UNIT 2 BASIC CONCEPTS OF POSITIONAL ASTRONOMY Structure 21| Introduction 22 Celestial Sphere Geometry ofa Sphere Spherical Triangle 23 Astronomical Coordinate Systems Geographical Coordinates Horizon System Equatorial System Diurnal Motion ofthe Stars Conversion of Coordinates 24 — Measurement of Time Sidereal Time “Apparent Solar Time ‘Mean Solar Time Equation of Time , Calendar 25 Summary 2.6 Terminal Questions 27 Solutions and Answers 2.1 INTRODUCTION In Unit 1, you have studied about the physical parameters and measurements that are relevant in astronomy and astrophysics. You have learn that astronomical scales are ‘very different from the ones that we encounter in our day-to-day lives. In astronomy, we are also interested in the motion and structure of planets, stars, galaxies ana other eclestil objects. For this purpose, itis essential that the position of, these objects is precisely defined. In this unit, we describe some coordinate systems (horizon, local equatorial and universal equatorial) used to define the positions of these objects. We also discuss the effect of Earth's daily and annual motion on the positions of these object. Finally, we explain how time is measured in astronomy. Inthe next unit, you will, Tearn ubout various techniques and instruments used to make astronomical ‘measurements. Study Guide In this unit, you wall encounter the coordinate'systems used in astronomy forthe first time. In order to understand them, it would do you good to draw each diagram, yourself. ‘Try to visualise the fundamental circles, reference points and coordinates as you make each drawing. ‘You could use elay/plastecene balls or spherical potatoes to model various planes on the celestial sphere. You could also mark the meridians and the coordinates on them for a visual understanding of the coordinates we describe in this unit.Bases of Astronomy Objectives After studying this unit, you should be able to: identify the fundamental great circles such as horizon, celestial equator, ecliptic, ‘observer’s/local merid * assign the horizon and equatorial coordinates ofa celestial object; and * caleulate the apparent solar time ata given mean solar time on any day. 2.2 CELESTIAL SPHERE When we look at the clear sky at night, the stars appear to be distributed on the inside surface of a vast sphere eentred on the observer. This sphere is called the celestial sphere (Fig. 2.1) NORTH ‘eater ele ee CELESTIAL ‘ aa Ital) 2 Rae GELESTIAL A elUyy sels. | Tig: The celestial sphere centred on the observer: Note Tange compared with the Earthy forall practical purpose, the observer and the centre of the Barth coincide ‘Actually, the stars are at different distances from us. But since the distances of the Stars are very large, they appear to us as i they are atthe same distance from us. So itis sufficient if only the direetions of stars are defined on the sphere. Since the distance is not involved, it is usual to take the radius of the eclestil sphere as unity. that on the surface ofa sphere, we need just nvo coordinates to describe the position of a point. We shall study below some ways used to specify these two ‘coordinates for stars and other celestial objects. But before that you should familiarise ‘yourself with the geometry of a sphere.. Basle Concepts of 221 Geometry of a Sphere Positional Astronomy Letus consider a sphere of radius = 1 unit (Fig. 2.2), We know that a plane interseets the sphere in a circle, Ifthe plane passes through the centre ofthe sphere we get a great circle, and if it does not pass through the centre then iti Le bes ay See | GREAT CIRCLE SMALL ciRc erry sas a8 a Ge ig2.2: Great and small creles ona sphere. A great cele Is the intersection ofa sphere and a plane passing through fs eentre, InFig2.3, FG is a great citele whose plane pases through the centre O, and EHis a small circle, Points P and Q are called the poles of the great circle FG. Notice that PQ is the diameter ofthe sphere perpendicular tothe plane of the great circle FG. The distance between two points on a sphere is measured by the length of the are ofthe reat cirele passing through them. Its the shortest path on the surface of the sphere ‘between these points. Thus, in Fig 23, the distance between points C and D on the ‘great circle Fis the are length