos "Toli" Lerios
• Facebook Engineer
• Heads image storage group
• jpeg images already
compressed
• look for ways to compress even
more
• 1% less space = millions of
dollars in savings
82
 Graphs
Topic 21
" Hopefully, you've played around a bit with The Oracle of Bacon at
Virginia and discovered how few steps are necessary to link just about
anybody who has ever been in a movie to Kevin Bacon, but could there be
some actor or actress who is even closer to the center of the Hollywood
universe?.
By processing all of the almost half of a million people in the Internet
Movie Database I discovered that there are currently 1160 people who are
better centers than Kevin Bacon! … By computing the average of these
numbers we see that the average (Sean) Connery Number is about 2.682
making Connery a better center than Bacon"
-Who is the Center of the Hollywood Universe?,
University of Virginia
That was in 2001.
In 2013 Harvey Keitel has become the center of the Hollywood
Universe. Connery is 136th.
Bacon has moved up to 370th.
 An Early Problem in
Graph Theory
Leonhard Euler (1707 - 1783)
– One of the first mathematicians to study graphs
The Seven Bridges of Konigsberg Problem
– Konigsberg is now called Kaliningrad
A puzzle for the residents of the city
The river Pregel flows through the city
7 bridges crossed the river
Can you cross all bridges while crossing
each bridge only once? An Eulerian Circuit
CS314 Graphs 2
Konigsberg and the River Pregel

B
D

CS314 Graphs 3
 Clicker 1
How many solutions does the Seven Bridges
of Konigsberg Problem have?
A. 0
B. 1
C. 2
D. 3
E. >= 4

CS314 Graphs 4
 How to Solve
Brute Force?
Euler's Solution
– Redraw the map as a graph
(really a multigraph as opposed
to a simple graph, 1 or 0 edges
per pair of vertices)
a

b d

c
CS314 Graphs 5
 Euler's Proposal
A connected graph has an Euler tour (cross
every edge exactly one time and end up at
starting node) if and only if every vertex has
an even number of edges
– Eulerian Circuit
Clicker 2 - What if we reduce the problem to
only crossing each edge (bridge) exactly
once?
– Doesn't matter if we end up where we started
– Eulerian Trail
A. 0 B. 1 C. 2 D. 3 E. >= 4
CS314 Graphs 6
 Graph Definitions
A graph is comprised of a set of vertices
(nodes) and a set of edges (links, arcs)
connecting the vertices
– An edge connects 2 vertices
in a directed graph edges are one-way
– movement allowed from first node to second, but
not second to first
– directed graphs also called digraphs
in an undirected graph edges are two-way
– movement allowed in either direction
CS314 Graphs 7
 Definitions
In a weighted graph the edge has cost or weight
that measures the cost of traveling along the edge
A path is a sequence of vertices connected by
edges
– The path length is the number of edges
– The weighted path length is the sum of the cost of the
edges in a path
A cycle is a path of length 1 or more that starts and
ends at the same vertex without repeating any
other vertices
– a directed acyclic graph is a directed graph with
no cycles
CS314 Graphs 8
 Graphs We've Seen

link link link link

19

12 35

3 16 21 56

link link link

CS314 Graphs 9
 Example Graph
Scientists (and academics of ALL kinds) use
graphs to model all kinds of things.

Arpanet 1969, 1971

CS314 Graphs 10
 Example Graph
Roman
Transportation
Network

CS314 Graphs 11
 Roman
Transportation Network

CS314 Graphs 12
 Example Graph

Enron emails 2001

CS314 Graphs 13
 Example Graph

US Airport Network

CS314 Graphs 14
 Example Graph

CS314 Graphs 15
 Example Graph

"Jefferson" High School, Ohio Chains of Affection: The Structure of Adolescent Romantic
and Sexual Networks, 2005,
 Representing Graphs
How to store a graph as a data structure?


CS314 Graphs 17
 Adjacency Matrix
Representation Country Code
 A Br Bl Ch Co E FG G Pa Pe S U V
Argentina A
A 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
Brazil Br
Br 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Bl 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 Bolivia Bl

Ch 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Chile Ch

Co 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 Colombia Co

E 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Ecuador E
FG 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 French
FG
Guiana
G 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 Guyana G
Pa 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Paraguay Pa
Pe 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Peru Pe
S 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
Suriname S
U 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
V 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Uruguay U

Venezuela V

CS314 Graphs 18
 Undirected Graph?
Use a ragged 2d array to save space

CS314 Graphs 19
 The Map Coloring Problem
How many colors do you need to color a
map, so that no 2 countries that have a
common border (not a point) are colored the
same?
How to solve using Brute Force?

CS314 Graphs 20
 Example

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_color_theorem 21
 A Solution Blue
Blue Yellow
Yellow

Green
Blue Green
Yellow
Red

Green
Blue
Yellow

CS314 Graphs 22
 What About the Ocean?
A Br Bl Ch Co E FG G Pa Pe S U V Oc
A 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
Br 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Bl 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
Ch 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
Co 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
E 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
FG 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
G 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
Pa 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Pe 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
S 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
U 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
V 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
Oc 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0

CS314 Graphs 23
 Make the Ocean Blue
Red Yellow
Yellow Red

Green Red
Green
Yellow
Blue
Blue
Green Red Blue
Yellow

CS314 Graphs 24
 More Definitions
A dense graph is one with a "large" number
of edges
– maximum number of edges?
A "sparse" graph is one in which the number
of edges is "much less" than the maximum
possible number of edges
– No standard cutoff for dense and sparse graphs

CS314 Graphs 25
 Graph Representation
For dense graphs the adjacency matrix is a
reasonable choice
– For weighted graphs change booleans to double
or int
– Can the adjacency matrix handle
directed graphs?
Most graphs are sparse, not dense
For sparse graphs an adjacency list is an
alternative that uses less space
Each vertex keeps a list of edges to the
vertices it is connected to.
CS314 Graphs 26
 Graph Implementation
public class Graph
private static final double INFINITY
= Double.MAX_VALUE;
private Map<String, Vertex> vertices;

public Graph() // create empty Graph

public void addEdge(String source,

String dest, double cost)

// find all paths from given vertex

public void findUnweightedShortestPaths
(String startName)

// called after findUnweightedShortestPath

public void printPath(String destName)
 Graph Class
This Graph class stores vertices
Each vertex has an adjacency list
– what vertices does it connect to?
shortest path method finds all paths from
start vertex to every other vertex in graph
after shortest path method called queries
can be made for path length from start node
to destination node

CS314 Graphs 28
 Vertex Class (nested in Graph)
private static class Vertex
private String name;
private List<Edge> adjacent;

public Vertex(String n)

// for shortest path algorithms

private double distance;
private Vertex prev;
private int scratch;

// call before finding new paths

public void reset()

CS314 Graphs 29
 Edge Class (nested in Graph)
private static class Edge
private Vertex dest;
private double cost;

private Edge(Vertex d, double c)

CS314 Graphs 30
 Unweighted Shortest Path
Given a vertex, S (for start) find the shortest
path from S to all other vertices in the graph
Graph is unweighted (set all edge costs to 1)

V1 V7
S V6
V2
V4
V8

V3
V5
CS314 Graphs 31
 6 Degrees of Wikipedia
https://www.sixdegreesofwikipedia.com/

CS314 Graphs 32
 Word Ladders
Agree upon dictionary
silly
Start word and end word of
same length
sully
sulky
Change one letter at a time to
form step hulky
Step must also be a word
hunky
funky
Example: Start = silly, end =
funny funny

CS314 Graphs 33
 Clicker 3 - Graph Representation
What are the vertices and when does
an edge exist between two vertices?

Vertices Edges
A. Letters Words
B. Words Words that share one or more letters
C. Letters Words that share one or more letters
D. Words Words that differ by one letter
E. Words Letters

CS314 Graphs 34
 smarm
swart
smart
start

smalt

scart

Portion of Graph

CS314 Graphs 35
 Clicker 4 - Size of Graph
 Number of vertices and edges depends on dictionary
Modified Scrabble dictionary, 5 letter words
Words are vertices
– 8660 words, 7915 words that are one letter different from
at least one other word
Edge exists between words if they are one letter
different
– 24,942 edges
Is this graph sparse or dense?
A. Sparse Max number of edges =
B. Dense N * (N - 1) / 2
CS314 Graphs 37,493,470 36
 Clicker 5 - Unweighted Shortest
Path Algorithm
Problem: Find the shortest word ladder
between two words if one exists
What kind of search should we use?

A. Breadth First Search

B. Depth First Search
C. Either one

CS314 Graphs 37
 Unweighted Shortest Path Algorithm
Set distance of start to itself to 0
Create a queue and add the start vertex
while the queue is not empty
– remove front
– loop through all edges of current vertex
• get vertex edge connects to
• if this vertex has not been visited (have not found path
to the destination of the edge)
– sets its distance to current distance + 1
– sets its previous vertex to current vertex
– add new vertex to queue

CS314 Graphs 38
 smarm
swart
smart
start

smalt

scart

Portion of Graph

CS314 Graphs 39
 smarm
swart
smart
start

smalt

scart

Start at "smart" and enqueue it

[smart]
CS314 Graphs 40
 smarm
swart
smart
start

smalt

scart

Dequeue (smart), loop through edges

[swart]
CS314 Graphs 41
 smarm
swart
smart
start

smalt

scart

Dequeue (smart), loop through edges

[swart, start]
CS314 Graphs 42
 smarm
swart
smart
start

smalt

scart

Dequeue (smart), loop through edges

[swart, start, scart]
CS314 Graphs 43
 smarm
swart
smart
start

smalt

scart

Dequeue (smart), loop through edges

[swart, start, scart, smalt]
CS314 Graphs 44
 smarm
swart
smart
start

smalt

scart

Dequeue (smart), loop through edges

[swart, start, scart, smalt, smarm]
CS314 Graphs 45
 smarm
swart
smart
start

smalt

scart

Done with smart, dequeue (swart)

[start, scart, smalt, smarm]
CS314 Graphs 46
 smarm
swart
smart
start

smalt

scart

loop through edges of swart (start already present)

[start, scart, smalt, smarm]
CS314 Graphs 47
 smarm
swart
smart
start

smalt

scart

loop through edges of swart (scart already present)

[start, scart, smalt, smarm]
CS314 Graphs 48
 smarm
swart
smart
swarm
start

smalt

scart

loop through edges of swart

[start, scart, smalt, smarm, swarm]
CS314 Graphs 49
 smarm sware
swart
smart
swarm
start

smalt

scart

loop through edges of swart

[start, scart, smalt, smarm, swarm, sware]
CS314 Graphs 50
 Unweighted Shortest Path
Implement method
demo
how is path printed?
The diameter of a graph is the longest shortest
past in the graph
How to find?
How to find center of graph?
– many measures of centrality
– ours: vertex connected to the largest number of
other vertices with the shortest average path length
CS314 Graphs 51
 Positive Weighted Shortest Path
Edges in graph are weighted and all weights
are positive
Similar solution to unweighted shortest path
Dijkstra's algorithm
Edsger W. Dijkstra, 1930–2002
UT Professor 1984 - 2000
Algorithm developed in 1956
and published in 1959.

