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Mathematical Methods for Economics-I
Guess Paper-1
Q. Explain Types of Set operations.
Ans. The union of two sets is a set containing all elements that are in AA or in BB (possibly both). For
example, {1,2}∪{2,3}={1,2,3}{1,2}∪{2,3}={1,2,3}. Thus, we can write x∈(A∪B)x∈(A∪B) if and only
if (x∈A)(x∈A) or (x∈B)(x∈B). Note that A∪B=B∪AA∪B=B∪A. In Figure 1.4, the union of

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sets AA and BB is shown by the shaded area in the Venn diagram.

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Similarly we can define the union of three or more sets. In particular,
if A1,A2,A3,⋯,AnA1,A2,A3,⋯,An are nn sets, their union A1∪A2∪A3⋯∪AnA1∪A2∪A3⋯∪An is a set
containing all elements that are in at least one of the sets. We can write this union more compactly by
⋃i=1nAi.⋃i=1nAi.
For example, if A1={a,b,c},A2={c,h},A3={a,d}A1={a,b,c},A2={c,h},A3={a,d},
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then ⋃iAi=A1∪A2∪A3={a,b,c,h,d}⋃iAi=A1∪A2∪A3={a,b,c,h,d}. We can similarly define the union of

infinitely many sets A1∪A2∪A3∪⋯A1∪A2∪A3∪⋯.
The intersection of two sets AA and BB, denoted by A∩BA∩B, consists of all elements that are both
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in AA and−−−and_ BB. For example, {1,2}∩{2,3}={2}{1,2}∩{2,3}={2}. In Figure 1.5, the intersection of

sets AA and BB is shown by the shaded area using a Venn diagram.
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he shaded area shows the set B  A.

The complement of a set AA, denoted by AcAc or A¯A¯, is the set of all elements that are in the
universal set SS but are not in AA. In Figure 1.7, A¯A¯ is shown by the shaded area using a Venn
diagram.
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The shaded area shows the set A − A c .

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The difference (subtraction) is defined as follows. The set A−BA−B consists of elements that are
in AA but not in BB. For example if A={1,2,3}A={1,2,3} and B={3,5}B={3,5}, then A−B={1,2}A−B={1,2}. In
Figure 1.8, A−BA−B is shown by the shaded area using a Venn diagram. Note
that A−B=A∩BcA−B=A∩Bc.

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The shaded area shows the set A-B.

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Two sets AA and BB are mutually exclusive or disjoint if they do not have any shared elements; i.e.,
their intersection is the empty set, A∩B=∅A∩B=∅. More generally, several sets are called disjoint if they
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are pairwise disjoint, i.e., no two of them share a common elements. Figure 1.9 shows three disjoint
sets.
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Sets A, B and C are disjoint.

If the earth's surface is our sample space, we might want to partition it to the different continents.
Similarly, a country can be partitioned to different provinces. In general, a collection of nonempty
sets A1,A2,⋯A1,A2,⋯ is a partition of a set AA if they are disjoint and their union is AA. In Figure
1.10, the sets A1,A2,A3A1,A2,A3 and A4A4 form a partition of the universal set SS.
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The collection of sets A1,A2,A3A1,A2,A3 and A4A4 is a partition of SS.

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Here are some rules that are often useful when working with sets. We will see examples of their usage
shortly.

Q. Describe the concept for Relations and Functions

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Ans. “Relations and Functions” is one of the most important topics in algebra. Relations and

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functions – these are the two different words having different meaning mathematically. You might
get confused about their difference. Before we go deeper, let’s understand the difference between
both with a simple example.
An ordered pair represents as (INPUT, OUTPUT):
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Relation shows the relationship between INPUT and OUTPUT. Whereas
A function is a relation which derives one OUTPUT for each given INPUT.
What is a Function?
A function is a relation which describes that there should be only one output for each input. OR we
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can say that, a special kind of relation(a set of ordered pairs) which follows a rule i.e every X-value
should be associated to only one y-value is called a Function.
Example:
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• In the relation, {(-2, 3), {4, 5), (6, -5), (-2, 3)},
• The domain is {-2, 4, 6} and Range is {-5, 3, 5}.
Types of Functions: In terms of relations, we can define the types of functions as:
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• One to one function or Injective function: A function f: P → Q is said to be One to One if for
each element of P there is a distinct element of Q.
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• Many to one function: A function which maps two or more elements of P to the same
element of set Q.
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• Onto Function or Surjective function: A function for which every element of set Q there is
pre-image in set P
• One-one and on to function or Bijective function: The function f matches with each element
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of P with a discrete element of Q and every element of Q has a pre-image in P.

Special Functions in Algebra: There are some of the important functions as follow:
• Constant Function
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• Identity Function
• Linear Function
• Absolute Value Function
• Inverse Functions
What is the Relation?
It is a subset of the Cartesian product. Or simply, a bunch of points (ordered pairs).
Example: {(-2, 1), (4, 3), (7, -3)}, usually written in set notation form with curly brackets.
Relation Representation: There are other ways too to write the relation, apart from set notation such
as through tables, plotting it on XY- axis or through mapping diagram.
Types of Relations: Different types of relations are as follows:
• Empty Relations
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• Universal Relations
• Identity Relations
• Inverse Relations
• Reflexive Relations
• Symmetric Relations
• Transitive Relations
Empty Relation: When there’s no element of set X is related or mapped to any element of X, then the
relation R in A is an empty relation also called as void. I.e R= ∅.

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For example: If there are 100 mangoes in the fruit basket. There’s no possibility of finding a relation R
of getting any apple in the basket. So, R is Void as it has 100 mangoes and no apples.
Universal relation: R is a relation in a set, let’s say A is a universal Relation because, in this full

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relation, every element of A is related to every element of A. i.e R = A × A.
It’s a full relation as every element of Set A is in Set B.
Identity Relation: If every element of set A is related to itself only, it is called Identity relation. I={(A,
A), ∈ a}.
For Example: When we throw a dice, the outcome we get is 36. I.e. (1, 1) (1, 2), (1, 3)….. (6, 6). From

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these, if we consider the relation (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3) (4, 4) (5, 5) (6, 6), it is an identity relation.

