3/4/25, 10:24 AM Digestive System - Merck Veterinary Manual

MERCK MANUAL
Veterinary Manual

Digestive System Expand all Collapse all

Digestive System Introduction

The Digestive System in Animals
• Function
• Pathophysiology
• Clinical Findings of GI Disease
• Examination of the GI Tract
• For More Information

Infectious Diseases of the GI Tract in Animals

• Gastrointestinal Parasitism
• Treatment of Infectious Diseases
• Control of Infectious Diseases
• For More Information
Noninfectious Diseases of the GI Tract in Animals
• For More Information
Principles of Therapy of GI Disease in Animals
• For More Information

Congenital and Inherited Anomalies Involving the Digestive

System
Congenital and Inherited Anomalies of the Mouth in Animals
• Congenital Oronasal Fistulas (Cleft Palate and Cleft Lip)
• Occlusal Anomalies
• Tongue Anomalies
• Tight-lip Syndrome of Chinese Shar-Pei
Congenital and Inherited Anomalies of the Teeth in Animals
• Abnormalities in Number
• Irregularities of Shedding
• Abnormalities in Position, Shape, and Direction
• Enamel Lesions

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• Congenital Cysts of the Head and Neck in Animals

• Congenital and Inherited Anomalies of the Esophagus in Animals
• Hernias in Animals
• Congenital and Inherited Anomalies of the Stomach in Animals
• Congenital and Inherited Anomalies of the Small and Large Intestines in
Animals
Congenital and Inherited Anomalies of the Liver in Animals
• References

Pharyngeal Paralysis
Pharyngeal Paralysis in Animals
• Clinical Findings and Lesions
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Key Points
• For More Information

Diseases of the Rectum and Anus

Anal Sac Disease in Dogs and Cats
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
• Clinical Findings and Lesions
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Key Points
• For More Information
Perianal Fistula in Dogs
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Key Points
• For More Information
• Perianal Tumors in Animals
Perineal Hernia in Dogs
• Etiology and Pathogenesis

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• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Key Points
• For More Information
Rectal and Anorectal Strictures in Animals
• For More Information
Rectal Neoplasms in Dogs and Cats
• For More Information
Rectal Polyps in Dogs and Cats
• For More Information
Rectal Prolapse in Animals
• Etiology
• Clinical Findings and Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Key Points
• For More Information
Rectal Tears in Animals
• Clinical Findings and Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Key Points
• For More Information

Peritonitis
Peritonitis in Animals
• Etiology
• Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
• Cattle
• Small Ruminants, South American Camelids, and Pigs
• Horses
• Dogs and Cats

Diagnosis
• Advanced Diagnostic Procedures
• Laboratory Analyses

• Prognosis
• Treatment

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• Key Points
• ForMore Information

Enteric Campylobacteriosis
Enteric Campylobacteriosis in Animals
• Etiology
• Transmission and Epidemiology
• Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
• Lesions
• References

• Diagnosis
• Treatment and Control
• Zoonotic Risk
• Key Points
• For More Information

Salmonellosis
Salmonellosis in Animals
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
Epidemiology
• Cattle
• Sheep
• Pigs
• Horses
• Dogs and Cats

• Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
• Lesions

• Treatment
Control and Prevention
• Preventing Introduction to a Herd
• Limiting Transmission Within a Herd
• Salmonella Vaccines

• Zoonotic Risk
• Key Points
• For More Information
• References
Salmonella Dublin Infection in Cattle

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• Prevalence
• Pathogenesis and Clinical Signs
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
Prevention and Control
• Farm Management Practices
• Sanitation
• Biosecurity
• Vaccination

• Key Points
• For More Information

Amebiasis
Entamoeba histolytica Amebiasis
• Etiology
• Epidemiology
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Key Points
• For More Information

Coccidiosis
Overview of Coccidiosis in Animals
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
• Epidemiology
• Clinical Findings
• Postmortem Lesions
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Control and Prevention
• Key Points
• For More Information
Coccidiosis of Cattle
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
• Epidemiology
Clinical Findings
• Postmortem Lesions

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• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Control and Prevention

Coccidiosis of Sheep
• Etiology
• Epidemiology
Clinical Signs
• Postmortem Lesions

• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Control and Prevention
Coccidiosis of Goats
• Etiology
• Epidemiology
Clinical Findings
• Postmortem Lesions

• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Control and Prevention
Coccidiosis of Pigs
• Etiology
• Epidemiology
Clinical Findings
• Postmortem Lesions

• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Prevention and Control
Coccidiosis of Cats and Dogs
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
• Epidemiology
• Clinical Findings
• Postmortem Lesions
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Control and Prevention
• For More Information

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Cryptosporidiosis
Cryptosporidiosis in Animals
• Etiology and Epidemiology
• Transmission
• Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
• Lesions

• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Control
• Zoonotic Risk
• Key Points
• For More Information