CS314 Graphs 52
 Dijkstra on Creating the Algorithm
 What is the shortest way to travel from Rotterdam to Groningen, in
general: from given city to given city. It is the algorithm for the
shortest path, which I designed in about twenty minutes. One
morning I was shopping in Amsterdam with my young fiancée, and
tired, we sat down on the café terrace to drink a cup of coffee and I
was just thinking about whether I could do this, and I then designed
the algorithm for the shortest path. As I said, it was a twenty-minute
invention. In fact, it was published in ’59, three years later. The
publication is still readable, it is, in fact, quite nice. One of the
reasons that it is so nice was that I designed it without pencil
and paper. I learned later that one of the advantages of designing
without pencil and paper is that you are almost forced to avoid all
avoidable complexities. Eventually that algorithm became, to my
great amazement, one of the cornerstones of my fame.
 — Edsger Dijkstra, in an interview with Philip L. Frana,
Communications of the ACM, 2001 (wiki page on the algorithm)
 Vertex Class (nested in Graph)
private static class Vertex
private String name;
private List<Edge> adjacent;

public Vertex(String n)

// for shortest path algorithms

private double distance;
private Vertex prev;
private int scratch;

// call before finding new paths

public void reset()

CS314 Graphs 54
 Dijkstra's Algorithm
Pick the start vertex
Set the distance of the start vertex to 0 and all
other vertices to INFINITY
While there are unvisited vertices:
– Let the current vertex be the vertex with the lowest cost
path from start to it that has not yet been visited
– mark current vertex as visited
– for each edge from the current vertex
• if the sum of the cost of the current vertex and the cost of the
edge is less than the cost of the destination vertex
– update the cost of the destination vertex
– set the previous of the destination vertex to the current vertex
– enqueue this path (not vertex) to the priority queue
– THIS IS NOT VISITING THE NEIGHBORING VERTEX
55
 Dijkstra's Algorithm
Example of a Greedy Algorithm
– A Greedy Algorithm does what appears to be the
best thing at each stage of solving a problem
Gives best solution in Dijkstra's Algorithm
Does NOT always lead to best answer
Fair teams:
– (10, 10, 8, 8, 8), 2 teams
Making change with fewest coins
(1, 5, 10) 15 cents
(1, 5, 12) 15 cents
CS314 Graphs 56
 7 C 3
3 F
4
B 21
1
D 6
A E
17 5
G
Clicker 6 - What is the cost of the lowest
cost path from A to E?
A. 5
B. 17
C. 20
D. 28 57
E. 37
 7 C 3
∞
3 F
∞
4
B 21
1 ∞
D 6
A ∞
E
0
∞
17 5

G
A is start vertex ∞

Set cost of A to 0, all others to INFINITY

Place A in a priority queue
58
 7 C 3
∞
3 F
∞
4
B 21
1 ∞
D 6
A ∞
E
0 ∞
17 5

G
∞
[(A,0)] pq
dequeue (A,0)
Mark A as visited
59
 7 C 3
∞
3 F
∞
4
B 21
1 ∞
D 6
A ∞
E
0 ∞
17 5
[ ] pq
G∞
current vertex A:
loop through A's edges
if sum of cost from A to dest is less than current cost
update cost and prev 60
 7 C 3
7
3 F
∞
4
B 21
1 ∞
D 6
A ∞
E
0
∞
17 5
[ ] pq
G
A -> C, 0 + 7 < INFINITY ∞

[(C,7)] pq

61
 7 C 3
7
3 F
∞
4
B 21
1 1
D 6
A ∞
E
0 ∞
17 5
[(C,7)] pq
G∞
A -> B, 0 + 1 < INFINITY
[(B,1), (C, 7)] pq (Note, the (B,1) jumps in front of (C,7)

62
 7 C 3
7
3 F∞
4
B 21
1 1
D 6
A ∞
E
0 ∞
17 5
[(B,1), (C, 7)] pq
G
A -> G, 0 + 17 < INFINITY 17

[(B,1), (C, 7), (G, 17)] pq

63
 7 C 3
7
3 F
∞
4
B 21
1 1
D 6
A ∞
E
0 ∞
17 5
[(B,1), (C, 7), (G, 17)] pq
G
current vertex B: 17

loop through B's edges

if sum of cost from B to edge is less than current cost
update cost and prev 64
 7 C 3
4
3 F
∞
4
B 21
1 1
D 6
A ∞
E
0 ∞
17 5
[(C, 7), (G, 17)] pq
G
B -> C, 1 + 3 < 7 17

update C's cost and previous

[(C, 4), (C, 7), (G, 17)] pq
65
 7 C 3
4
3 F
∞
4
B 21
1 1
D 6
A 22
E
0 ∞
17 5

G
[(C, 4), (C, 7), (G, 17)] pq 17

B -> D, 1 + 21 < INFINITY

[(C, 4), (C, 7), (G, 17), (D, 22)] pq
66
 7 C 3
4
3 F
∞
4
B 21
1 1
D 6
A 22
E
0 ∞
17 5

G
17
[(C, 4), (C, 7), (G, 17), (D, 22)] pq
current vertex is C, cost 4
loop through C's edges 67
 7 C 3
4
3 F
∞
4
B 21
1 1
D 6
A 22
E
0 ∞
17 5

G
17
[(C, 7), (G, 17), (D, 22)] pq
C -> A, 7 + 4 !< 0, skip
68
 7 C 3
4
3 F
∞
4
B 21
1 1
D 6
A 22
E
0 ∞
17 5

G
17
[(C, 7), (G, 17), (D, 22)] pq
C -> B, 4 + 3 !< 1, skip
69
 7 C 3
4
3 F
7
4
B 21
1 1
D 6
A 22
E
0 ∞
17 5

G
17
[(C, 7), (G, 17), (D, 22)] pq
C -> F, 4 + 3 < INFINITY
[(C, 7), (F, 7), (G, 17), (D, 22)] pq 70
 7 C 3
4
3 F
7
4
B 21
1 1
D 6
A 22
E
0 ∞
17 5

G
17
[(C, 7), (F, 7), (G, 17), (D, 22)] pq
current vertex is C
Already visited so skip 71
 7 C 3
4
3 F
7
4
B 21
1 1
D 6
A 22
E
0 ∞
17 5

G
17
[(F, 7), (G, 17), (D, 22)] pq
current vertex is F
loop through F's edges 72
 7 C 3
4
3 F
7
4
B 21
1 1
D 6
A 22
E
0 ∞
17 5

G
17
[(G, 17), (D, 22)] pq
F -> C, 7 + 3 !< 4, so skip
73
 7 C 3
4
3 F
7
4
B 21
1 1
D 6
A 11
E
0 ∞
17 5

[(G, 17), (D, 22)] pq G

17
F -> D, 7 + 4 < 22
update D's cost and previous
[(D, 11), (G, 17), (D, 22)] pq 74
 Aside - Implementing Dijkstra's
Create a Path class to allow for multiple
paths and distances (costs) to a given vertex
private static class Path
implements Comparable<Path> {

private Vertex dest;

private double cost;
Use a priority queue of Paths to store the
vertices and distances
CS314 Graphs 75
 Why? References!!!
Slide 74 and 78, adding new, lower cost path
to Vertex D
Abstractly: [(G, 17), (D, 22)] becomes
[(D, 11) (G, 17), (D, 22)]
What does priority queue store? References
to Vertex Objects
[ , ]

Vertex Vertex
name G name D

distance 17 distance 22 76
 Lower Cost Path to D
New, lower cost path to D. Alter Vertex D's
distance to 11 and add to priority queue
 [ , , ]

Vertex Vertex
name G name D

distance 17 distance 11

PROBLEMS?????
Abstractly [(D, 11), (G, 17), (D, 11)] 77
 7 C 3
4
3 F
7
4
B 21
1 1
D 6
A 11
E
0 ∞
17 5

G
[(D, 11), (G, 17), (D, 22)] pq 17

current vertex is D
loop through D's edges
78
 7 C 3
4
3 F
7
4
B 21
1 1
D 6
A 11
E
0 ∞
17 5

G
[(G, 17), (D, 22)] pq 17

D -> B, 11 + 21 !< 1, so skip

79
 7 C 3
4
3 F
7
4
B 21
1 1
D 6
A 11
E
0 17
17 5

G
[(G, 17), (D, 22)] pq 17

D -> E, 11 + 6 < INFINITY

update E's cost and previous
[(G, 17), (E, 17), (D, 22)] pq 80
 7 C 3
4
3 F
7
4
B 21
1 1
D 6
A 11
E
0 17
17 5

G
[ (G, 17), (E, 17), (D, 22)] pq 17

D -> F, 4 + 11 !< 7, so skip

81
 7 C 3
4
3 F
7
4
B 21
1 1
D 6
A 11
E
0 17
17 5

G
[(G, 17), (E, 17), (D, 22)] pq 16
D -> G, 11 + 5 < 17
update G's cost and previous
[(G, 16), (G, 17), (E, 17), (D, 22)] pq 82
 7 C 3
4
3 F
7
4
B 21
1 1
D 6
A 11
E
0 17
17 5

G
[(G, 17), (E, 17), (D, 22)] pq 16
current vertex is G
loop though edges, already visited all neighbors
83
 7 C 3
4
3 F
7
4
B 21
1 1
D 6
A 11
E
0 17
17 5

G
[(E, 17), (D, 22)] pq 16

current vertex is E
loop though edges, already visited all neighbors
84
 7 C 3
4
3 F
7
4
B 21
1 1
D 6
A 11
E
0 17
17 5

No unvisited vertices. G
16
Each Vertex stores cost (distance) of lowest cost
path from start Vertex to itself and previous vertex
in path from start vertex to itself.
85
Alternatives to Dijkstra's Algorithm
A*, pronounced "A Star"
A heuristic, goal of finding shortest weighted path
from single start vertex to goal vertex
Uses actual distance like Dijkstra's but also
estimates remaining cost or distance
– distance is set to current distance from start PLUS the
estimated distance to the goal
For example when finding a path between towns,
estimate the remaining distance as the straight-line
(as the crow flies) distance between current
location and goal.