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Inverse Relation: If R is a relation from set A to set B i.e. R ∈ A X B. The relation R−1 = {(b, a) : (a, b) ∈
R}.
For Example,
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If you throw two dice if R = {(1, 2) (2, 3)}, R−1= {(2, 1) (3, 2)}. Here the domain is the Range R−1 and
vice versa.
Reflexive Relation: A relation is a reflexive relation If every element of set A maps to itself. I.e. for
every a ∈ A,(a, a) ∈ R.
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Symmetric Relation: A symmetric relation is a relation R on a set A if (a, b) ∈ R then (b, a) ∈ R, for all
a &b ∈ A.
Transitive Relation: If (a, b) ∈ R, (b, c) ∈ R, then (a, c) ∈ R, for all a, b, c ∈ A and this relation in set A is
transitive.
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Equivalence Relation: If and only if a relation is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, it is called an
equivalence relation.
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How to convert a Relation into a function?

A special kind of relation (a set of ordered pairs) which follows a rule i.e. every X-value should be
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associated with only one y-value is called a Function.

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Q. Explain the difference between Functions and Correspondences

Ans- Functions are single-valued. For a function f : X → Y , every x ∈ X is mapped to one and only
one point y ∈ Y , the point y = f(x). Thus, for example, when a consumer with a strictly quasiconcave
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utility function behaves according to the Utility Maximization Hypothesis, we can summarize his
market behavior by his demand function: the bundle he chooses is a (single-valued) function of the
price-list he faces. But suppose the consumer’s utility function is not strictly quasiconcave; for
example, suppose it is u(x1, x2) = ax1 + x2. Whenever the price-list satisfies p1 = ap2, this consumer is
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indifferent among all the bundles on the indifference curve {x ∈ R 2 + | ax1 + x2 = a˚x1 + ˚x2}. He will
of course choose a single bundle, but we can’t say which one it will be. We can say only that it will be
one of the many utility-maximizing bundles. This situation, in which we need to analyze behavior
that does not manifest itself in uniquely determined actions, is extremely common in economics and
game theory. And of course, if individuals’ behavior is not single-valued, then aggregate behavior
won’t be single-valued either. In the demand theory example above, the market demand function will
not be single-valued. We need a new analytical tool, the multivalued function or correspondence.
f : [0, 1] →→ [0, 1] is defined by f(x) =
[.6, .8] if x < 1 2 [.2, .8] if x = 1 2 [.2, .4] if x > 1 2.
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The correspondence in Example 6 is convex-valued and has a closed graph, and it therefore has a
fixed point. Its unique fixed point is xb = 1 2.
Economic models of individual behavior generally assume optimizing behavior. We typically use the
classical Weierstrass Theorem (“a continuous function on a compact set attains a maximum”) to infer
that there is actually an optimizing action available for the individual to choose. Is the individual’s
behavior continuous? That is, does the individual’s chosen action respond continuously to changes in
his environment? When we have a specific functional form for the objective function (e.g., a Cobb-
Douglas utility function), we can often obtain a closed-form expression for the behavioral function

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and determine directly whether it’s continuous. Even when we can’t obtain a closed-form behavioral
function, if the objective function is differentiable we can generally apply the Implicit Function
Theorem to establish continuity (and even differentiability) of the behavioral function.

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The preceding paragraph implicitly assumed that the individual’s behavior is described by a single-
valued function — that the optimizing action is always unique. We now have correspondences at our
disposal, so we can now deal as well with situations in which the optimizing action is not unique —
in which the behavioral function is actually a correspondence. The Maximum Theorem is used
pervasively in economics and game theory to infer that behavioral correspondences are continuous

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(in the sense that they have closed graphs) when the underlying objective function and environment

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satisfy certain conditions. In applications of the Maximum Theorem, the set X in the statement of the
theorem below is typically the action space; Y is the set of possible environments (the parameter
space); the function u is the objective function; the correspondence ϕ describes how the set of
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available actions depends upon the environment; and µ is the behavioral correspondence, describing
how the individual’s actions depend upon the environment he faces. In demand theory, for example,
X would be the consumption set (or a compact subset of it); Y would be the set of possible price-lists
(and possibly wealth/income levels); u would be the consumer’s utility function; ϕ would be the
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correspondence that determines the budget set from the market prices; and µ would be the
consumer’s demand correspondence
(1) In the demand theory application we typically assume that u is constant with respect to the
parameters y ∈ Y — the prices. So for this application a Maximum Theorem in which u depends only
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upon consumption bundles in X would be just fine.

(2) Including the prices as arguments of u does, however, allow us to analyze consumers whose
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utility depends upon prices as well as consumption levels.

(3) The theory of the firm is an example of an application where we need to have the objective
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function u depend upon the parameters. In this application, the elements of X are the firm’s feasible
production plans, i.e., input-output combinations. The elements of Y are again price-lists. The
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objective function u is the firm’s profit function — and note that profit does depend upon both the
firm’s choice of production plan (in X) and the market prices (in Y ). The correspondence ϕ describes
how the available plans depend upon prices — typically, this is assumed to be a constant
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correspondence: the production plans available to the firm depend upon its technological capabilities
but not upon prices. And of course the correspondence µ describes how the firm’s profit-maximizing
choices of input and output levels depend upon the market prices — the firm’s supply
correspondence for outputs and its demand correspondence for inputs.
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Q. Define Real Space and Point-Sets