CD. Itis equal toR (=OD) times the ZCOD in radians, Since R= 1, are CD = ZCOD. In astronomy, itis convenient to denote distances on a sphere in angles (radians or degrees) inthis way. ‘An angle between two great circles is called a spherical angle, It is equal to the angle between the tangents to the great circles atthe points of their intersection, It is also the angle between the planes of the two great circles. In Fig. 2.3, PACQ and PBDQ are two great circles intersecting atthe points P and Q. ZAPB and ZCPD are spherical angles between these great circles. These angles are equal. They are also equal to ZCOD, since the are length CD is common to both great circles. Fig23: Spherical angle s the angle between two great creles 31Basics of Astronomy, 2 22.2 Spherical Triangle A closed figure formed by thrce mutually intersecting great circles on a sphere is called a spherical triangle. For example, in Fig. 2.3, PCD is a spherical triangle. All the Gelements ofthe triangle, namely, 3 sides and 3 angles are expressed in angular units. The elements ofa spherical triangle ABC in Fig. 24 are the 3 spherical angles denoted by A, B and Cand the 3 sides denoted by a, b and c. : Spherical triangles Bounded by three ares of great celes: AB, BC and CA. The spherical angles are A, B,C and the corresponding sides are a,b and c Note that a spherical triangle is not just any three-comered figure lying on a sphere. Its sides must be ares of great circles. ‘The essential properties ofa spherical triangle are: 4) The sum of the three angles is greater than 180°, i) Any angle or sie is less than 180°, ili) Sum of any two sides/angles is greater than the third side/angle. ‘Note: Remember thatthe sides are being measured in degrees or radians. ‘The four basic formulae relating the angles and sides ofa spherical triangle (Fig. 2.4) are given below. These are for reference only. You need not memorise them. Sine formate sin snd, .D sind 2 Cosine formu cosa = cosbeos e+ sinb si cosd = cosecosa+sine 2) cose = cotacot b+ sinasin eos C “Anatogous cosine formulas ar sina cos B= cos b sine~sin b cose cos A osc sin bsin.c 60s b cos A @3)Four parts formula os Ores cosa cos B=sina cote—sin B cot C (24) ‘Now that you have become familiar with the geometry of the celestial sphere, you can Team about the different coordinate systems used to locate a celestial object. 2.3__ ASTRONOMICAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS, ‘The method of fixing the position ofa star or celestial object on the celestial sphere is the same as that of fixing the position ofa place on the surface of the Earth, We shall, therefore, first consider geographical coordinates of a place on the surface of the Earth, 2.3.1 Geographical Coordinates ‘As you know, any place on the Earth is specified by two coordinates: geographical latitude and geographical longitude (see Fig,2.5) Longitude Prime meridian Latitude graphical coordinates (longitude and latitude) uniquely define any position on the Earth's surface Note that the line joining the poles is always perpendicular to the equator. ‘The circles parallel to the equator are the circles of latitude, The great circles deawn through the north and South Poles are called the circles of longitude. How do we specify the coordinates ofthe place P on the Earth's surface? The great circle passing through P is called its meridian, By international agreement, the geographical coordinates longitude and latitude) of the place P are specified with respect to the equator and the meridian through Greenwich, which is also called the prime meridian. 3asles of Astronomy ‘The general definitions are given in the box ahead, The longitude of a place cee ual named Cea aoe mee Soa ABO" east oF west ot Greeny ee Hele defined | sie lar distance of th Lis meastired from 0 to 90° ale hem rihor bl fe cua ‘ {In Table 2.1, we give the longitudes and latitudes of some cities in India, ‘Table 2:1: Longituds and latitudes of some cities in India Cities Longitude Tatinude Allahabad. 