CS314 Graphs 86
 Spanning Tree
Spanning Tree: A tree of edges that
connects all the vertices in a graph

7 C 3
3 F
4
B 21
1
D 6
A E
17 5
G
 Clicker 7 -
Minimum Spanning Tree
Minimum Spanning Tree: A spanning tree in
a weighted graph with the lowest total cost
 used in network design, taxonomy, Image registration,
and more!
Cost of spanning
7 C 3 tree shown?
3 A. 6
F
B. 7
4 C. 29
B 21 D. 61
1
D 6 E. None of These
A E
17 5
G 88
 Prim's Algorithm
Initially created by Vojtěch Jarník
Rediscovered by Prim (of Sweetwater, TX)
and Dijkstra
Pick a vertex arbitrarily from graph
– In other words, it doesn't matter which one
Add lowest cost edge between the tree and
a vertex that is not part of the tree UNTIL
every vertex is part of the tree
Greedy Algorithm, very similar to Dijkstra's

CS314 Graphs 89
 Prim's Algorithm
2
A B
4 11
3
2
C D E
2 7
8 4 6
5
F G
1
Pick D as root

CS314 Graphs 90
 Prim's Algorithm
2
A B
4 11
3
2
C D E
2 7
8 4 6
5
F G
1
Lowest cost edge from tree to vertex not in Tree?
2 from D to A (or C)
CS314 Graphs 91
 Prim's Algorithm
2
A B
4 11
3
2
C D E
2 7
8 4 6
5
F G
1
Lowest cost edge from tree to vertex not in Tree?
2 from D to C (OR from A to B)
CS314 Graphs 92
 Prim's Algorithm
2
A B
4 11
3
2
C D E
2 7
8 4 6
5
F G
1
Lowest cost edge from tree to vertex not in Tree?
2 from A to B
CS314 Graphs 93
 Prim's Algorithm
2
A B
4 11
3
2
C D E
2 7
8 4 6
5
F G
1
Lowest cost edge from tree to vertex not in Tree?
5 from D to G
CS314 Graphs 94
 Prim's Algorithm
2
A B
4 11
3
2
C D E
2 7
8 4 6
5
F G
1
Lowest cost edge from tree to vertex not in Tree?
1 from G to F
CS314 Graphs 95
 Prim's Algorithm
2
A B
4 11
3
2
C D E
2 7
8 4 6
5
F G
1
Lowest cost edge from tree to vertex not in Tree?
6 from G to E
CS314 Graphs 96
 Prim's Algorithm

7 C 3
3 F
4
B 21
1
D 6
A E
17 5
G

Pick D as root

CS314 Graphs 97
 Prim's Algorithm

7 C 3
3 F
4
B 21
1
D 6
A E
17 5
G

Lowest cost edge from tree to vertex not in Tree?

4 from D to F
CS314 Graphs 98
 Prim's Algorithm

7 C 3
3 F
4
B 21
1
D 6
A E
17 5
G

Lowest cost edge from tree to vertex not in Tree?

3 from F to C
CS314 Graphs 99
 Prim's Algorithm

7 C 3
3 F
4
B 21
1
D 6
A E
17 5
G

Lowest cost edge from tree to vertex not in Tree?

3 from C to B
CS314 Graphs 100
 Prim's Algorithm

7 C 3
3 F
4
B 21
1
D 6
A E
17 5
G

Lowest cost edge from tree to vertex not in Tree?

1 from B to A
CS314 Graphs 101
 Prim's Algorithm

7 C 3
3 F
4
B 21
1
D 6
A E
17 5
G

Lowest cost edge from tree to vertex not in Tree?

5 from D to G
CS314 Graphs 102
 Prim's Algorithm

7 C 3
3 F
4
B 21
1
D 6
A E
17 5
G

Lowest cost edge from tree to vertex not in Tree?

6 from D to E
CS314 Graphs 103
 Prim's Algorithm

7 C 3
3 F
4
B 21
1
D 6
A E
17 5
G

Cost of Spanning Tree?

CS314 Graphs 104

 Other Graph Algorithms
Lots!
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Graph_algorithms

CS314 Graphs 105

 Topic 22
Hash Tables
"hash collision n. [from the techspeak] (var. `hash clash') When
used of people, signifies a confusion in associative memory or
imagination, especially a persistent one (see thinko).
True story: One of us was once on the phone with a friend
about to move out to Berkeley. When asked what he expected
Berkeley to be like, the friend replied: 'Well, I have this mental
picture of naked people throwing Molotov cocktails, but I think
that's just a collision in my hash tables.'"

-The Hacker's Dictionary

 Programming Pearls by Jon Bentley

Jon was senior programmer on a

large programming project.
Senior programmer spend a lot of
time helping junior programmers.
Junior programmer to Jon: "I need
help writing a sorting algorithm."

CS314 Hash Tables 2

 A Problem
From Programming Pearls (Jon in Italics)
Why do you want to write your own sort at all? Why not use a sort
provided by your system?
I need the sort in the middle of a large system, and for obscure
technical reasons, I can't use the system file-sorting program.
What exactly are you sorting? How many records are in the file?
What is the format of each record?
The file contains at most ten million records; each record is a
seven-digit integer.
Wait a minute. If the file is that small, why bother going to disk at
all? Why not just sort it in main memory?
Although the machine has many megabytes of main memory,
this function is part of a big system. I expect that I'll have only
about a megabyte free at that point.
Is there anything else you can tell me about the records?
Each one is a seven-digit positive integer with no other associated
data, and no integer can appear more than once.
CS314 Hash Tables 3
 System Sort

CS314 Hash Tables 4

 Starting Other Programs

CS314 Hash Tables 5

 Starting Other Programs

CS314 Hash Tables 6

 Clicker 1 and 2
When did this conversation take place?
A. circa 1965
B. circa 1975
C. circa 1985
D. circa 1995
E. circa 2005
What were they sorting?
A. SSNs. B. Random values C. Street Addresses
D. Personal Incomes E. Phone Numbers
CS314 Hash Tables 7
 A Solution
/* phase 1: initialize set to empty */
for i = [0, n)
bit[i] = 0

/* phase 2: insert present elements into the set */

for each num_in_file in the input file
bit[num_in_file] = 1

/* phase 3: write sorted output */

for i = [0, n)
if bit[i] == 1 write i on the output file

CS314 Hash Tables 8

 Some Structures so Far
ArrayLists
– O(1) access
– O(N) insertion (average case), better at end
– O(N) deletion (average case)
LinkedLists
– O(N) access
– O(N) insertion (average case), better at front and back
– O(N) deletion (average case), better at front and back
Binary Search Trees
– O(log N) access if balanced
– O(log N) insertion if balanced
– O(log N) deletion if balanced

CS314 Hash Tables 9

 Why are Binary Trees Better?
Divide and Conquer - splitting problem into
smaller problems
Can we reduce the work by a bigger factor?
3? 10? More?
An ArrayList does this in a way when
accessing elements
– but must use an integer value
– each position holds a single element
– given the index in an array, I can access that
element rather quickly
– determining the address of the element
10
requires a multiply op and an add op
 Hash Tables
Hash Tables maintaining the fast access of
arrays but improve the order for insertion,
and deletion compare to array based lists.

Hash tables use an array and hash functions

to determine the index for each element.
 Hash Functions
Hash: "From the French hatcher,
which means 'to chop'. "
to hash to mix randomly or shuffle (To cut
up, to slash or hack about; to mangle)
Hash Function: Take a piece of data and
transforms it to a different piece of data
(typically smaller), usually a single integer.
– A function or algorithm
– The input need not be integers!