Ans- Think of the number-line, with zero in the middle and the line extending on either side to
infinity. This line depicts the set of real numbers, denoted by R. Now think of an interval [a, b] which
contains all real numbers between a and b, including a and b. This interval can be thought to be a
subset of R. So now you understand the concept of a set of real numbers. Measurements in Economics
are usually done using subsets of real numbers, so you must realize this set of real numbers is very
important. We can think of these sets as set of points, because these are depicted as points on the
number line. We can call these sets as point-sets. The number line depicting the real numbers is called
the real line. Let us now make some use of the concept of the Cartesian product of sets. We have this
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set of real numbers, R. Can we have a Cartesian product of this set with some other set? Of course, we
can. What about if the other set is also R that is R is multiplied by itself? Then we get a set R×R that
can be denoted by R 2. What are the elements of this set? This set consists of all ordered pairs. How
do we depict this set graphically?
This is usually depicted by the usual x-y axes that you are familiar with. The x-axis depicts real
numbers from minus infinity to plus infinity. That is one R. But so does the y-axis. The y-axis also
depicts numbers from minus infinity to plus infinity, just that these are depicted in a vertical manner.
So the four quadrants that emerge consist of ordered pairs of numbers, the first number represents

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the number on the x-axis and the second number, the y-axis. The ordered pairs are written (x, y), that
is within parentheses, separated by a comma. However, take care not to confuse an ordered pair with
an open interval which is also depicted in the same way. Thus every ordered pair of real numbers is a

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member of R2 . R2 is also a pointset. Think of a consumer who consumes only apples and oranges.
Various combinations of apples and oranges are pairs of numbers. Each of this pair is a member of R2
. But for this, we have to write one of the commodities first, and the other commodity later. For
example, let the x-axis measure units of apples, and the y-axis measure units of oranges. Then (x, y)=
(3,4) would denote a bundle consisting of three apples and four oranges. Of course, we are measuring

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non-negative quantities of apples and oranges. So it is the north-east quadrant from the four

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quadrants formed by the intersection of the x and yaxes which is of relevance here. The north-west
quadrant is a collection of ordered pairs of which Relations and Functions x is the negative number,
and y the positive number; in the south-west quadrant, both numbers are negative and in the south-
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east quadrant x is positive and y is negative.
In any of the quadrants, the points are ordered pairs. Thus the set R2 is also a point-set, that is, a set of
points, with each point being an ordered pair. Keep in mind therefore, that although each ordered
pair is a collection of two numbers, the ordered pair itself is a single point and thus a single element
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in the set R2. So R2 is a set with ordered pairs as elements; each of these ordered pairs is a point, and
thus R2 is a point-set (a set of points). We have talked of two special point-sets, where the points are
real numbers (the set is R) and where the points are ordered pairs of real numbers (the set is R 2 ).
Can we extend the idea to sets whose elements are such that each element has more than two
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numbers? Certainly we can. We have already multiplied R with itself and got the set R2. Let us
multiply R with R2. Then we will get R3. This is R × R × R. Each element of this set is an ordered triple
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(x, y, z). So suppose we have three axes x-axis, y-axis and z-axis, then one element of the set R3 will
have a component of x and y and z . The entire set R3 is a three dimensional structure unlike R2 ,
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which is a plane and R, which is a line. But elements of each of these sets are points. You can
conceptualise R3 by thinking that our consumer consumes bananas along with apples and oranges. So
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each good (fruit) is now measured along an axis, and because there are three fruits, we need three
axes to depict these. Now think that there are n commodities (n> 3). Since we measure quantities of
each commodity along an axis, we will need n-axes! How will we obtain naxes? By having a Cartesian
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product of R with itself n times. So we have R × R × R × …× R (n times). We will get a new set Rn .
What is a typical element of this set? Each element of this set is an ordered profile of n numbers. We
can denote this by (x1, x2, x3… xn) . This is called an-tuple. It would definitely be difficult (actually
impossible) to draw a diagram depicting n-axes! But you can think of it in an abstract manner. Thus
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whether we consider R or R2 or R3 or Rn , all of these sets have points as elements and are called
point-sets. The elements of Rn , the n-tuples are also called vectors (even ordered pairs and ordered
triples are vectors). We will make great use of vectors in the second course on mathematical methods
in economics, which you will study in the next semester. Vectors play a very important role in
Economics, as we shall see.

Q. Define the concept of Domain and Range of a relation.

Ans. Domain: The domain of a function is the complete set of possible values of the independent
variable.
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In plain English, this definition means: The domain is the set of all possible x-values which will
make the function "work", and will output real y-values.
When finding the domain, remember:
• The denominator (bottom) of a fraction cannot be zero
• The number under a square root sign must be positive in this section
How to find the domain: In general, we determine the domain of each function by looking for those
values of the independent variable (usually x) which we are allowed to use. (Usually we have to
avoid 0 on the bottom of a fraction, or negative values under the square root sign).

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Range: The range of a function is the complete set of all possible resulting values of the dependent
variable (y, usually), after we have substituted the domain.
In plain English, the definition means:

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The range is the resulting y-values we get after substituting all the possible x-values.
How to find the range
• The range of a function is the spread of possible y-values (minimum y-value to maximum y-
value)
• Substitute different x-values into the expression for y to see what is happening. (Ask yourself:

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Is y always positive? Always negative? Or maybe not equal to certain values?)

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• Make sure you look for minimum and maximum values of y.
• Draw a sketch! In math, it's very true that a picture is worth a thousand words.
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8 BECC-102
Mathematical Methods for Economics-I
Guess Paper-2
Q. Define a statement and its negation
Ans. Negation: Sometimes in mathematics it's important to determine what the opposite of a given
mathematical statement is. This is usually referred to as "negating" a statement. One thing to keep in
mind is that if a statement is true, then its negation is false (and if a statement is false, then its

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negation is true).Let's take a look at some of the most common negations.
Negation of "A or B": Before giving the answer, let's try to do this for an example.
Consider the statement "You are either rich or happy." For this statement to be false, you can't be
rich and you can't been happy. In other words, the opposite is to be not rich and not happy. Or if we

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rewrite it in terms of the original statement we get "You are not rich and not happy."
If we let A be the statement "You are rich" and B be the statement "You are happy", then the negation
of "A or B" becomes "Not A and Not B."
In general, we have the same statement: The negation of "A or B" is the statement "Not A and Not B."