81° 50 25°26 ‘Ahmedabad 72 4B 25°08 ‘Chennat 80° 108 13° 06N ‘Kanyakumari TP aE 05 Kolkata 88° 2B 2 34N Mum 735 19° ON New Delhi Th IE 28° 46N Shillong, 91 2B 25°36N ‘Srinagar 74 48 34 05N iain 75°46 23°10 We shall now extend the concept of geographical coordinates on the Earth to define the coordinates of a celestial body on the celestial sphere. But before that you may like to work outa problem. Spend SKQT 7H Using Table 2.1, find the difference between a) the longitudes of Ahmedabad and. Shillong, and b) the latitudes of Srinagar and Kanyakumari. ‘The longitude-latitude system illustrates the principle of an astronomical coordinate system, What we require for reference is: ) A fundamental great circle (uch as the equator), and l)_A reference point, or origin on the chosen great circle. Depending on the choice of these nwo references, we describe the following coordinate systems, which are most often used in astronomy: 1, Horizon system 2. Equatorial system23.2 Horizon System Basle Concepts of Postonal Aston Suppose the observer is at the point O at latitude «(eee Fig. 2.6). The p = overhead the observer is ealled the zenith. Ii hepa shead the observer is called the zenith. Itis denoted by Z in Fig. 2.6, The point wth thet rizon ‘ertcally below the observers called the mai. tis denoted by Z . Deter he ° ‘exmon meaning she ‘The great circle on the celestial sphere perpendicular tothe vertical line ZO 2 is line hee the ky mec the called the eclestial horizon or just the horizon, This is the fundamental great circle ia chosen for reference in the horizon system, ‘The great circle ZNZ'SZ containing the zenith of the observer is called the observer's meridian or the local meridian. Nand S are the points of intersection of the horizon and the observer's meridian, These points indicate geographical north and south ~_N ey v a /a— meridian ‘Nadie 2" ¥Fig2.9 Schematedlogram of the cle equator and arn cele UVX, upper () and lower ae trans Tu the segment DUC the sare aoe the horizon. Iti bel he horizon the segment CVD, |As aresult ofthe Earth's rotation from west to east, the celestial bodies appear to ‘move across the sky in the opposite direction, ic, from east to west. This daily or diurnal motion is common to all celestial objects. The path of a star X will be along ‘the small circle XUV parallel tothe celestial equator. Iti called the diurnal crete (Fig, 2.9). It intersects the observer's meridian atthe points U and V. ‘The star completes one circuit ofits diurnal circle in 24 hours, which is the Earth's rotation period, As you can see from the Fig. 2.9, the star will eross (transit) the observer's meridian atthe points U and V during its diurnal motion. These are called the upper and lower transits. A star is said (o rise when it rises above the observer'shorizon, Itis id 40 et when it goes below the horizon, In Fig. 2.9, in the segment Basle Concepts of DUC, the sa above the horizon, It is bolow the horizon in the segment CVD. Realltead Astromaney Now, suppose we want to define the equatorial coordinates of a stat X (see Fig. 2.10). ‘The eclestil equator (RTE) isthe fundamental great circle in this system. The reference point i R the point of intersection ofthe observer's meridian (ZRQP) and the celestial equator above the horizon, ‘The semi-great citclo PX is known as the hour circle ofthe star X. Its called hour circle because it indicates the time elapsed since the star was on the upper transit on the observer's meridian, Let the hour circle of X intersect the celestial equator at J ig. 2.10), 2.10; Schematic diagram showing local equatorial coordinates (H = Ry, 8= JX), Note that as ‘he diurnal eiree s parallel to the eeestial equator, JX docs not change duet the star's ‘diurnal motion. But RY changes asthe star moves in the diurnal circle ‘One coordinate ofthe star X is given by the great circle are RJ along the celestial equator. Its called the hour angle (#) ofthe star. It is measured towards west from 0 t0 24 hours. ‘The other coordinate required to define the position of the star is the circle are JX from the equator along the star's hour circle, It is called declination (6), As the path of the diurnal motion of the star is parallel to the celestial equator, the declination, 8, ofa given star does not change during the diurnal motion, ‘The hour angle and the declination specify the position ofthe sta in the local ‘equatorial system, In astronomy, angles such as hour angle are frequently expressed in time units according to the relation: 24 hours = 360°, I" =15%, 1" = 15° and 1° = 15", 39