CS314 Hash Tables 12

 Hash Function

5/17/1971

555389085
Manchester, VT
12
"Mike Scott" hash
[email protected] function
"Kelly" "Olivia"
"Isabelle"

CS314 Hash Tables 13

 Hash Functions
Like a fingerprint

134 Megabytes
CS314 Hash Tables 14
 Hash Function
SHA 512 Hash code

CS314 Hash Tables 15

 Simple Example
Assume we are using names as our key
– take 3rd letter of name, take int value of letter
(a = 0, b = 1, ...), divide by 6 and take remainder
What does "Bellers" hash to?
L -> 11 -> 11 % 6 = 5

CS314 Hash Tables 16

 Result of Hash Function
Mike = (10 % 6) = 4
Kelly = (11 % 6) = 5
Olivia = (8 % 6) = 2
Isabelle = (0 % 6) = 0
David = (21 % 6) = 3
Margaret = (17 % 6) = 5 (uh oh)
Wendy = (13 % 6) = 1
This is an imperfect hash function. A perfect hash
function yields a one to one mapping from the keys
to the hash values.
What is the maximum number of values this
function can hash perfectly?
CS314 Hash Tables 17
 Clicker 3 - Hash Function
Assume the hash function for String adds up
the Unicode value for each character.
public int hashCode(String s) {
int result = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < s.length(); i++)
result += s.charAt(i);
return result;
}
Hashcode for "DAB" and "BAD"?
A. 301 103
B. 4 4
C. 412 214
D. 5 5
E. 199 199 18
 More on Hash Functions
transform the key (which may not be an
integer) into an integer value
The transformation can use one of four
techniques
– Mapping
– Folding
– Shifting
– Casting

CS314 Hash Tables 19

 Hashing Techniques
Mapping
– As seen in the example
– integer values or things that can be easily
converted to integer values in key
Folding
– partition key into several parts and the integer
values for the various parts are combined
– the parts may be hashed first
– combine using addition, multiplication, shifting,
logical exclusive OR

CS314 Hash Tables 20

 Shifting
More complicated with shifting
int hashVal = 0;
int i = str.length() - 1;
while(i > 0)
{ hashVal = (hashVal << 1) + (int) str.charAt(i);
i--;
}
different answers for "dog" and "god"
Shifting may give a better range of hash values
when compared to just folding
Casts
Very simple
– essentially casting as part of fold and shift when working
with chars.
CS314 Hash Tables 21
 The Java String class
hashCode method
public int hashCode() {
int h = hash;
if (h == 0 && value.length > 0) {
char[] val = value;
for (int i = 0; i < val.length; i++) {
h = 31 * h + val[i];
}
hash = h;
}
return h;
}

CS314 Hash Tables 22

 Mapping Results
Transform hashed key value into a legal index in
the hash table
Hash table is normally uses an array as its
underlying storage container
Normally get location on table by taking result of
hash function, dividing by size of table, and taking
remainder
index = key mod n
n is size of hash table
empirical evidence shows a prime number is best
10 element hash table, move up to 11 or 13 elements

CS314 Hash Tables 23

 Mapping Results
"Isabelle" 230492619
hashCode
method
230492619 % 997 = 177

0 1 2 3 .........177............ 996

"Isabelle"
CS314 Hash Tables 24
 Handling Collisions
What to do when inserting an element and
already something present?

CS314 Hash Tables 25

 Open Addressing
Could search forward or backwards
for an open space
Linear probing:
– move forward 1 spot. Open?, 2 spots, 3
spots
– reach the end?
– When removing, insert a blank
– null if never occupied, blank if once
occupied
Quadratic probing
– 1 spot, 2 spots, 4 spots, 8 spots, 16 spots
Resize when load factor reaches
some limit
CS314 Hash Tables 26
 Closed Addressing: Chaining
Each element of hash table be
another data structure
– linked list, balanced binary tree
– More space, but somewhat easier
– everything goes in its spot
What happens when resizing?
– Why don't things just collide again?

CS314 Hash Tables 27

 Hash Tables in Java
hashCode method in Object
hashCode and equals
– "If two objects are equal according to the equals
(Object) method, then calling the hashCode
method on each of the two objects must produce
the same integer result. "
– if you override equals you need to override
hashCode
Overriding one of equals and hashCode, but not
the other, can cause logic errors that are difficult to
track down if objects added to hash tables.
CS314 Hash Tables 28
 Hash Tables in Java
HashTable class
HashSet class
– implements Set interface with internal storage
container that is a HashTable
– compare to TreeSet class, internal storage
container is a Red Black Tree
HashMap class
– implements the Map interface, internal storage
container for keys is a hash table

CS314 Hash Tables 29

 Comparison
Compare these data structures for speed:
Java HashSet
Java TreeSet
our naïve Binary Search Tree
our HashTable
Insert random ints

CS314 Hash Tables 30

 Clicker 4
What will be order from fastest to slowest?
A. HashSet TreeSet HashTable314 BST
B. HashSet HashTable314 TreeSet BST
C. TreeSet HashSet BST HashTable314
D. HashTable314 HashSet BST TreeSet
E. None of these

CS314 Hash Tables 31

 Topic 23
Red Black Trees
"People in every direction
No words exchanged
No time to exchange
And all the little ants are marching
Red and Black antennas waving"
-Ants Marching, Dave Matthew's Band

"Welcome to L.A.'s Automated Traffic Surveillance and Control Operations

Center. See, they use video feeds from intersections and specifically
designed algorithms to predict traffic conditions, and thereby control traffic
lights. So all I did was come up with my own... kick ass algorithm to
sneak in, and now we own the place."
-Lyle, the Napster, (Seth Green), The Italian Job
 Clicker 1
2000 elements are inserted one at a time
into an initially empty binary search tree
using the simplenaive algorithm. What is the
maximum possible height of the
resulting tree?
A. 1
B. 11
C. 21
D. 500
E. 1999
CS314 2
Red Black Trees
 Binary Search Trees
Average case and worst case Big O for
– insertion
– deletion
– access
Balance is important. Unbalanced trees give
worse than log N times for the basic tree
operations
Can balance be guaranteed?

CS314 3
Red Black Trees
 Red Black Trees
A BST with more complex algorithms to
ensure balance
Each node is labeled as Red or Black.
Path: A unique series of links (edges)
traverses from the root to each node.
– The number of edges (links) that must be
followed is the path length
In Red Black trees paths from the root to
elements with 0 or 1 child are of particular
interest
CS314 4
Red Black Trees
 Paths to Single or Zero Child
Nodes

How many? 19

12 35

3 16 21 56

CS314 5
Red Black Trees
 Red Black Tree Rules
1. Is a binary search tree
2. Every node is colored either red or
black
3. The root of the whole tree is black
4. If a node is red its children must be
black. (a.k.a. the red rule)
5. Every path from a node to a null link
must contain the same number of black
nodes (a.k.a. the path rule)
CS314 6
Red Black Trees
 Example of a Red Black Tree
 The root of a Red Black tree is black
 Every other node in the tree follows these rules:
– Rule 3: If a node is Red, all of its children are Black
– Rule 4: The number of Black nodes must be the same in all paths
from the root node to null nodes

19

12 35

3 16 21 56
30
CS314 7
Red Black Trees
 Red Black Tree?
19

12 35
50
0
75
-10
-5 135

CS314 8
Red Black Trees
 Clicker 2
Is the tree on the previous slide a binary
search tree? Is it a red black tree?
BST? Red-Black?
A. No No
B. No Yes
C. Yes No
D. Yes Yes

CS314 9
Red Black Trees
 Red Black Tree?
19

12 35

3 16

Perfect?
Full?
Complete?
CS314 10
Red Black Trees
 Clicker 3
Is the tree on the previous slide a binary
search tree? Is it a red black tree?
BST? Red-Black?
A. No No
B. No Yes
C. Yes No
D. Yes Yes

CS314 11
Red Black Trees
 Implications of the Rules
If a Red node has any children, it must have
two children and they must be Black. (Why?)
If a Black node has only one child that child
must be a Red leaf. (Why?)
Due to the rules there are limits on how
unbalanced a Red Black tree may become.
– on the previous example may we hang a new
node off of the leaf node that contains 0?

CS314 12
Red Black Trees
 Properties of Red Black Trees
If a Red Black Tree is complete, with all
Black nodes except for Red leaves at the
lowest level the height will be minimal, ~log N
To get the max height for N elements there
should be as many Red nodes as possible
down one path and all other nodes are Black
– This means the max height would b approximately
2 * log N (don't use this as a formula)
– typically less than this
– see example on next slide
– interesting exercise, draw max height tree with N nodes
 Max Height Red Black Tree
14

12 35

13 21 56
1
43 99
15 25

80 100
14 nodes, height 5
70
CS314 14
Red Black Trees
 Maintaining the Red Black
Properties in a Tree
Insertions
Must maintain rules of Red Black Tree.
New Node always a leaf
– can't be black or we will violate rule 4
– therefore the new leaf must be red
– If parent is black, done (trivial case)
– if parent red, things get interesting because a red
leaf with a red parent violates rule 3

CS314 15
Red Black Trees
 Insertions with Red Parent - Child
Must modify tree when insertion would result in
Red Parent - Child pair using color changes and
rotations.
30

15 70

20 60 85
10
80 90
50 65
5

CS314
40 55 16
Red Black Trees
 Case 1
Suppose sibling of parent is Black.
– by convention null nodes are black
In the previous tree, true if we are inserting a
3 or an 8.
– What about inserting a 99? Same case?
Let X be the new leaf Node, P be its Red
Parent, S the Black sibling and G, P's and
S's parent and X's grandparent
– What color is G?

CS314 17
Red Black Trees
 Case 1 - The Picture
G

P S

C D E
X

A B

Relative to G, X could be an inside or outside node.

Outside -> left left or right right moves
Inside -> left right or right left moves
CS314 18
Red Black Trees
 Fixing the Problem
G

P S

C D E
X

A B
If X is an outside node a single
rotation between P and G fixes the problem.
A rotation is an exchange of roles between a parent
and child node. So P becomes G's parent. Also must
recolor P and G.
CS314 19
Red Black Trees
 Single Rotation
P

X G

A B C
S

D E
Apparent rule violation?
Recall, S is null if X is a leaf, so no problem
If this occurs higher in the tree (why?) subtrees A, B,
and C will have one more black node than D and E.
CS314 20
Red Black Trees
 Case 2
What if X is an inside node relative to G?
– a single rotation will not work
Must perform a double rotation
– rotate X and P
– rotate X and G G

P S

A D E
X

B C
CS314 21
Red Black Trees
 First Rotation
Rotate P and X, no color change

X S

P C D E

A B

What does this actually do?

CS314 22
Red Black Trees
 After Double Rotation
X

P G

A B C
S

D E

CS314 23
Red Black Trees
 Case 3
Sibling is Red, not Black
G

P S

C D E
X

A B
Any problems?