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Negation of "A and B": Again, let's analyze an example first: Consider the statement "I am both rich

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and happy." For this statement to be false I could be either not rich or not happy. If we let A be the
statement "I am rich" and B be the statement "I am happy", then the negation of "A and B" becomes "I
am not rich or I am not happy" or "Not A or Not B".
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Negation of "If A, then B": To negate a statement of the form "If A, then B" we should replace it with
the statement "A and Not B". This might seem confusing at first, so let's take a look at a simple
example to help understand why this is the right thing to do.
Consider the statement "If I am rich, then I am happy." For this statement to be false, I would need to
be rich and not happy. If A is the statement "I am rich" and B is the statement "I am happy,", then the
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negation of "A $\Rightarrow$ B" is "I am rich" = A, and "I am not happy" = not B.
So the negation of "if A, then B" becomes "A and not B".
Example: Now let's consider a statement involving some mathematics. Take the statement "If n is
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even, then $\frac {n}{2}$ is an integer." For this statement to be false, we would need to find an even
integer $n$ for which $\frac{n}{2}$ was not an integer. So the opposite of this statement is the
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statement that "$n$ is even and $\frac {n} {2}$ is not an integer."
Negation of "For every ...", "For all ...", "There exists ..."
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Sometimes we encounter phrases such as "for every," "for any," "for all" and "there exists" in
mathematical statements.
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Example: Consider the statement "For all integers $n$, either $n$ is even or $n$ is odd". Although the
phrasing is a bit different, this is a statement of the form "If A, then B." We can reword this sentence as
follows: "If $n$ is any integer, then either $n$ is even or $n$ is odd."
How would we negate this statement? For this statement to be false, all we would need is to find a
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single integer which is not even and not odd. In other words, the negation is the statement "There
exists an integer $n$, so that $n$ is not even and $n$ is not odd."
In general, when negating a statement involving "for all," "for every", the phrase "for all" gets replaced
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with "there exists." Similarly, when negating a statement involving "there exists", the phrase "there
exists" gets replaced with "for every" or "for all."
Example: Negate the statement "If all rich people are happy, then all poor people are sad."
First, this statement has the form "If A, then B", where A is the statement "All rich people are happy"
and B is the statement "All poor people are sad." So the negation has the form "A and not B." So we
will need to negate B. The negation of the statement B is "There exist's a poor person who is not sad."
Putting this together gives: "All rich people are happy, but there exists a poor person who is not sad"
as the negation of "If all rich people are happy, then all poor people are sad."
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Q. Identify connectives using conjunctions and disjunctions
Ans. Two types of connectives that you often see in a compound statement are conjunctions and
disjunctions, represented by ∧ and ∨, respectively. It’s important to know the difference between these
two connectives.
Identifying a conjunction: The conjunction, p ∧ q, puts the word and between two statements to
create a compound statement.
Consider the following statements:
(1) Chicago is a city in Illinois.

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(2) Red is a color in the American flag.
(3) 7 + 3 = 11.
(4) San Francisco is a city in Florida.

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Statements (1) and (2) are true, and Statements (3) and (4) are false.
Next, you construct a truth table for the conjunction p ^ q.

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Referring to the first line of Ts and Fs in the table, when both statements are true, their
conjunction p ^ q is true. For example, using Statements (1) and (2), the conjunction reads: “Chicago is
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a city in Illinois, and red is a color in the American flag.”
The second line of Ts and Fs says that when the first statement is true and the second is false, their
conjunction p ^ q is false. Using Statements (1) and (3), the conjunction reads: “Chicago is a city in
Illinois, and.”
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In the third line, when the first statement is false and the second statement is true, their
conjunction p ^ q is false. Using Statements (4) and (2), the conjunction reads: “San Francisco is a city
in Florida, and red is a color in the American flag.”
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And, finally, when both statements are false, their conjunction is false. Using Statements (3) and (4),
the conjunction reads: “7 + 3 = 11, and San Francisco is a city in Florida.”
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Basically, what you see here is that for a conjunction to be true, both of the component statements
have to be true.
Identifying a disjunction: The disjunction, p ∨ q, uses the word or to create a compound statement.
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The truth table for the disjunction is shown here:

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For a disjunction to be true, only one of the component statements needs to be true. Consider the
following compound statements representing the four rows.
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Both are true; the compound statement is true.

TF: “It rains in Hawaii, or all cows have seven legs.” The first statement is true, so the compound
statement is true.

The second statement is true, so the compound statement is true.

FF: “All cows have seven legs, or pigs can fly.” Both statements are false, so the compound statement
is false.
10 BECC-102
Q. Explain the concept of implications
Ans. An implication is the compound statement of the form “if p, then q.” It is denoted p⇒q, which is
read as “p implies q.” It is false only when p is true and q is false, and is true in all other situations.
pp qq p⇒qp⇒q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

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The statement pp in an implication p⇒qp⇒q is called its hypothesis, premise, or antecedent,
and qq the conclusion or consequence.
Implications come in many disguised forms. There are several alternatives for saying p⇒qp⇒q. The

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most common ones are
• pp implies qq,
• pp only if qq,
• qq if pp,

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• qq, provided that pp.
All of them mean p⇒qp⇒q.

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Implications play a key role in logical argument. If an implication is known to be true, then whenever
the hypothesis is met, the consequence must be true as well. This is why an implication is also called
a conditional statement.
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Example
If a father promises his kids, “If tomorrow is sunny, we will go to the beach,” the kids will take it as a
true statement. Consequently, if they wake up the next morning and find it sunny outside, they
expect they will go to the beach. The father breaks his promise (hence making the implication false)
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only when it is sunny but he does not take his kids to the beach.
If it is cloudy outside the next morning, they do not know whether they will go to the beach, because
no conclusion can be drawn from the implication (their father’s promise) if the weather is bad.
Nonetheless, they may still go to the beach, even if it rains! Since their father does not contradict his
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promise, the implication is still true.