Giardiasis (Giardia)
Giardiasis in Animals
• Cycle and Transmission
• Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings and Lesions
• References

• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Control
• Key Points
• For More Information

Disorders of the Esophagus in Large Animals

Esophageal Obstruction in Large Animals
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Complications of Esophageal Obstruction
• Esophageal Obstruction Secondary to Extraesophageal Disease
• Esophageal Strictures in Large Animals
• Esophageal Neoplasia in Large Animals

Gastrointestinal Ulcers in Large Animals

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• Overview of Gastrointestinal Ulcers in Large Animals

Gastric Ulcers in Horses
• Etiology
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
Treatment
• References

• Key Points
• For More Information
Gastric Ulcers in Pigs
• Etiology
Clinical Findings
• Lesions

• Diagnosis
• Treatment and Prevention
• Key Points
• For More Information

Diseases of the Ruminant Forestomach

Simple Indigestion in Ruminants
• Etiology
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
Treatment
• References

• Key Points
• For More Information
Grain Overload in Ruminants
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Prevention
• Key Points
• For More Information

Subacute Ruminal Acidosis in Cattle and Sheep

• Etiology and Pathophysiology

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• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment and Prevention
• Key Points
• For More
Information Bloat in
Ruminants
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
• Lesions

• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Control and Prevention
• Key Points
• For More Information
Traumatic Reticuloperitonitis in Cattle
• Etiology
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Prevention
• Key Points
• For More Information
Chronic Indigestion Syndrome in Ruminants
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
• Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
• Laboratory Findings
• Diagnostic Testing
• Differential Diagnosis

• Treatment and Prognosis

• Prevention
• Key Points
• For More Information
• Reticuloruminal Milk Accumulation ("Ruminal Drinking") in Calves
• Ruminal Parakeratosis in Cattle and Sheep

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Diseases of the Abomasum

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• Overview of Diseases of the Abomasum in Cattle

Left or Right Displaced Abomasum and Abomasal Volvulus in Cattle
Etiology
• References

• Pathogenesis
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Prevention
• Key Points
Abomasal Ulcers in Cattle
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
• Lesions

Diagnosis
• Clinical Diagnosis and Ultrasonography
• Occult Blood
• Hematology
• Abdominocentesis

• Treatment
• Prevention
• Key Points
Dietary Abomasal Impaction in Cattle
Etiology and Pathogenesis
• Dietary Causes
• Nondietary Causes

• Clinical Findings and Lesions

• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Prevention and Control
• Key Points

Acute Intestinal Obstructions in Large Animals

Acute Intestinal Obstructions in Large Animals
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
• Clinical Findings and Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Prevention

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• Key Points
• For More Information

Colic in Horses
Overview of Colic in Horses
• Gastrointestinal Anatomy
• Blood Supply to the GI Tract
• Natural Openings in the Abdomen
• Colonic Motility Patterns
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
Treatment
• Pain Relief
• Fluid Therapy
• Protection Against Components of Enteric Bacteria
• Intestinal Lubricants and Laxatives
• Larvicidal Deworming
• Surgery

• Prognosis
• For More Information
Diseases Associated with Colic in Horses by Anatomic Location
Stomach
• Gastric Dilatation and Gastric Rupture
• Gastric Impaction

Small Intestine
• heal Impaction
• Adhesions
• Ascarid Impaction
• Proximal Enteritis—Jejunitis
• Intussusception
• Volvulus
• Pedunculated Lipomas
• Internal Incarceration
• Inguinal Hernia

Cecum and Large Intestine

• Impaction
• Enterolithiasis
• Left Dorsal Displacement of the Colon
• Right Dorsal Displacement of the Colon
• Right Dorsal Colitis
• Volvulus of the Large Colon
• Impaction and Foreign Body Obstruction of the Descending Colon

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• For More Information

Intestinal Diseases in Ruminants

Intestinal Diseases in Cattle
Hemorrhagic Bowel Syndrome
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
• Epidemiology
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment and Control

Winter Dysentery
• Etiology
• Transmission, Epidemiology, and Pathogenesis
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment and Control

• Other Intestinal Diseases of Cattle

Intestinal Diseases in Sheep and Goats
Watery Mouth Disease in Lambs
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Prevention

Diarrhea in Neonatal Ruminants

Etiology
• Bacteria
• Viruses
• Protozoa
• Other Causes

• Epidemiology and Transmission

• Pathogenesis
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Prevention and Control
• Zoonotic Risk
• Key Points
Paratuberculosis in Ruminants
• Etiology and Pathogenesis

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Clinical Findings
• Lesions

• Diagnosis
• Control
• Zoonotic Risk
• Key Points
• For More Information

Infectious Diarrheal Diseases in Horses

• Overview of Infectious Diarrheal Diseases in Horses
Salmonellosis in Horses
Clinical Findings
• References