CS314 24
Red Black Trees
 Fixing Tree when S is Red
Must perform single rotation between parent,
P and grandparent, G, and then make
appropriate color changes
P

X G

B C S
A

D E

CS314 25
Red Black Trees
 More on Insert
Problem: What if on the previous example
G's parent (GG!) had been red?
Easier to never let Case 3 ever occur!
On the way down the tree, if we see a node X that
has 2 Red children, we make X Red and its two
children black.
– if recolor the root, recolor it to black
– the number of black nodes on paths below X remains
unchanged
– If X's parent was Red then we have introduced 2
consecutive Red nodes.(violation of rule)
– to fix, apply rotations to the tree, same as inserting node

CS314 26
Red Black Trees
Example of Inserting Sorted Numbers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Insert 1. A leaf so
red. Realize it is
1
root so recolor
to black.

CS314 27
Red Black Trees
 Insert 2
make 2 red. Parent
1
is black so done.
2

CS314 28
Red Black Trees
 Insert 3

Insert 3. Parent is red. 1

Parent's sibling is black
(null) 3 is outside relative 2
to grandparent. Rotate
parent and grandparent 3
2

1 3

CS314 29
Red Black Trees
 Insert 4
On way down see
2 with 2 red children.
2
Recolor 2 red and
children black.
1 3 2

1 3
2
When adding 4
parent is black 1 3
so done.
Set root to black! 4
CS314 30
Red Black Trees
 Insert 5
5's parent is red. 2
Parent's sibling is
black (null). 5 is 3
1
outside relative to
grandparent (3) so rotate 4
parent and grandparent then
recolor
5

CS314 31
Red Black Trees
 Finish insert of 5

1 4

3 5

CS314 32
Red Black Trees
 Insert 6
On way down see
4 with 2 red 2
children. Make
4 red and children 1 4
black. 4's parent is
black so no problem. 3 5

CS314 33
Red Black Trees
 Finishing insert of 6

6's parent is black 2

so done.
1 4

3 5

CS314 34
Red Black Trees
 Insert 7

7's parent is red. 2

Parent's sibling is
black (null). 7 is 1 4
outside relative to
grandparent (5) so 3 5
rotate parent and
grandparent then recolor 6

CS314 35
Red Black Trees
 Finish insert of 7

1 4

3 6

5 7

CS314 36
Red Black Trees
 Insert 8
The caveat!!!
Getting unbalanced 2
on that right subtree?!?
1 4
On way down see 6
with 2 red children. 3 6
Make 6 red and
children black. This 5 7
creates a problem
because 6's parent, 4, is
also red. Must perform
rotation.
CS314 37
Red Black Trees
 Still Inserting 8

2
Recolored now
need to
rotate. 1 4

3 6
Recall, the subtrees
and the one extra
5 7
black node.

CS314 38
Red Black Trees
 Finish inserting 8
Result of
rotation 4

2 6

1 3 5 7

CS314 39
Red Black Trees
 Insert 9

2 6

1 3 5 7

On way down see 4 has two red children 8

so recolor 4 red and children black.
Realize 4 is the root so recolor black 9

CS314 40
Red Black Trees
 Finish Inserting 9

2 6

1 3 5 8

7 9
After rotations and recoloring

CS314 41
Red Black Trees
 Insert 10

2 6

1 3 5 8

On way down see 8 has two 7 9

red children so change 8 to
red and children black 10

CS314 42
Red Black Trees
 Insert 11
4

2 6

1 3 5 8

7 9
Again a rotation is
needed. 10
11
CS314 43
Red Black Trees
 Finish inserting 11
4

2 6

1 3 5 8

7 10

9 11

CS314 44
Red Black Trees
 Topic 24
Heaps

"You think you know when you can learn,

are more sure when you can write,
even more when you can teach,
but certain when you can program."
- Alan Perlis
 Priority Queue
Recall priority queue
– elements enqueued based on priority
– dequeue removes the highest priority item
Options?
– List? Binary Search Tree? Clicker 1
Linked List enqueue BST enqueue
A. O(N) O(1)
B. O(N) O(logN)
C. O(N) O(N)
D. O(logN) O(logN)
E. O(1) O(logN)
CS314 Heaps 2
 Another Option
The heap data structure
– not to be confused with the runtime heap (portion
of memory for dynamically allocated variables)
Typically a complete binary tree (variations
with more than 2 children possible)
– all levels have maximum number of nodes
except deepest where nodes are filled in from
left to right
Maintains the heap order property
– in a min heap the value in the root of any subtree
is less than or equal to all other values in the
CS314 subtree Heaps 3
 Clicker 2
In a max heap with no duplicates where is
the largest value?
A. the root of the tree
B. in the left-most node
C. in the right-most node
D. a node in the lowest level
E. none of these

CS314 Heaps 4
 Example Min Heap
12

17 15

19 52 37 25

45 21

CS314 Heaps 5
 Add Operation
Add new element to next open spot in array
Swap with parent if new value is less
than parent
Continue back up the tree as long as the
new value is less than new parent node

CS314 Heaps 6
 Add Example
Add 15 to heap (initially next left most node)

12

17 15

19 52 37 25

45 21 15
CS314 Heaps 7
 Add Example
Swap 15 and 52

12

17 15

19 15 37 25

45 21 52
CS314 Heaps 8
 Enqueue Example
Swap 15 and 17, then stop

12

15 15

19 17 37 25

45 21 52
CS314 Heaps 9
 Add Example
Insert the following values 1 at a time into a
min heap:
16 9 5 8 13 8 8 5 5 19 27 9 3

CS314 Heaps 10
 Internal Storage
Interestingly heaps are often implemented
with an array instead of nodes
for element at index i:
12
parent index: i / 2
17 15 left child index: i * 2
right child index: i * 2 + 1
19 52 37 25

45 21
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
12 17 15 19 52 37 25 45 21
CS314 Heaps 11
 In Honor of
Elijah,
The Meme King,
Spring 2020

CS314 Heaps 12
 PriorityQueue Class
public class PriorityQueue<E extends Comparable<? super E>>
{

private int size;

private E[] con;

public PriorityQueue() {
con = getArray(2);
}

private E[] getArray(int size) {

return (E[]) (new Comparable[size]);
}

CS314 Heaps 13
 PriorityQueue enqueue / add
public void enqueue(E val) {
if ( size >= con.length - 1 )
enlargeArray(con.length * 2);

size++;
int indexToPlace = size;
while ( indexToPlace > 1
&& val.compareTo( con[indexToPlace / 2] ) < 0 ) {

con[indexToPlace] = con[indexToPlace / 2]; // swap

indexToPlace /= 2; // change indexToPlace to parent
}
con[indexToPlace] = val;
}

private void enlargeArray(int newSize) {

E[] temp = getArray(newSize);
System.arraycopy(con, 1, temp, 1, size);
con = temp; 14
}
 Enqueue / add Example
With Array Shown
Add 15 to heap
(initially next 12
left most node)
17 15

19 52 37 25

45 21 15 10 / 2 = 5 (index of parent)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
12 17 15 19 52 37 25 45 21 15
 Enqueue Example
With Array Shown
Swap 15 and 52
12

17 15

19 15 37 25

45 21 52
5 / 2 = 2 (index of parent)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
12 17 15 19 15 37 25 45 21 52
 Enqueue Example
With Array Shown
Swap 15 and 17
12

15 15

19 17 37 25

45 21 52
2 / 2 = 1 (index of parent)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
12 15 15 19 17 37 25 45 21 52
 Enqueue Example
With Array Shown
15 !< 12 -> DONE
12

15 15

19 17 37 25

45 21 52
2 / 1 = 1 (index of parent)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
12 15 16 19 17 37 25 45 21 52
Remove -> remove 12
12

15 15

19 17 37 25

45 21 52

CS314 Heaps 19
 Remove / Dequeue
min value / front of queue is in root of tree
swap value from last node to root and move
down swapping with smaller child unless
values is smaller than both children

CS314 Heaps 20
 Dequeue Example
Swap 35
into root 12
(save 12
to return) 15 13

17 23 45 53

45 21 35

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
12 15 13 17 23 45 53 45 21 35
 Dequeue Example
Swap 35
into root 35
(save 12
to return) 15 13

17 23 45 53

45 21

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
35 15 13 17 23 45 53 45 21
 Dequeue Example
Min child?
35 1 * 2 = 2 -> 15
1 * 2 + 1 = 3 -> 13
15 13 Swap with 13

17 23 45 53

45 21

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
35 15 13 17 23 45 53 45 21
 Dequeue Example

13

15 35

17 23 45 53

45 21

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
13 15 35 17 23 45 53 45 21
 Dequeue Example
Min child?
13 3 * 2 = 6 -> 45
3 * 2 + 1 = 7 -> 53
15 35 Less than or equal to
both of my children!
Stop!
17 23 45 53

45 21

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
13 15 35 17 23 45 53 45 21
 Dequeue Code
public E dequeue( ) {
E top = con[1];
int hole = 1;
boolean done = false;
while ( hole * 2 < size && ! done ) {
int child = hole * 2;
// see which child is smaller
if ( con[child].compareTo( con[child + 1] ) > 0 )
child++; // child now points to smaller

// is replacement value bigger than child?

if (con[size].compareTo( con[child] ) > 0 ) {
con[hole] = con[child];
hole = child;
}
else
done = true;
}
con[hole] = con[size];
size--;
return top; 26
}
Clicker 3 - PriorityQueue Comparison
Run a Stress test of PQ implemented with
Heap and PQ implemented with
BinarySearchTree
What will result be?
A. Heap takes half the time or less of BST
B. Heap faster, but not twice as fast
C. About the same
D. BST faster, but not twice as fast
E. BST takes half the time or less of Heap
CS314 Heaps 27
 Topic 26
Dynamic Programming
"Thus, I thought dynamic programming
was a good name. It was something not
even a Congressman could object to. So I
used it as an umbrella for my activities"
- Richard E. Bellman
 Origins
A method for solving complex problems by
breaking them into smaller, easier, sub
problems
Term Dynamic Programming coined by
mathematician Richard Bellman in early
1950s
– employed by Rand Corporation
– Rand had many, large military contracts
– Secretary of Defense, Charles Wilson “against research,
especially mathematical research”
– how could any one oppose "dynamic"?
CS314 Dynamic Programming 2
 Dynamic Programming
Break big problem up into smaller
problems ...

Sound familiar?