Many students are bothered by the validity of an implication even when the hypothesis is false. It
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may help if we understand how we use an implication. Assume we want to show that a certain
statement qq is true.
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Solution
i. First, we find a result of the form p⇒qp⇒q. If we cannot find one, we have to prove
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that p⇒qp⇒q is true.

ii. Next, show that the hypothesis pp is fulfilled.
iii. These two steps together allow us to draw the conclusion that qq must be true.
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Consequently, if pp is false, we are not expected to use the implication p⇒qp⇒q at all. Since we are
not are going to use it, we can define its truth value to anything we like. Nonetheless, we have to
maintain [pg: consistence] consistency with other logical connectives.
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Q. Discuss the meaning of necessary and sufficient conditions

Ans. In logic and mathematics, necessity and sufficiency are terms used to describe a conditional or
implicational relationship between two statements. For example, in the conditional statement:
"If P then Q", Q is necessary for P, because the truth of P guarantees the truth of Q (equiv., it is
impossible to have P without Q).[1][2] Similarly, P is sufficient for Q, because P being true always
implies that Q is true, but P not being true does not always imply that Q is not true.[3]
In general, a necessary condition is one which must be present in order for another condition to occur,
while a sufficient condition is one which produces the said condition.[4] The assertion that a statement
is a "necessary and sufficient" condition of another means that the former statement is true if and only
Shrichakradhar.com 11
if the latter is true. That is, the two statements must be either simultaneously true, or simultaneously
[5]

false.[6][7][8]
In ordinary English, "necessary" and "sufficient" indicate relations between conditions or states of
affairs, not statements. For example, in a gender conforming family, being a male is a necessary
condition for being a brother, but it is not sufficient—while being a male sibling is a necessary and
sufficient condition for being a brother.
In the conditional statement, "if S, then N", the expression represented by S is called the antecedent,
and the expression represented by N is called the consequent. This conditional statement may be

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written in several equivalent ways, such as "N if S", "S only if N", "S implies N", "N is implied
by S", S → N , S ⇒ N and "N whenever S".[9]
In the above situation, N is said to be a necessary condition for S. In common language, this is

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equivalent to saying that if the conditional statement is a true statement, then the
consequent N must be true—if S is to be true (see third column of "truth table" immediately below). In
other words, the antecedent S cannot be true without N being true. For example, in order for someone
to be called Socrates, it is necessary for that someone to be Named. Similarly, in order for human
beings to live, it is necessary that they have air.[10]

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In the above situation, one can also say S is a sufficient condition for N (refer again to the third

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column of the truth table immediately below). If the conditional statement is true, then if S is
true, N must be true; whereas if the conditional statement is true and N is true, then S may be true or
be false. In common terms, "the truth of S guarantees the truth of N".[10] For example, carrying on from
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the previous example, one can say that knowing that someone is called Socrates is sufficient to know
that someone has a Name.
A necessary and sufficient condition requires that both of the implications and (the latter of which
can also be written as) hold. The first implication suggests that S is a sufficient condition for N, while
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the second implication suggests that S is a necessary condition for N. This is expressed as "S is
necessary and sufficient for N ", "S if and only if N ", or
The assertion that Q is necessary for P is colloquially equivalent to "P cannot be true unless Q is true"
or "if Q is false, then P is false".[10][2] By contraposition, this is the same thing as "whenever P is true, so
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is Q".
Example: In algebra, for some set S together with an operation to form a group, it is necessary
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that be associative. It is also necessary that S include a special element e such that for every x in S, it is
the case that e x and x e both equal x. It is also necessary that for every x in S there exist a
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corresponding element x″, such that both x x″ and x″ x equal the special element e. None of these
three necessary conditions by itself is sufficient, but the conjunction of the three is.
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The logical relation between P and Q is expressed as "if P, then Q" and denoted "P ⇒ Q" (P implies Q).
It may also be expressed as any of "P only if Q", "Q, if P", "Q whenever P", and "Q when P". One often
finds, in mathematical prose for instance, several necessary conditions that, taken together, constitute
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a sufficient condition (i.e., individually necessary and jointly sufficient[10]),

If P is sufficient for Q, then knowing P to be true is adequate grounds to conclude that Q is true;
however, knowing P to be false does not meet a minimal need to conclude that Q is false.
The logical relation is, as before, expressed as "if P, then Q" or "P ⇒ Q". This can also be expressed as
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"P only if Q", "P implies Q" or several other variants. It may be the case that several sufficient
conditions, when taken together, constitute a single necessary condition (i.e., individually sufficient
and jointly necessary),

Q. Describe the quantifiers

Ans. Suppose you're talking with your friend Mary, and she is describing two clubs that she has
joined. While describing the people in the first club, she says the following: 'There exists a member of
Club 1, such that the member has red hair.' In describing the second club, she says the following: 'For
all members in Club 2, the member has red hair.'
12 BECC-102
Based on these two statements, what can you tell me about the members' hair color in Club 1 and
Club 2? Well, let's take a look at her statements, and pick them apart.
In mathematics, the phrases 'there exists' and 'for all' play a huge role in logic and logic statements. In
fact, they are so important that they have a special name: quantifiers. Quantifiers are words,
expressions, or phrases that indicate the number of elements that a statement pertains to. In
mathematical logic, there are two quantifiers: 'there exists' and 'for all.'
There Exists & For All: The phrase 'there exists' is called an existential quantifier, which indicates that
at least one element exists that satisfies a certain property. In Club 1, Mary told you that there exists a