Diagnosis
• References

• Treatment
• Prevention
• Key Points
Potomac Horse Fever
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
• Clinical Findings and Lesions
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Prevention
• Key Points
Clostridial Enterocolitis in Horses
• Predisposing Causes
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Prevention
• Key Points
• References

• Gastrointestinal Parasites in Horses

Diarrheal Diseases in Foals

• Overview of Diarrheal Diseases in Foals

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• Foal Heat Diarrhea

Bacterial Diarrhea in Foals
Equine Proliferative Enteropathy
• Diagnosis
• Treatment

Viral Diarrhea in Foals

• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Prevention

Miscellaneous Intestinal Diseases in Horses

• Sand Enteropathy in Horses
• Colitis-X in Horses
• Miscellaneous Causes of Diarrhea in Horses
• Free Fecal Water Syndrome in Horses
NSAID Toxicosis and Right Dorsal Colitis (RDC) in Horses
• Pathogenesis
• Clinical Signs
• Diagnosis
Treatment
• Dietary Management
• Surgical Intervention

• Prevention

Inflammatory Bowel Disease in Horses

• Pathogenesis
• Diagnosis
• Treatment

• Gastrointestinal Neoplasia in Horses

Intestinal Diseases in Pigs

• Overview of Intestinal Diseases in Pigs
C/ostrir/ioir/es difficile Enteritis in Pigs
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
• Lesions

• Diagnosis

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• Treatment and Control

• Key Points
• For More Information

• Clostridium perfringens Type A Enteritis in Pigs

Clostridium perfr/ngens Type C Enteritis in Pigs
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
• Lesions

• Diagnosis
• Treatment and Control
• Key Points
• For More Information
Enteric Colibacillosis in Pigs
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
• Lesions

• Diagnosis
• Treatment and Control
• Key Points
• For More Information
• Edema Disease in Pigs
• Hemorrhagic Bowel Syndrome in Pigs
Intestinal Salmonellosis in Pigs
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
• Lesions

• Diagnosis
• Treatment and Control
• Key Points
• For More Information
Intestinal Spirochetosis in Pigs
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
• Lesions

• Diagnosis
• Treatment and Control
• Key Points
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• For More Information

• Parasitism (Gastrointestinal) in Pigs
Porcine Coronaviral Enteritis
• Etiology and Epidemiology
• Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
• Lesions

• Diagnosis
• Treatment and Control
• Key Points
• For More Information
Porcine Proliferative Enteropathy
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
• Lesions

• Diagnosis
• Treatment and Control
• Key Points
• For More Information
• Rectal Strictures in Pigs
Rotaviral Enteritis in Pigs
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
• Lesions

• Diagnosis
• Treatment and Control
• Key Points
• For More Information
Swine Dysentery
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
• Lesions

• Diagnosis
• Treatment and Control
• Key Points
• For More Information

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Fluke Infections in Ruminants

• Overview of Fluke Infections in Ruminants
Fasciola hepatica in Ruminants
• Etiology
Clinical Findings
• Lesions

• Diagnosis
• Control
• Key Points
• For More Information
• Fasciola gigantica in Ruminants
• Fascioloides magna in Ruminants
• Dicrocoelium dendriticum in Ruminants
• Eurytrema spp in Ruminants
• Paramphistomes in Ruminants

Malassimilation Syndromes in Large Animals

Malassimilation Syndromes in Large Animals
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
• Lesions

Diagnosis
• d-Xylose Absorption Test
• d-Glucose Absorption Test
• Oral Lactose Tolerance Test

• Treatment
• Prognosis
• Key Points

Abdominal Fat Necrosis

• Abdominal Fat Necrosis in Animais

Diseases of the Esophagus in Small Animals

• Cricopharyngeal Achalasia in Small Animals
Dilatation of the Esophagus in Small Animals
• References
• Esophageal Dysmotility in Small Animals
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Esophageal Strictures in Small Animals

• References

• Esophagitis in Small Animals

• Esophageal Foreign Bodies in Small Animals
• Esophageal Diverticula in Small Animals
• Bronchoesophageal Fistula in Small Animals

The Exocrine Pancreas

• The Exocrine Pancreas in Dogs and Cats
Pancreatitis in Dogs and Cats
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Key Points
• For More Information
Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency in Dogs and Cats
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Prognosis
• Key Points
• For More Information
Pancreatic Neoplasms in Dogs and Cats
• Pathogenesis
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment and Prognosis
• Key Points
• For More Information
Pancreatic Abscesses in Dogs and Cats
• For More Information
Pancreatic Pseudocyst in Dogs and Cats
• For More Information