Recursion?
N! = 1 for N == 0
N! = N * (N - 1)! for N > 0

CS314 Dynamic Programming 3

 Fibonacci Numbers
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 114, …
F1 = 1
F2 = 1
FN = FN - 1 + FN - 2

Recursive Solution?

CS314 Dynamic Programming 4

 Failing Spectacularly
Naïve recursive method
// pre: n > 0
// post: return the nth Fibonacci number
public int fib(int n) {
if (n <= 2)
return 1;
else
return fib(n – 1) + fib (n – 2);
}

Clicker 1 - Order of this method?

A. O(1) B. O(log N) C. O(N) D. O(N2) E. O(2N)
CS314 Dynamic Programming 5
 Failing Spectacularly

CS314 Dynamic Programming 6

 Failing Spectacularly

CS314 Dynamic Programming 7

 Clicker 2 - Failing Spectacularly

How long to calculate the 70th Fibonacci

Number with this method?
A. 37 seconds
B. 74 seconds
C. 740 seconds
D. 14,800 seconds
E. None of these
CS314 Dynamic Programming 8
 Aside - Overflow
at 47th Fibonacci number overflows int
Could use BigInteger class instead
private static final BigInteger one
= new BigInteger("1");

private static final BigInteger two

= new BigInteger("2");

public static BigInteger fib(BigInteger n) {

if (n.compareTo(two) <= 0)
return one;
else {
BigInteger firstTerm = fib(n.subtract(two));
BigInteger secondTerm = fib(n.subtract(one));
return firstTerm.add(secondTerm);
}
}
CS314 Dynamic Programming 9
 Aside - BigInteger
Answers correct beyond 46th Fibonacci number
Even slower, math on BigIntegers,
object creation, and garbage collection

CS314 Dynamic Programming 10

 Slow Fibonacci
Why so slow?
Algorithm keeps calculating the same
value over and over
When calculating the 40th Fibonacci
number the algorithm calculates the 4th
Fibonacci number 24,157,817 times!!!

CS314 Dynamic Programming 11

 Fast Fibonacci
Instead of starting with the big problem
and working down to the small problems
... start with the small problem and
work up to the big problem
public static BigInteger fastFib(int n) {
BigInteger smallTerm = one;
BigInteger largeTerm = one;
for (int i = 3; i <= n; i++) {
BigInteger temp = largeTerm;
largeTerm = largeTerm.add(smallTerm);
smallTerm = temp;
}
return largeTerm;
}
CS314 Dynamic Programming 12
 Fast Fibonacci

CS314 Dynamic Programming 13

 Fast Fibonacci

CS314 Dynamic Programming 14

 Memoization
Store (cache) results from
computations for later lookup
Memoization of Fibonacci Numbers
public class FibMemo {

private static List<BigInteger> lookupTable;

private static final BigInteger ONE

= new BigInteger("1");

static {
lookupTable = new ArrayList<>();
lookupTable.add(null);
lookupTable.add(ONE);
lookupTable.add(ONE);
CS314 } Dynamic Programming 15
 Fibonacci Memoization
public static BigInteger fib(int n) {
// check lookup table
if (n < lookupTable.size()) {
return lookupTable.get(n);
}

// Calculate nth Fibonacci.

// Don't repeat work. Start with the last known.
BigInteger smallTerm
= lookupTable.get(lookupTable.size() - 2);
BigInteger largeTerm
= lookupTable.get(lookupTable.size() - 1);
for(int i = lookupTable.size(); i <= n; i++) {
BigInteger temp = largeTerm;
largeTerm = largeTerm.add(smallTerm);
lookupTable.add(largeTerm); // memo
smallTerm = temp;
}
return largeTerm;
}
 Dynamic Programming
When to use?
When a big problem can be broken up into sub
problems.
Solution to original problem can be
calculated from results of smaller problems.
– larger problems depend on previous solutions
Sub problems must have a natural ordering
from smallest to largest (simplest to
hardest)
Multiple techniques within DP
CS314 Dynamic Programming 17
 DP Algorithms
Step 1: Define the *meaning* of the subproblems
(in English for sure, Mathematically as well if you
find it helpful).
Step 2: Show where the solution will be found.
Step 3: Show how to set the first subproblem.
Step 4: Define the order in which the subproblems
are solved.
Step 5: Show how to compute the answer to each
subproblem using the previously computed
subproblems. (This step is typically polynomial,
once the other subproblems are solved.)

CS314 Dynamic Programming 18

 Dynamic Programming Requires:
overlapping sub problems:
– problem can be broken down into sub problems
– obvious with Fibonacci
– Fib(N) = Fib(N - 2) + Fib(N - 1) for N >= 3
optimal substructure:
– the optimal solution for a problem can be
constructed from optimal solutions of its sub
problems
– In Fibonacci just sub problems, no optimality
– min coins opt(36) = 112 + opt(24) [1, 5, 12]
CS314 Dynamic Programming 19
 Dynamic Programing Example
Another simple example
Finding the best solution involves finding the
best answer to simpler problems
Given a set of coins with values (V1, V2, … VN)
and a target sum S, find the fewest coins
required to equal S
What is Greedy Algorithm approach?
Does it always work?
{1, 5, 12} and target sum = 15 (12, 1, 1, 1)
Could use recursive backtracking …
CS314 Dynamic Programming 20
 Minimum Number of Coins
To find minimum number of coins to sum to
15 with values {1, 5, 12} start with sum 0
– recursive backtracking would likely start with 15
Let M(S) = minimum number of coins to sum
to S
At each step look at target sum,
coins available, and previous sums
– pick the smallest option

CS314 Dynamic Programming 21

 Minimum Number of Coins
M(0) = 0 coins
M(1) = 1 coin (1 coin)
M(2) = 2 coins (1 coin + M(1))
M(3) = 3 coins (1 coin + M(2))
M(4) = 4 coins (1 coin + M(3))
M(5) = interesting, 2 options available:
1 + others OR single 5
if 1 then 1 + M(4) = 5, if 5 then 1 + M(0) = 1
clearly better to pick the coin worth 5
CS314 Dynamic Programming 22
 Minimum Number of Coins
 M(0) = 0  M(11) = 2 (1 coin + M(10))
 M(1) = 1 (1 coin) options: 1, 5
 M(2) = 2 (1 coin + M(1))  M(12) = 1 (1 coin + M(0))
 M(3) = 3 (1 coin + M(2)) options: 1, 5, 12
 M(4) = 4 (1 coin + M(3))  M(13) = 2 (1 coin + M(12))
options: 1, 12
 M(5) = 1 (1 coin + M(0))
 M(14) = 3 (1 coin + M(13))
 M(6) = 2 (1 coin + M(5)) options: 1, 12
 M(7) = 3 (1 coin + M(6))  M(15) = 3 (1 coin + M(10))
 M(8) = 4 (1 coin + M(7)) options: 1, 5, 12
 M(9) = 5 (1 coin + M(8))
 M(10) = 2 (1 coin + M(5))
options: 1, 5
CS314 Dynamic Programming 23
 KNAPSACK PROBLEM -
RECURSIVE BACKTRACKING
AND DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING

CS314 Dynamic Programming 24

 Knapsack Problem
A variation of a bin packing problem
Similar to fair teams problem from
recursion assignment
You have a set of items
Each item has a weight and a value
You have a knapsack with a weight limit
Goal: Maximize the value of the items you
put in the knapsack without exceeding the
weight limit
CS314 Dynamic Programming 25
 Knapsack Example
Items: Item
Number
Weight
of Item
Value of
Item
Value
per unit
Weight
1 1 6 6.0
2 2 11 5.5

Weight
3 4 1 0.25
4 4 12 3.0
Limit = 8 5 6 19 3.167
6 7 12 1.714

One greedy solution: Take the highest ratio

item that will fit: (1, 6), (2, 11), and (4, 12)
Total value = 6 + 11 + 12 = 29
Clicker 3 - Is this optimal? A. No B. Yes
Knapsack - Recursive Backtracking
private static int knapsack(ArrayList<Item> items,
int current, int capacity) {

int result = 0;
if (current < items.size()) {
// don't use item
int withoutItem
= knapsack(items, current + 1, capacity);
int withItem = 0;
// if current item will fit, try it
Item currentItem = items.get(current);
if (currentItem.weight <= capacity) {
withItem += currentItem.value;
withItem += knapsack(items, current + 1,
capacity - currentItem.weight);
}
result = Math.max(withoutItem, withItem);
}
return result;
}
Knapsack - Dynamic Programming
Recursive backtracking starts with max
capacity and makes choice for items:
choices are:
– take the item if it fits
– don't take the item
Dynamic Programming, start with
simpler problems
Reduce number of items available
… AND Reduce weight limit on knapsack
Creates a 2d array of possibilities
CS314 Dynamic Programming 28
 Knapsack - Optimal Function
OptimalSolution(items, weight) is best
solution given a subset of items and a weight
limit
2 options:
OptimalSolution does not select ith item
– select best solution for items 1 to i - 1with weight
limit of w
OptimalSolution selects ith item
– New weight limit = w - weight of ith item
– select best solution for items 1 to i - 1with new
weight limit 29
 Knapsack Optimal Function
OptimalSolution(items, weight limit) =

0 if 0 items

OptimalSolution(items - 1, weight) if weight of

ith item is greater than allowed weight
wi > w (In others ith item doesn't fit)

max of (OptimalSolution(items - 1, w),

value of ith item +
OptimalSolution(items - 1, w - wi)
CS314 Dynamic Programming 30
 Knapsack - Algorithm
Create a 2d array to store Item Weight Value of
Number of Item Item
value of best option given
1 1 6
subset of items and 2 2 11
possible weights 3 4 1
4 4 12
5 6 19