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member, such that the member has red hair. This tells us that at least one member of the club has red
hair, but not necessarily all of them.
The phrase 'for all' is called a universal quantifier, and it indicates that all of the elements of a given

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set satisfy a property. For Club 2, Mary said that 'for all members in Club 2, the member has red hair'.
This tells us that all of the members of Club 2 have red hair.
A couple of mathematical logic examples of statements involving quantifiers are as follows:
There exists an integer x, such that 5 - x = 2
For all natural numbers n, 2n is an even number: The first statement involves the existential

.
quantifier and indicates that there is at least one integer x that satisfies the equation 5 - x = 2. The

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second statement involves the universal quantifier and indicates that 2n is an even number for every
single natural number n.
Notation: There is a lot of explanation that goes on when writing mathematical proofs, statements,
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theorems, and the like. Because of this, mathematical notation is often used to shorten lengthy
explanations and give your writing hand a break.
What's really neat about this is that mathematical notation is the same in every language, so
mathematicians can still communicate even if they don't speak one another's language. Kind of
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poetic, huh?
We have symbols we use for both of our quantifiers. The symbol for the universal quantifier looks
like an upside down A, and the symbol for the existential quantifier looks like a backwards E.
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We can use this notation when writing statements that involve these quantifiers. For example,
consider the two mathematical logic examples of statements that we gave a moment ago.
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For all natural numbers n, 2n is an even number.

There exists an integer x, such that 5 - x = 2
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Q. Discuss the concepts of theorems and proofs

Ans. A postulate is a statement that is assumed to be true based on basic geometric principles. An
example of a postulate is the statement “through any two points is exactly one line”. A long time ago,
postulates were the ideas that were thought to be so obviously true they did not require a proof.
A theorem is a mathematical statement that can and must be proven to be true. You've heard the
word theorem before when you learned about the Pythagorean Theorem. Much of your future work
in geometry will involve learning different theorems and proving they are true.
What does it mean to “prove” something? In the past you have often been asked to “justify your
answer” or “explain your reasoning”. This is because it is important to be able to show your thinking
to others so that ideally they can follow it and agree that you must be right. A proof is just a formal
Shrichakradhar.com 13
way of justifying your answer. In a proof your goal is to use given information and facts that
everyone agrees are true to show that a new statement must also be true.
Suppose you are given the picture below and asked to prove that AD¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯≅DC¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯. This means
that you need to give a convincing mathematical argument as to why the line segments MUST be
congruent.

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Here is an example of a paragraph-style proof. This is similar to a detailed explanation you might
have given in the past.
AB¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯≅BC¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯ because it is marked in the diagram. Also, ∠ADB and ∠CDB are both right
angles because it is marked in the diagram. This means that △ADB and △CDB are right
triangles because right triangles are triangles with right angles. Both triangles contain

.
segment BD¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯. BD¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯≅BD¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯ because of the reflexive property that any segment is

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congruent to itself. △ADB≅△CDB by HL≅ because they are right triangles with a pair of congruent
legs and congruent hypotenuses. AD¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯≅DC¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯ because they are corresponding segments and
corresponding parts of congruent triangles must be congruent.
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There are two key components of any proof -- statements and reasons.
• The statements are the claims that you are making throughout your proof that lead to what
you are ultimately trying to prove is true. Statements are written in red throughout the
previous proof.
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• The reasons are the reasons you give for why the statements must be true. Reasons are
written in blue throughout the previous proof. If you don't give reasons, your proof is not
convincing and so is not complete.
When writing a proof, your job is to make everything as clear as possible, because you need other
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people to be able to understand and believe your proof. Skipping steps and using complicated words
is not helpful!
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There are many different styles for writing proofs. In American high schools, a style of proof called
the two-column proof has traditionally been the most common (see Example 3). In college and
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beyond, paragraph proofs are common. An example of a style of proof that is more visual is a flow
diagram proof (see Example 4). No matter what style is used, the key components of statements and
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reasons must be present. You should be familiar with different styles of proof, but ultimately can use
whichever style you prefer.
Learning to write proofs can be difficult. One of the best ways to learn is to study examples to get a
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sense for what proofs look like.

Rewriting Proofs
1. Rewrite the proof from the guidance in a two-column format. Using the picture below, prove
that AD¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯≅DC¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯.
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In a two-column proof, the statements and reasons are organized into two columns. All of the
same logic that was used in the paragraph proof will be used here. Look at the proof below
and compare it to the paragraph proof from the guidance.
14 BECC-102

Statements Reasons

AB¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯≅BC¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯ Given

∠ADB and ∠CDB are

Given
right angles

ΔADB and ΔCDB are definition of right

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right triangles triangles

BD¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯≅BD¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯ reflexive property

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ΔADB≅ΔCDB HL≅

CPCTC (corresponding

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parts of congurent

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AD¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯≅DC¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯
triangles must be
congurent)

There are a couple of points to note about two-column proofs.

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1. For a two-column proof, instead of saying “it is marked in the diagram” as a reason,
you just write “given”. You can use the reason “given” for anything that was stated
up front or marked in a diagram. Typically, the first few rows of your proof will
always be the “givens”.
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2. In a two-column proof you will use less words than in a paragraph proof, because
you are not writing in complete sentences.
• HL≅ and the other criteria for triangle congruence are always acceptable
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reasons if you have shown in earlier rows that each part of the criteria has
been met. You do not need to write a sentence explaining why you can
use HL≅.
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• Instead of stating right triangles are triangles with right angles as a reason,
you can just say “definition of right triangles”. Definitions are always
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acceptable reasons.
• CPCTC is an abbreviation for the statement “corresponding parts
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of congruent triangles are congruent”. The abbreviation was developed

because this reason is used often, and it can be cumbersome to write it over
and over.
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2. Rewrite the proof from the guidance in a flow diagram format. Using the picture below,
prove that AD¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯≅DC¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯.
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In the proof below, statements are written in red and reasons are written in blue. In a flow diagram,
the statements and reasons will be organized into boxes that are connected with arrows to show the
flow of logic. Look at the proof below and compare it to the two-column and paragraph versions of
the same proof.
Shrichakradhar.com 15