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DIS EASES 0 F TH E STO MAC H AN D INT ESTIN ES IN SMALL

AN IMALS

Diseases of the Stomach and Intestines in Small Animals

Canine Parvovirus
• Etiology and Pathophysiology
Clinical Findings
• Lesions

• Diagnosis
• Treatment and Prognosis
• Prevention and Control
• Key Points
• For More Information
Colitis in Small Animals
• Etiology and Pathophysiology
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment and Control
• Prognosis
• Key Points
• For More Information
Constipation and Obstipation in Small Animals
• Etiology and Pathophysiology
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment and Control
• Key Points
• For More Information
Feline Enteric Coronavirus
• Etiology and Pathophysiology
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment, Control, and Prevention
• Key Points
• For More Information

Gastric Dilation and Volvulus in Small Animals

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• Etiology and Pathophysiology

• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Key Points
• For More Information
Gastrointestinal Obstruction in Small Animals
• Etiology and Pathophysiology
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Prognosis and Prevention
• Key Points
• For More Information
Acute Hemorrhagic Diarrhea Syndrome in Dogs
• Etiology and Pathophysiology
• Clinical Findings and Lesions
• Diagnosis
• Treatment and Prognosis
• Key Points
• For More Information
Chronic Enteropathies in Small Animals
• Etiology and Pathophysiology
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment and Control
• Key Points
• For More Information
Malabsorption Syndromes in Small Animals
• Physiology
• Etiology and Pathophysiology
• Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
• History
• Physical Examination
• Minimum Database
• Specific Rule-outs

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• Imaging
• Serum Folate and Cobalamin
• Markers of Protein-losing Enteropathies and Small-intestinal Inflammation
• Empirical Treatment Trials
• Intestinal Biopsy

Treatment
• Dietary Modification
• Supportive Care
• Specific Treatments

• Prognosis
• Key Points
• For More Information

Diseases of the Stomach in Small Animals

Gastritis in Small Animals
Acute Gastritis
• Diagnosis
• Treatment

• Chronic Gastritis
• Key Points
• For More Information

Gastrointestinal Ulcers in Small Animals

• Etiology and Pathophysiology
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment and Control
• Prognosis
• Key Points
• For More Information
Helicobacter Infection in Small Animals
• Etiology and Pathophysiology
• Clinical Findings and Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Zoonotic Risk
• Key Points
• For More Information
• References

Neoplasia of the Gastrointestinal Tract in Small Animals

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Gastrointestinal Neoplasia in Dogs and Cats

Etiology and Pathophysiology
• Dogs
• Cats

• Epidemiology
• Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
• Hematology and Serology
• Abdominal Imaging
• Thoracic Imaging
• Endoscopy
• Histological and Molecular Diagnosis

Treatment and Prognosis

• Canine Carcinoma
• Feline Carcinoma
• Canine Sarcoma
• Lymphoma

• Key Points
• For More Information
• References

DE NTI STRY AN D O RAL DIS EAS ES

Dental Development and Anatomy

• Dental Development in Animals
Dentition and Dental Nomenclature of Animals
• For More Information
Estimation of Age by Examination of the Teeth in Animals
• Horses
• Cattle
• Dogs

Dentistry in Small Animals

Periodontal Disease in Small Animals
Etiology and Pathogenesis
• Plaque
• Calculus
• Gingivitis

• Epidemiology

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• Clinical Findings and Lesions

Diagnosis
• Conscious Oral Examination
• Occlusion
• Anesthetized Oral Examination
• Periodontal Probing
• Furcation Exposure
• Mobility
• Intraoral Dental Radiography

Treatment
• Professional Dental Cleaning
• Periodontal Treatment
• Dental Extraction

• Prevention
• Key Points
• References
• For More Information

Endodontic Disease in Small Animals

• Etiology and Pathogenesis
• Clinical Findings and Lesions
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Key Points
• References
• For More Information
Tooth Resorption in Small Animals
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
• Epidemiology
• Clinical Findings and Lesions
• Diagnosis
• Treatment and Prevention
• Key Points
• References
• For More Information
Developmental Abnormalities of the Mouth and Dentition in Small
Animals
• Persistent Deciduous Teeth
• Unerupted Teeth

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• Malformed Teeth
• Malocclusion and Malformed Jaws
• For More Information

Dentofacial Trauma in Small Animals

• For More Information

• Dental Caries in Small Animals

Dentistry in Horses
Overview of General Dentistry in Horses
• Clinical Signs of Dental Disease
• Dental Examination
• Routine Dental Prophylaxis and Extractions
• Congenital and Developmental Anomalies of the Mouth and Dentition
in Horses
• Abnormal Tooth Eruption in Horses
• Irregular Wear of the Dentition in Horses
• Periodontal Disease in Horses
• Endodontic Disease in
Horses Dental Caries in
Horses
• Reference
• For More Information
Odontoclastic Tooth Resorption and Hypercementosis in Horses
• For More Information

Diseases of the Mouth in Small Animals

Overview of Diseases of the Mouth in Small Animals
• For More Information
Oral Inflammatory and Ulcerative Disease in Small Animals
Feline Stomatitis
• Etiology
• Clinical Signs
• Diagnosis
• Treatment