In our example 0 to 6 6 7 12

items and weight limits of of 0 to 8

Fill in table using OptimalSolution Function

CS314 Dynamic Programming 31

 Knapsack Algorithm
Given N items and WeightLimit

Create Matrix M with N + 1 rows and WeightLimit + 1 columns

For weight = 0 to WeightLimit

M[0, w] = 0

For item = 1 to N
for weight = 1 to WeightLimit
if(weight of ith item > weight)
M[item, weight] = M[item - 1, weight]
else
M[item, weight] = max of
M[item - 1, weight] AND
value of item + M[item - 1, weight - weight of item]
 Knapsack - Table Item
1
Weight
1
Value
6
2 2 11
3 4 1
4 4 12
5 6 19
6 7 12

items / capacity 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
{} 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
{1}
{1,2}
{1, 2, 3}
{1, 2, 3, 4}
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
{1,CS314
2, 3, 4, 5, 6} Dynamic Programming 33
 Knapsack - Completed Table
items / weight 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

{}
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
{1}
[1, 6]
0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
{1,2}
[2, 11]
0 6 11 17 17 17 17 17 17
{1, 2, 3}
[4, 1]
0 6 11 17 17 17 17 18 18
{1, 2, 3, 4}
[4, 12]
0 6 11 17 17 18 23 29 29
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
[6, 19]
0 6 11 17 17 18 23 29 30
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
CS314
[7, 12]
0 6Dynamic
11Programming
17 17 18 23 29 3430
 Knapsack - Items to Take
items / weight 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

{}
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
{1}
[1, 6]
0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
{1,2}
[2, 11]
0 6 11 17 17 17 17 17 17
{1, 2, 3}
[4, 1]
0 6 11 17 17 17 17 17 17
{1, 2, 3, 4}
[4, 12]
0 6 11 17 17 18 23 29 29
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
[6, 19]
0 6 11 17 17 18 23 29 30
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
CS314
[7, 12]
0 6Dynamic
11Programming
17 17 18 23 29 3530
 Dynamic Knapsack
// dynamic programming approach
public static int knapsack(ArrayList<Item> items, int maxCapacity) {
final int ROWS = items.size() + 1;
final int COLS = maxCapacity + 1;
int[][] partialSolutions = new int[ROWS][COLS];
// first row and first column all zeros

for(int item = 1; item <= items.size(); item++) {

for(int capacity = 1; capacity <= maxCapacity; capacity++) {
Item currentItem = items.get(item - 1);
int bestSoFar = partialSolutions[item - 1][capacity];
if( currentItem.weight <= capacity) {
int withItem = currentItem.value;
int capLeft = capacity - currentItem.weight;
withItem += partialSolutions[item - 1][capLeft];
if (withItem > bestSoFar) {
bestSoFar = withItem;
}
}
partialSolutions[item][capacity] = bestSoFar;
}
}
return partialSolutions[ROWS - 1][COLS - 1];
}
 Dynamic vs. Recursive
Backtracking Timing Data
Number of items: 32. Capacity: 123
Recursive knapsack. Answer: 740, time: 10.0268025
Dynamic knapsack. Answer: 740, time: 3.43999E-4

Number of items: 33. Capacity: 210

Recursive knapsack. Answer: 893, time: 23.0677814
Dynamic knapsack. Answer: 893, time: 6.76899E-4

Number of items: 34. Capacity: 173

Recursive knapsack. Answer: 941, time: 89.8400178
Dynamic knapsack. Answer: 941, time: 0.0015702

Number of items: 35. Capacity: 93

Recursive knapsack. Answer: 638, time: 81.0132219
Dynamic knapsack. Answer: 638, time: 2.95601E-4

CS314 Dynamic Programming 37

 Clicker 4
Which approach to the knapsack problem
uses more memory?
A. the recursive backtracking approach
B. the dynamic programming approach
C. they use about the same amount of memory

CS314 Dynamic Programming 38

 Topic 25
Tries
“In 1959, (Edward) Fredkin recommended
that BBN (Bolt, Beranek and Newman, now
BBN Technologies) purchase the very first
PDP-1 to support research projects at
BBN. The PDP-1 came with no software
whatsoever.

Fredkin wrote a PDP-1 assembler called FRAP (Free

of Rules Assembly Program);”

Tries were first described by René de la Briandais in

File searching using variable length keys.
 Clicker 1
How would you pronounce “Trie”
A. “tree”
B. “tri – ee”
C. “try”
D. “tiara”
E. something else

CS314 Tries 2
 Tries aka Prefix Trees
Pronunciation:
From retrieval
Name coined by Computer Scientist
Edward Fredkin
Retrieval so “tree”
… but that is very confusing so most people
pronounce it “try”

CS314 Tries 3
 Predictive Text and AutoComplete
Search engines and texting applications
guess what you want after typing only a few
characters

CS314 Tries 4
 AutoComplete
So do other programs such as IDEs

CS314 Tries 5
 Searching a Dictionary
How?
Could search a set for all values that start
with the given prefix.
Naively O(N) (search the whole data
structure).
Could improve if possible to do a binary
search for prefix and then localize search to
that location.

CS314 Tries 6
 Tries
A general tree (more than 2 children possible)
Root node (or possibly a list of root nodes)
Nodes can have many children
– not a binary tree
In simplest form each node stores a character
and a data structure (list?) to refer to its
children
"Stores" all the words or phrases
in a dictionary.
How?
CS314 Tries 7
René de la Briandais Original Paper

CS314 Tries 8
 ????

CS314 Tries 9
 ????

Picture of a Dinosaur
CS314 Tries 10
 Fall 2022 - Ryan P.
Created with Procreate: https://procreate.art/

CS314 Tries 11
 Can

CS314 Tries 12
 Candy

CS314 Tries 13
 Fox

CS314 Tries 14
 Clicker 2
Is “fast” in the dictionary represented by this
Trie?
A. No
B. Yes
C. It depends

CS314 Tries 15
 Clicker 3
Is “fist” in the dictionary represented by this
Trie?
A. No
B. Yes
C. It depends

CS314 Tries 16
 Tries
Another example
of a Trie
Each node stores:
– A char
– A boolean
indicating if the
string ending at
that node is a word
– A list of children

CS314 Tries 17
 Predictive Text and AutoComplete
As characters are entered
we descend the Trie
… and from the current
node …
… we can descend to
terminators and leaves to
see all possible words
based on current prefix
b, e, e -> bee, been, bees
CS314 Tries 18
 Tries
Stores words and
phrases.
– other values
possible, but typically
Strings
The whole word or
phrase is not actually
stored in a
single node.
… rather the path in
the tree represents
the word.
 Implementing a Trie
public class Trie {

private TNode root;

private int size; // number of words
private int numNodes;

public Trie() {
root = new TNode();
numNodes = 1;

CS314 Tries 20
 TNode Class
private static class TNode {
private boolean word;
private char ch;
private LinkedList<TNode> children;

Basic implementation uses a LinkedList of

TNode objects for children
Other options?
– ArrayList?
– Something more exotic?

CS314 Tries 21
 Basic Operations
Adding a word to the Trie
Getting all words with given prefix
Demo in IDE

CS314 Tries 22
 Compressed Tries
Some words, especially long ones, lead to a
chain of nodes with single child, followed by
single child:

b s

e t
e i u
l o
a l d o y
c p
l
r l y
k
 Compressed Trie
Reduce number of nodes, by having nodes
store Strings
A chain of single child followed by single
child (followed by single child … ) is
compressed to a single node with that String
Does not have to be a chain that terminates
in a leaf node
– Can be an internal chain of nodes

CS314 Tries 24
 Original, Uncompressed

b s

e t
e i u
l o
a l d s y
c p
l
r l y
k

CS314 Tries 25
 Compressed Version

b s

ell to
e id u
ck p
ar ll sy y

8 fewer nodes compared to uncompressed version

s–t–o–c-k

CS314 Tries 26
 Data Structures
Data structures we have studied
– arrays, array based lists, linked lists, maps, sets,
stacks, queues, trees, binary search trees,
graphs, hash tables, red-black trees, priority
queues, heaps, tries
Most program languages have some built in
data structures, native or library
Must be familiar with performance of data
structures
– best learned by implementing them yourself

CS314 Heaps 27
 Data Structures
We have not covered every data structure

Heaps
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_data_structures
 Data Structures
deque, b-trees, quad-trees, binary space
partition trees, skip list, sparse list, sparse
matrix, union-find data structure, Bloom
filters, AVL trees, 2-3-4 trees, and more!
Must be able to learn new and apply new
data structures

CS314 Heaps 29
 Topic 27
Functional Programming
Functional Programming with Java 8

“It's a long-standing principle of programming style that

the functional elements of a program should not be too
large. If some component of a program grows beyond the stage
where it's readily comprehensible, it becomes a mass of
complexity which conceals errors as easily as a big city conceals
fugitives. Such software will be hard to read, hard to test,
and hard to debug.” – Paul Graham

Copyright (c) Pearson 2016.

All rights reserved.
 What is FP?
• functional programming: A style of programming that
emphasizes the use of functions (methods) to decompose a
complex task into subtasks.
– Examples of functional languages:
LISP, Scheme, ML, Haskell, Erlang, F#, Clojure, ...

• Java is considered an object-oriented language, not a functional

language.

• But Java 8 added several language features to facilitate a partial

functional programming style.
– Popular contemporary languages tend to be
Multi Paradigm Languages
2
 Java 8 FP features
• 1. Effect-free programming

• 2. First-class functions

• 3. Processing structured data via functions

• 4. Function closures

• 5. Higher-order operations on collections

3
 Effect-free code (19.1)
• side effect: A change to the state of an object or program
variable produced by a call on a function (i.e., a method).
– example: modifying the value of a variable
– example: printing output to System.out
– example: reading/writing data to a file, collection, or network

int result = f(x) + f(x);

int result = 2 * f(x);

• Are the two above statements equivalent?

– Yes, if the function f() has no side effects.
– One goal of functional programming is to minimize side effects.
4
 Code w/ side effects
public class SideEffect {

public static int x;

public static int f(int n) {

x = x * 2;
return x + n;
}

// what if it were 2 * f(x)?

public static void main(String[] args) {
x = 5;
int result = f(x) + f(x);
System.out.println(result);
}
} 5
 First-class functions (19.2)
• first-class citizen: An element of a programming language
that is tightly integrated with the language and supports the
full range of operations generally available to other entities in
the language.