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There are a couple of points to note about flow diagram proofs:
1. Statements are written inside the boxes and the reasons the statements must be true are

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written below the boxes.
2. The arrows show the flow of logic. If two boxes are connected by arrows it means that the
statement in the lower box can be made because the statement in the upper box is true. Notice
that three boxes point towards the statement that ΔADB≅ΔCDB. This is because all three of

.
those statements were necessary for making the conclusion that the two triangles are

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congruent.
3. Just like in the two-column format, “given” is the reason used for anything that was stated up
front or marked in the diagram. The “given” reasons will be towards the top of the flow
diagram.
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4. Just like in the two-column format, you use abbreviations where possible. HL≅, other triangle
congruence criteria, CPCTC, and definitions are all acceptable reasons.
Identifying Mistakes : Each proof below has a mistake, can you figure out where the mistake is and
why it is a mistake? Using the picture below, prove that AD¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯≅DC¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯.
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PROOF A:
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Statements Reasons
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AB¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯≅BC¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯ Given

ΔADB≅ΔCDB HL≅
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CPCTC (corresponding parts of congruent triangles must be

AD¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯≅DC¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯
congruent)
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PROOF B:
△ABD looks to be the same size and shape as △CBD, so the two triangles are
congruent. AD¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯≅DC¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯ because they are corresponding segments and corresponding parts of
congruent triangles must be congruent.
PROOF A is incorrect because it is missing steps. You can't say that the two triangles are congruent
by HL≅ without having shown that all the parts of the HL criteria have been met (congruent leg pair,
congruent hypotenuse pair, right triangles). Be careful when writing proofs that you don't skip over
steps, even if the steps seem obvious.
PROOF B is incorrect because it did not convincingly explain why the two triangles have to be
congruent. Looking congruent is not a good enough reason. For proving triangles are congruent,
16 BECC-102
there are five triangle congruence criteria to use. If you don't have enough information to use one of
those five criteria, you can't prove that the triangles are congruent.
Remember, your goal when writing a proof is to convince everyone else that what you are trying to
show is true actually is true. If you skip steps or use reasons that aren't convincing, other people
won't believe your proof.

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Shrichakradhar.com 17
Mathematical Methods for Economics-I
Guess Paper-3
Q. Identify a dependent and an independent variable with example
Ans. A variable is something you're trying to measure. It can be practically anything, such as objects,
amounts of time, feelings, events, or ideas. If you're studying how people feel about different
television shows, the variables in that experiment are television shows and feelings. If you're studying

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how different types of fertilizer affect how tall plants grow, the variables are type of fertilizer and
plant height.
There are two key variables in every experiment: the independent variable and the dependent
variable.

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• Independent variable: What the scientist changes or what changes on its own.
• Dependent variable: What is being studied/measured.
The independent variable (sometimes known as the manipulated variable) is the variable whose
change isn't affected by any other variable in the experiment. Either the scientist has to change the

.
independent variable herself or it changes on its own; nothing else in the experiment affects or

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changes it. Two examples of common independent variables are age and time. There's nothing you or
anything else can do to speed up or slow down time or increase or decrease age.
They're independent of everything else.
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The dependent variable (sometimes known as the responding variable) is what is being studied and
measured in the experiment. It's what changes as a result of the changes to the independent variable.
An example of a dependent variable is how tall you are at different ages. The dependent variable
(height) depends on the independent variable (age).
An easy way to think of independent and dependent variables is, when you're conducting an
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experiment, the independent variable is what you change, and the dependent variable is what
changes because of that. You can also think of the independent variable as the cause and the
dependent variable as the effect.
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It can be a lot easier to understand the differences between these two variables with examples, so let's
look at some sample experiments below.
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Examples of Independent and Dependent Variables in Experiments: Below are overviews of three
experiments, each with their independent and dependent variables identified.
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Experiment 1: You want to figure out which brand of microwave popcorn pops the most kernels so
you can get the most value for your money. You test different brands of popcorn to see which bag
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pops the most popcorn kernels.

Independent Variable: Brand of popcorn bag (It's the independent variable because you are actually
deciding the popcorn bag brands)
Dependent Variable: Number of kernels popped (This is the dependent variable because it's what you
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measure for each popcorn brand)

Experiment 2: You want to see which type of fertilizer helps plants grow fastest, so you add a
different brand of fertilizer to each plant and see how tall they grow. Independent Variable: Type of
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fertilizer given to the plant Dependent Variable: Plant height

Experiment 3: You're interested in how rising sea temperatures impact algae life, so you design an
experiment that measures the number of algae in a sample of water taken from a specific ocean site
under varying temperatures.
• Independent Variable: Ocean temperature
• Dependent Variable: The number of algae in the sample
For each of the independent variables above, it's clear that they can't be changed by other variables in
the experiment. You have to be the one to change the popcorn and fertilizer brands in Experiments 1
and 2, and the ocean temperature in Experiment 3 cannot be significantly changed by other
18 BECC-102
factors. Changes to each of these independent variables cause the dependent variables to change in
the experiments.
Where Do You Put Independent and Dependent Variables on Graphs?
Independent and dependent variables always go on the same places in a graph. This makes it easy for
you to quickly see which variable is independent and which is dependent when looking at a graph or
chart. The independent variable always goes on the x-axis, or the horizontal axis. The dependent
variable goes on the y-axis, or vertical axis.
Here's an example:

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As you can see, this is a graph showing how the number of hours a student studies affects the score
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she got on an exam. From the graph, it looks like studying up to six hours helped her raise her score,
but as she studied more than that her score dropped slightly.
The amount of time studied is the independent variable, because it's what she changed, so it's on the
x-axis. The score she got on the exam is the dependent variable, because it's what changed as a result
of the independent variable, and it's on the y-axis. It's common to put the units in parentheses next to
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the axis titles, which this graph does.