Juvenile-Onset Periodontitis
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
• Epidemiology
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• Clinical Signs

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• Diagnosis
• Treatment

Canine Chronic Ulcerative Stomatitis

• Etiology
• Epidemiology
• Clinical Signs
• Diagnosis
• Treatment

Lip Fold Dermatitis and Cheilitis

• Clinical Findings and Diagnosis
• Treatment

• Mycotic Stomatitis
• Acute Necrotizing Ulcerative Gingivitis
• Glossitis
• For More Information
• References
Soft Tissue Trauma of the Mouth in Small Animals
• Chewing Lesions
• Mouth Burns
• For More Information
Oral Papillomas in Dogs
• For More Information
Oral Tumors in Small Animals
• Benign Oral Tumors
Malignant Oral Tumors
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Key Points
• For More Information

Salivary Disorders in Small Animals

• Ptyalism
Salivary Mucocele (Sialocele)
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment

• Salivary Fistulas
• Salivary Gland Tumors
• Sialadenitis
• Sialadenosis and Necrotizing Sialometaplasia in Dogs
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• Xerostomia
• Key Points
• For More Information
• References

Diseases of the Mouth in Large Animals

• Lip Lacerations in Large Animals
• Glossoplegia in Large Animals
• Neoplasia of the Mouth in Large Animals
• Slaframine Toxicosis in Large Animals
• Stomatitis in Large Animals
• Papular Stomatitis in Large Animals

GASTRO INTESTINAL PARAS ITES

Gastrointestinal Parasites of Horses

Overview of Gastrointestinal Parasites of Horses
• For More Information
Diseases Resulting From Gastrointestinal Parasites in Horses
Ascarid-Associated Colic
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Prevention
• Zoonotic Risk

Strongy/os v’o/garis-Associated Disease

• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Prevention
• Zoonotic Risk

Larval Cyathostominosis
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Prevention
• Zoonotic Risk

Tapeworm-Associated Colic
• Clinical Findings

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• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Prevention
• Zoonotic Risk

• Key Points
• For More Information
• References
Gastrointestinal Parasites of Minor Clinical Importance in Horses
Gasterophilus spp
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Prevention
• Zoonotic Risk

Hagronema spp
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Prevention
• Zoonotic Risk

Oxyuris equi
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Prevention
• Zoonotic Risk

Strongyloides westeri
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Prevention
• Zoonotic Risk

Trichostrongylus axe/
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Prevention
• Zoonotic Risk

• Key Points
• For More Information

Gastrointestinal Parasites of Pigs

• Overview of Gastrointestinal Parasites of Pigs
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Ascaris suum in Pigs

• Distribution and Host Range
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Key Points
• For More Information
• Oesophagostomum spp in Pigs
Stomach Worms in Pigs
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment and Control
• Key Points
• For More Information

• Sfrongy/oir/es sp in Pigs
• Trichuris sp in Pigs
• Macracanthorhynchus sp in Pigs

Gastrointestinal Parasites of Ruminants

Overview of Gastrointestinal Parasites of Ruminants
• Epidemiology
• Features and Classification
• Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
• Qualitative Fecal Evaluation
• Quantitative Fecal Evaluation
• Genus- and Species-Level Determinations
• Postmortem Examination
• Ancillary Data

• Integrated Parasite Management

• Prevention
• Monitoring
Treatment
• Treatment of Gastrointestinal Cestodes
• Treatment of Gastrointestinal Nematodes
• Cattle: Special Considerations
Small Ruminants: Special Considerations
• Combination Anthelmintic Treatment

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• Anthelmintic-related Diagnostic Techniques

• Refugia
• Biosecurity and Quarantine
• Alternative (Nondrug) Adjunctive Options
• References
• For More Information
Common Gastrointestinal Parasites of Cattle
Common Parasites of the Rumen in Cattle
• Paramphistomum spp (Flukes) in Cattle

• Common Parasites of the Abomasum in Cattle

• Haemonchus spp (Barber's Pole Worm, Large Stomach Worm, Wire Worm) in
Cattle
• Osfertag/a ostertagi (Medium or Brown Stomach Worm) in Cattle
• Trichostrongylus axei (Small Stomach Worm) in Cattle
• /I/fecistocirrtzs digitatus in Cattle
Common Parasites of the Small Intestine in cattle
• Cooperia spp (Bankrupt Worm, Small Intestinal Worm) in Cattle
• Trichostrongylus spp (Bankrupt Worms) in Cattle
• Strongyloides papi/iost/s (Intestinal Threadworm) in Cattle
• 8¢/nostomz/m phlebotomum (Hookworm) in Cattle
• Nematodirus spp (Thread-Necked Intestinal Worms) in Cattle
• Toxocara vito/orom (Roundworm) in Cattle
• gfoniezia spp (Tapeworms) in Cattle
• Aonchotheca (Formerly Capillaria) Bovis in Cattle