• In functional programming, functions (methods) are treated as

first-class citizens of the languages.
– can store a function in a variable
– can pass a function as a parameter to another function
– can return a function as a value from another function
– can create a collection of functions
– ...

6
 Lambda expressions
• lambda expression ("lambda"): Expression that describes a
function by specifying its parameters and return value.
– Java 8 adds support for lambda expressions.
– Essentially an anonymous function (aka method)
• Syntax:
(parameters ) -> expression

• Example:
(x) -> x * x // squares a number

– The above is roughly equivalent to:

public static int squared(int x) {
return x * x;
}
7
 MathMatrix add / subtract
• Recall the MathMatrix class:
public MathMatrix add(MathMatrix rhs) {
int[][] res = new int[cells.length][cells[0].length];
for (int r = 0; r < res.length; r++)
for (int c = 0; c < res[0].length; c++)
res[r][c] = cells[r][c] + rhs.cells[r][c];
return new MathMatrix(res);
}

public MathMatrix subtract(MathMatrix rhs) {

int[][] res = new int[cells.length][cells[0].length];
for (int r = 0; r < res.length; r++)
for (int c = 0; c < res[0].length; c++)
res[r][c] = cells[r][c] - rhs.cells[r][c];
return new MathMatrix(res);
}
8
 MathMatrix add / subtract

•GACK!!!
•How do we generalize the idea of "add or
subtract"?
– How much work would it be to add
other operators?
– Can functional programming help remove the
repetitive code?
9
 Code w/ lambdas
• We can represent the math operation as a lambda:

public MathMatrix add(MathMatrix rhs) {

return getMat(rhs, (x, y) -> x + y);
}

public MathMatrix subtract(MathMatrix rhs) {

return getMat(rhs, (x, y) -> x - y);
}

10
 getMat method
private MathMatrix getMat(MathMatrix rhs,
IntBinaryOperator operator) {

int[][] res = new int[cells.length][cells[0].length];

for (int r = 0; r < cells.length; r++) {

for (int c = 0; c < cells[0].length; c++) {
int temp1 = cells[r][c];
int temp2 = rhs.cells[r][c];
res[r][c] = operator.applyAsInt(temp1, temp2);
}
}
return new MathMatrix(res);
}

// IntBinaryOperator Documentation

11
 Clicker 1
•Which of the following is a lambda
that checks if x divides evenly into y?
A. (x, y) -> y / x == 0
B. (x, y) -> x / y == 0
C. (x, y) -> y % x == 0
D. (x, y) -> x % y == 0
E. (x, y) -> y * x == 0
12
 Streams (19.3)
• stream: A sequence of elements from a data source that
supports aggregate operations.

• Streams operate on a data source and modify it:

– example: print each element of a collection

– example: sum each integer in a file
– example: concatenate strings together into one large string
– example: find the largest value in a collection
– ...
13
 Code w/o streams
• Non-functional programming sum code:

// compute the sum of the squares of integers 1-5

int sum = 0;
for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {
sum += i * i;
}

14
 The map modifier
• The map modifier applies a lambda to each stream element:
– higher-order function: Takes a function as an argument.
• Abstracting away loops (and data structures)

// compute the sum of the squares of integers 1-5

int sum = IntStream.range(1, 6)
.map(n -> n * n)
.sum();

// the stream operations are as follows:

IntStream.range(1, 6) -> [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

-> map -> [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]
-> sum -> 55
15
 The filter modifier
• The filter stream modifier removes/keeps elements of the
stream using a boolean lambda:

// compute the sum of squares of odd integers

int sum =
IntStream.of(3, 1, 4, 1, 5, 9, 2, 6, 5, 3)
.filter(n -> n % 2 != 0)
.map(n -> n * n)
.sum();

// the stream operations are as follows:

IntStream.of -> [3, 1, 4, 1, 5, 9, 2, 6, 5, 3]
-> filter -> [3, 1, 1, 5, 9, 5, 3]
-> map -> [9, 1, 1, 25, 81, 25, 9]
-> sum -> 151 16
 Streams and methods
• using streams as part of a regular method:

// Returns true if the given integer is prime.

// Assumes n >= 2.
public static boolean isPrime(int n) {
return IntStream.range(1, n + 1)
.filter(x -> n % x == 0)
.count() == 2;
}

• How to make this method faster?

17
 The reduce modifier
• The reduce modifier (method) combines elements of a stream
using a lambda combination function.
– Accepts two parameters: an initial value and a lambda to combine
that initial value with each subsequent value in the stream.

// Returns n!, or 1 * 2 * 3 * ... * (n-1) * n.

// Assumes n is non-negative.
public static int factorial(int n) {
return IntStream.range(2, n + 1)
.reduce(1, (a, b) -> a * b);
}

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 Stream operators
Method name Description
anyMatch(f) returns true if any elements of stream match given predicate
allMatch(f) returns true if all elements of stream match given predicate

average() returns arithmetic mean of numbers in stream

collect(f) convert stream into a collection and return it

count() returns number of elements in stream

distinct() returns unique elements from stream

filter(f) returns the elements that match the given predicate
forEach(f) performs an action on each element of stream
limit(size) returns only the next size elements of stream
map(f) applies the given function to every element of stream
noneMatch(f) returns true if zero elements of stream match given predicate
19
 Stream operators
Method name Description
parallel() returns a multithreaded version of this stream
peek(f) examines the first element of stream only
reduce(f) applies the given binary reduction function to stream elements
sequential() single-threaded, opposite of parallel()
skip(n) omits the next n elements from the stream
sorted() returns stream's elements in sorted order
sum() returns sum of elements in stream
toArray() converts stream into array

Static method Description

concat(s1, s2) glues two streams together
empty() returns a zero-element stream
iterate(seed, f) returns an infinite stream with given start element
of(values) converts the given values into a stream
range(start, end) returns a range of integer values as a stream 20
 Clicker 2
• What is output by the following code?
int x1 = IntStream.of(-2, 5, 5, 10, -6)
.map(x -> x / 2)
.filter(y -> y > 0)
.sum();
System.out.print(x1);

A.(-2, 5, 5, 10, -6)

B.6
C.(-1, 2.5, 2.5, 5, -3)
D.9
E.20
21
 Optional results
• Some stream terminators like max return an "optional" result
because the stream might be empty or not contain the result:

// print largest multiple of 10 in list

// (does not compile!)
int largest =
IntStream.of(55, 20, 19, 31, 40, -2, 62, 30)
.filter(n -> n % 10 == 0)
.max();
System.out.println(largest);

22
 Optional results fix
• To extract the optional result, use a "get as" terminator.
– Converts type OptionalInt to Integer

// print largest multiple of 10 in list

// (this version compiles and works.)
int largest =
IntStream.of(55, 20, 19, 31, 40, -2, 62, 30)
.filter(n -> n % 10 == 0)
.max()
.getAsInt();
System.out.println(largest);

23
 Ramya, Spring 2018
•“Okay, but why?”
•Programming with Streams is an
alternative to writing out the
loops ourselves
•Streams “abstract away” the loop
structures we have spent so much
time writing
•Why didn’t we just start with these?
24
 Stream exercises
• Write a method sumAbsVals that uses stream operations to
compute the sum of the absolute values of an array of
integers. For example, the sum of {-1, 2, -4, 6, -9} is
22.

• Write a method largestEven that uses stream operations to

find and return the largest even number from an array of
integers. For example, if the array is {5, -1, 12, 10, 2,
8}, your method should return 12. You may assume that the
array contains at least one even integer.

25
 Closures (19.4)
• bound/free variable: In a lambda expression, parameters
are bound variables while variables in the outer containing
scope are free variables.
• function closure: A block of code defining a function along
with the definitions of any free variables that are defined in the
containing scope.

// free variables: min, max, multiplier

// bound variables: x, y
int min = 10;
int max = 50;
int multiplier = 3;
compute((x, y) -> Math.max(x, min) *
Math.max(y, max) * multiplier);
26
 (19.4) Higher Order
Operations on Collections
(Streams and Arrays)
• An array can be converted into a stream with Arrays.stream:

// compute sum of absolute values of even ints

int[] numbers = {3, -4, 8, 4, -2, 17,
9, -10, 14, 6, -12};
int sum = Arrays.stream(numbers)
.map(n -> Math.abs(n))
.filter(n -> n % 2 == 0)
.distinct()
.sum();

27
 Method references
ClassName::methodName

• A method reference lets you pass a method where a lambda

would otherwise be expected:

// compute sum of absolute values of even ints

int[] numbers = {3, -4, 8, 4, -2, 17,
9, -10, 14, 6, -12};
int sum = Arrays.stream(numbers)
.map(Math::abs)
.filter(n -> n % 2 == 0)
.distinct()
.sum();

28
 Streams and lists
• A collection can be converted into a stream by calling its
stream method:

// compute sum of absolute values of even ints

ArrayList<Integer> list =
new ArrayList<Integer>();
list.add(-42);
list.add(-17);
list.add(68);
list.stream()
.map(Math::abs)
.forEach(System.out::println);

29
 Streams and strings

// convert into set of lowercase words

List<String> words = Arrays.asList(
"To", "be", "or", "Not", "to", "be");
Set<String> words2 = words.stream()
.map(String::toLowerCase)
.collect(Collectors.toSet());
System.out.println("word set = " + words2);

output:
word set = [not, be, or, to]

30
 Streams and files

// find longest line in the file

int longest = Files.lines(Paths.get("haiku.txt"))
.mapToInt(String::length)
.max()
.getAsInt();

stream operations:
Files.lines -> ["haiku are funny",
"but sometimes they don't make sense",
"refrigerator"]
-> mapToInt -> [15, 35, 12]
-> max -> 35

31
 Stream exercises
• Write a method fiveLetterWords that accepts a file name as
a parameter and returns a count of the number of unique lines
in the file that are exactly five letters long. Assume that each
line in the file contains at least one word.

• Write a method using streams that finds and prints the first 5
perfect numbers. (Recall a perfect number is equal to the sum
of its unique integer divisors, excluding itself.)

32