Common Parasites of the Large Intestine in Cattle

• Oesophagostomum spp (Nodular Worms) in Cattle
• Chabertia ovina (Large-Mouth Bowel Worm) in Cattle
• Trichuris spp (Whipworms) in Cattle

• Diagnosis, Treatment, and Control of Gastrointestinal Parasites in Cattle

Common Gastrointestinal Parasites of Small Ruminants
Common Parasites of the Abomasum in Small Ruminants
• Haemonchus spp (Barber's Pole Worm, Large Stomach Worm, Wire Worm) in Small
Ruminants Teladorsagia (Formerly Ostertagia) circumcincta and Osferfagia trifurcata (Medium
or Brown Stomach Worms) in Small Ruminants
• Trichostrongylus axei (Small Stomach Worm) in Small Ruminants
• Mecistocirrus digitatus in Small Ruminants

Common Parasites of the Small Intestine in Small Ruminants

• Trichostrongylus spp (Bankrupt Worms) in Small Ruminants
• Strongyloides papil/osus (Intestinal Threadworm) in Small Ruminants
Bz/nostomom spp and Gaigeria spp (Hookworms) in Small
Ruminants
• Nematodirus spp (Thread-Necked Intestinal Worms) in Small Ruminants
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• Aonchotheca (Formerly Capillaria) /ongipes in Small Ruminants
• Moniezia spp (Tapeworms) in Small Ruminants
• Thysanosoma actinioides (Fringed Tapeworm) in Small Ruminants

• Common Parasites of the Large Intestine in Small Ruminants

• Oesophagostomum columbianum (Nodular Worm) in Small Ruminants
• Chabertia ovina (Large-Mouth Bowel Worm) in Small Ruminants
• Trichuris spp (Whipworms) in Small Ruminants
• Skrjabinema spp (Pinworms) in Small Ruminants
• Diagnosis, Treatment, and Control of Gastrointestinal Parasites in
Small Ruminants

Gastrointestinal Parasites of Small Animals

Spirocerca lupi in Small Animals
Clinical Findings
• Lesions

• Diagnosis
• Treatment and Control
• Key Points
• For More Information

• Physaloptera spp in Small Animals

• Ollulanus sp in Small Animals
Strongyloides sp in Small Animals
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment and Control
• Key Points
• For More Information
Roundworms in Small Animals
• Clinical Findings and Lesions
• Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
• References

• Baylisascaris in Dogs
• Key Points
• For More Information
Hookworms in Small Animals
Clinical Findings

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• Lesions

• Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
• References

• Key Points
• For More Information
Whipworms in Small Animals
• Diagnosis
• Treatment and Control
• For More Information
Acanthocephalans in Small Animals
• Oncico/a spp
• Macracanthorhynchus sp
Tapeworms in Dogs and Cats
• Clinical Signs
• Diagnosis
• Treatment and Control
• Prevention
• References
• For More Information
Flukes in Small Animals
• Intestinal Flukes
Hepatic Flukes
• References
• For More Information

HE PATIC DIS EAS E

Liver Structure and Function

• Overview of Liver Structure and Function in Animals
• Anatomy of the Hepatobiliary System in Small Animals
• Biliary Tree (Biliary Tract): Intrahepatic and Extrahepatic Components in
Animals
• Variables Influencing Bile Formation and Flow in Animals
Gallbladder, Cystic Duct, and Common Bile Duct in Animals
• Interdigestive Interval

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• Meal-related Gallbladder Motility

• Digestive Functions of Bile
Bilirubin Synthesis and Metabolism in Animals
• Bilirubin Plasma Clearance
• Enteric Bilirubin Metabolites
• Urinary Urobilinogen
• Persistent Jaundice

Pathophysiology of Hepatic Disease in Small Animals

• Overview of Pathophysiology of Hepatic Disease in Small Animals
• Clinical Features of Hepatobiliary Disease in Small Animals
• Jaundice in Small Animals
• Ascites in Small Animals
• Hepatic Fibrosis in Small Animals
Pathological Changes in Bile in Small Animals
• Syndromes Associated With Unusual Bile

Hepatic Diseases of Small Animals

Nutrition in Hepatic Disease in Small Animals
• Energy Allowance
Dietary Protein Allowance
• Modified Protein Quality/Source

• Dietary Fat
• Micronutrients and Vitamins
• Fulminant Hepatic Failure in Small Animals
Hepatic Encephalopathy in Small Animals
Treatment
• Nutritional Support

• Modification of Enteric pH, Bacterial Population, Ammonia Absorption

Alternative or Salvage Interventions for Recalcitrant Hyperammonemic HE
• L-ornithine-L-aspartate (LOLA) Oral Granules
• Zinc Supplementation
• N-acetyI-L-carnitine
• Flumazenil

• Elimination or Control of Factors Precipitating Hepatic Encephalopathy

• Reference
• Portal Hypertension and Ascites in Small Animals

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Hepatic Portal Venous Hypoperfusion in Small Animals

Microvascular Dysplasia (MVD)
• Clinical Signs
• Diagnosis
• Management

Portosystemic Vascular Anomalies

• Clinical Signs
• Imaging
• Treatment
• Postligation Assessment of Surgical Outcome
• Postligation Imaging of PSVA Attenuation and Hepatic Portal Perfusion
• Survival with PSVA Attenuation or Medical Management
• Postoperative Prognosis
• Medical Management
• Nutritional Support

• Acquired Portosystemic Shunts in Small Animals

Miscellaneous Congenital and Acquired Hepatic Vascular Disorders in
Small Animals
• Hepatic Arteriovenous Malformation
• Hepatic Vein Outflow Obstruction
Cholangiovenous Reflux in Small Animals
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
• Clinical Signs
• Treatment and Prognosis

Hepatotoxins in Small Animals

• Drug-associated Hepatotoxicity
• Anticonvulsants
• Glucocorticoids
• Chemotherapy Drugs
• Antiparasitic Drugs
• Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs
• Anesthetic Agents
• Xylitol
• Acetaminophen
• Antifungals
• Benzodiazepines
• Other Drug-Associated Hepatotoxicity
Environmental or Foodborne Hepatotoxins
• Aflatoxicosis

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• Amanita phalloides (Death Cap Mushroom) Hepatotoxicity
• Microcystin: Blue-Green Algae (cyanobacteria) Hepatotoxicity
• Sago Palm, Cycad Hepatotoxicity

Infectious Diseases of the Liver in Small Animals

• Viral Diseases
Bacterial Diseases
• Leptospirosis
• Microscopic Hepatic Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Tyzzer Disease
• Mycobacterium Infections and Pyogranulomatous Hepatitis
• Hepatic Impact of Extrahepatic and Intrahepatic Bacterial Infections and Sepsis

Mycotic Diseases
• Systemic Mycoses
• Opportunistic Uncommon Mycoses
• Cancf/c/a spp
• Disseminated Aspergillosis
• Phaeohyphomycosis
• Protothecosis

Protozoal Diseases
• Toxoplasmosis
• Leishmaniosis
• Pyogranulomatous Hepatitis

Feline Hepatic Lipidosis

Clinical Signs
• Clinicopathologic Features
• Imaging

• Diagnosis
Treatment
• Fluids
• Potassium and Phosphate Supplementation
• Water-soluble Vitamins
• Fat-soluble Vitamins
• Additional Therapeutic Considerations
• Drug Considerations
• Prognosis

• Biliary Cirrhosis in Small Animals

Canine Cholangiohepatitis
• Clinical Signs
• Imaging
Histologic Features

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• Suppurative Cholangitis
• Destructive Cholangitis
• Bacterial Cultures

Treatment
• Antibiotics
• Choleretics
• Antioxidants

Canine Chronic Hepatitis

• Chronic Hepatitis With or Without Increased Hepatic Copper in West
Highland White Terriers
• Idiopathic Chronic Hepatitis
Breed-specific Chronic Hepatitis
• Labrador Retrievers
• Doberman Pinschers
• Cocker Spaniel Hepatopathy
• Skye Terriers
• Maltese Dog Zone 3 (Centrilobular) Hepatopathy

• Lobular Dissecting Hepatitis in Small Animals

Canine Vacuolar Hepatopathy
• Vacuolar Hepatopathy in Scottish Terriers

• Metabolic Diseases Affecting the Liver in Small Animals

• Hepatocutaneous Syndrome in Small Animals
• Nodular Hyperplasia in Small Animals
Hepatic Neoplasia in Small Animals
• Hepatic Lymphoma
• Primary Hepatic Neoplasms
• Hepatocellular Carcinomas
• Hepatocellular Adenomas and Adenomatous Hyperplasia or Dysplastic Foci
• Biliary Adenocarcinomas
• Lymphoma
• Myelolipomas
• Metastatic Neoplasia
Miscellaneous Liver Diseases in Small Animals
• Glycogen Storage Disease
• Hepatic Amyloidosis

Cholecystitis in Small Animals

• Clinical Findings and Diagnosis
• Treatment and Prognosis
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• Key Points
• Emphysematous Cholecystitis/Choledochitis
Canine Gallbladder Mucocele
• Clinical Findings and Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Key Points
• Miscellaneous Disorders of the Gallbladder in Small Animals
Miscellaneous Disorders of the Bile Ducts in Small Animals
• Benign Hepatic or Biliary Cysts
• Ductal Plate Malformations
• Choledochal Cyst
• Biliary Cystadenoma
Extrahepatic Bile Duct Obstruction in Small Animals
• Clinical Findings and Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Key Points
Cholelithiasis in Small Animals
• Clinical Findings and Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Key Points
• Biliary Tree Rupture and Bile Peritonitis in Small Animals
• Feline Cholangitis / Cholangiohepatitis Syndrome
Hepatobiliary Fluke Infection in Small Animals
• References

Tyzzer Disease
Tyzzer Disease in Animals
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
• Lesions

• Diagnosis
• Treatment and Control
• Key Points
• For More Information

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Laboratory Analyses and Imaging in Hepatic Disease in Small

Animals
Hematology in Hepatic Disease in Small Animals
• Red Blood Cell Effects
• Poikilocytosis
• Heinz Bodies
• Critical Hypophosphatemia
• Microcytosis
• Schistocytes and Acanthocytes
• Leukocytes
• Thrombocytopenia

Coagulation Tests in Hepatic Disease in Small Animals

• Clinical Assessments of Coagulation
Specific Considerations
• Fibrinogen in Hepatic Disease
• Thrombocytopenia and Altered Platelet Aggregation
• Secondary Hemostasis Assessments
Interventional Options For Coagulation Dysregulation in Liver Disease
• Blood Component Therapy

Enzyme Activity in Hepatic Disease in Small Animals

Aminotransferases
• Alanine Aminotransferase
• Aspartate Aminotransferase

• Alkaline Phosphatase
• Gamma-Glutamyl Transferase
Miscellaneous Serum Biochemical Measures in Hepatic Disease in Small
Animals
• Albumin
Bilirubin
• Clinical Utility of Bilirubin Fractionation
• Urine Bilirubin Detection

• BUN and Creatinine

• Glucose
• Cholesterol
• Urinalysis
Hepatic Function Tests in Small Animals
• Total Serum Bile Acids

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• Ammonia
Imaging in Hepatic Disease in Small Animals
• Radiography
• Ultrasonography
• Computed Tomography

• Cholecystocentesis in Hepatic Disease in Small Animals

• Liver Cytology in Small Animals
• Liver Biopsy in Small Animals

Hepatic Disease in Large Animals

Overview of Hepatic Disease in Large Animals
• Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
• Plasma or Serum Enzymes
• Total Serum Bile Acids
• Serum Bile Pigments
• Urobilinogen
• Plasma and Serum Proteins
• Clotting Times
• Urea, Glucose, Ammonia, and Other Alterations
• Dye Excretion and Clearance Tests
• Ultrasonography
• Liver Biopsy
• Radiography
• Scintigraphy

Treatment and Management

• Hepatic Encephalopathy
• Antimicrobials and Anti-inflammatories
• Dietary Management

• Key Points
• References
• For More Information
Acute Hepatitis in Large Animals
Theiler Disease
• Etiology and Epidemiology
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Prevention

Acute Hepatic Necrosis in Cattle

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• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Clinical Findings and Lesions
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• References

Infectious Hepatitis and Hepatic Abscesses in Large Animals

• Tyzzer Disease
Cholangiohepatitis
• Etiology
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment

• Equine Rhinopneumonitis
• Infectious Necrotic Hepatitis
• Bacillary Hemoglobinuria
• Hepatic Abscesses
Hepatotoxins in Large Animals
Chemical and Drug-related Causes of Toxic Hepatopathy
• Iron Toxicosis
• Copper Toxicosis
• Miscellaneous Chemicals and Drugs Associated with Hepatotoxicosis

• Mycotoxicoses
• Blue-green Algae Toxicosis
Hepatotoxic Plants
• Pyrrolizidine Alkaloid Toxicosis
• Panicum Grass Toxicosis
• Alsike Clover Toxicosis
• Mycotoxic Lupinosis
• Xanthium (Cocklebur) Toxicosis
• Miscellaneous Plant Hepatotoxicoses

Cholelithiasis, Choledocholithiasis, and Hepatolithiasis in Large Animals

• Etiology and Epidemiology
Clinical Findings
• Lesions

• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Key Points
Chronic Progressive Hepatitis in Large Animals
• Etiology
Clinical Findings

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• Lesions

• Diagnosis
Treatment
• Prognosis

• Key Points
Hyperlipemia and Hepatic Lipidosis in Large Animals
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
• Lesions

• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Key Points
• Hepatic Neoplasia in Large Animals
Miscellaneous Hepatic Disorders in Large Animals
• Cholangitis
• Hepatic Failure in Foals
• Biliary Atresia
• Hemochromatosis
• Right Hepatic Lobe Atrophy
• Hepatic Lobe Torsion
• Hepatic Amyloidosis
• Congenital Hepatic Fibrosis
• Primary Hyperammonemia in Adult
Horses Portosystemic Shunts
• Clinical Findings and Lesions
• Diagnosis
• Treatment

Hyperammonemia in Morgan Foals

• References

Hyperbilirubinemia Syndromes in Large Animals

• Gilbert Syndrome
• Dubin-Johnson Syndrome
Liver Abscesses in Cattle
• Etiology and Pathogenesis
• Clinical Findings, Lesions, and Diagnosis
• Treatment and Control
• References

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• For More Information

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