There are different ways to title a graph, but a common way is "[Independent Variable] vs.
[Dependent Variable]" like this graph. Using a standard title like that also makes it easy for others to
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see what your independent and dependent variables are.

Are There Other Important Variables to Know?
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Independent and dependent variables are the two most important variables to know and understand
when conducting or studying an experiment, but there is one other type of variable that you should
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be aware of: constant variables.

Constant variables (also known as "constants") are simple to understand: they're what stay the same
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during the experiment. Most experiments usually only have one independent variable and one
dependent variable, but they will all have multiple constant variables.
For example, in Experiment 2 above, some of the constant variables would be the type of plant being
grown, the amount of fertilizer each plant is given, the amount of water each plant is given, when
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each plant is given fertilizer and water, the amount of sunlight the plants receive, the size of the
container each plant is grown in, and more. The scientist is changing the type of fertilizer each plant
gets which in turn changes how much each plant grows, but every other part of the experiment stays
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the same.
In experiments, you have to test one independent variable at a time in order to accurately understand
how it impacts the dependent variable. Constant variables are important because they ensure that the
dependent variable is changing because, and only because, of the independent variable so you can
accurately measure the relationship between the dependent and independent variables.
If you didn't have any constant variables, you wouldn't be able to tell if the independent variable was
what was really affecting the dependent variable. For example, in the example above, if there were no
constants and you used different amounts of water, different types of plants, different amounts of
fertilizer and put the plants in windows that got different amounts of sun, you wouldn't be able to say
Shrichakradhar.com 19
how fertilizer type affected plant growth because there would be so many other factors potentially
affecting how the plants grew.

Q. Describe a quadratic function

Ans. A quadratic function is one of the form f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, and c are numbers
with a not equal to zero.
The graph of a quadratic function is a curve called a parabola. Parabolas may open upward or
downward and vary in "width" or "steepness", but they all have the same basic "U" shape. The picture

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below shows three graphs, and they are all parabolas.

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All parabolas are symmetric with respect to a line called the axis of symmetry. A parabola intersects
its axis of symmetry at a point called the vertex of the parabola.
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You know that two points determine a line. This means that if you are given any two points in the
plane, then there is one and only one line that contains both points. A similar statement can be made
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about points and quadratic functions.

Given three points in the plane that have different first coordinates and do not lie on a line, there is
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exactly one quadratic function f whose graph contains all three points. The applet below illustrates
this fact. The graph contains three points and a parabola that goes through all three. The
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corresponding function is shown in the text box below the graph. If you drag any of the points, then
the function and parabola are updated.
Many quadratic functions can be graphed easily by hand using the techniques of stretching/shrinking
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and shifting (translation) the parabola y = x2 . (See the section on manipulating graphs.)
Example 1: Sketch the graph of y = x2/2. Starting with the graph of y = x2, we shrink by a factor of one
half. This means that for each point on the graph of y = x2, we draw a new point that is one half of the
way from the x-axis to that point.
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20 BECC-102

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Example 2: Sketch the graph of y = (x - 4)^2 - 5. We start with the graph of y = x2 , shift 4 units right,

.
then 5 units down.

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Exercise 1:
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(a) Sketch the graph of y = (x + 2)2 - 3. Answer

(b) Sketch the graph of y = -(x - 5)2 + 3. Answer
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Return to Contents: Standard Form: The functions in parts (a) and (b) of Exercise 1 are examples of
quadratic functions in standard form. When a quadratic function is in standard form, then it is easy to
sketch its graph by reflecting, shifting, and stretching/shrinking the parabola y = x2.
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The quadratic function f(x) = a(x - h)2 + k, a not equal to zero, is said to be in standard form. If a is
positive, the graph opens upward, and if a is negative, then it opens downward. The line of
symmetry is the vertical line x = h, and the vertex is the point (h,k).
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Any quadratic function can be rewritten in standard form by completing the square. The steps that
we use in this section for completing the square will look a little different, because our chief goal here
is not solving an equation.
Note that when a quadratic function is in standard form it is also easy to find its zeros by the square
root principle.
Example 3: Write the function f(x) = x2 - 6x + 7 in standard form. Sketch the graph of f and find its
zeros and vertex.
f(x) = x2 - 6x + 7.
= (x2 - 6x )+ 7.
Group the x and x terms and then complete the square on these terms.
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= (x2 - 6x + 9 - 9) + 7.
Shrichakradhar.com 21
We need to add 9 because it is the square of one half the coefficient of x, (-6/2) = 9. When we were
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solving an equation we simply added 9 to both sides of the equation. In this setting we add and
subtract 9 so that we do not change the function.
= (x2 - 6x + 9) - 9 + 7. We see that x2 - 6x + 9 is a perfect square, namely (x - 3)2.
f(x) = (x - 3)2 - 2. This is standard form.
From this result, one easily finds the vertex of the graph of f is (3, -2).
To find the zeros of f, we set f equal to 0 and solve for x.
(x - 3)2 - 2 = 0.

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(x - 3)2 = 2.
(x - 3) = ± sqrt(2).
x = 3 ± sqrt(2).

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To sketch the graph of f we shift the graph of y = x2 three units to the right and two units down.

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If the coefficient of x2 is not 1, then we must factor this coefficient from the x2 and x terms before

proceeding.
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Example 4: Write f(x) = -2x2 + 2x + 3 in standard form and find the vertex of the graph of f.

f(x) = -2x2 + 2x + 3.
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= (-2x2 + 2x) + 3.
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= -2(x2 - x) + 3.

= -2(x2 - x + 1/4 - 1/4) + 3.

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We add and subtract 1/4, because (-1/2)2 = 1/4, and -1 is the coefficient of x.

= -2(x2 - x + 1/4) -2(-1/4) + 3.

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Note that everything in the parentheses is multiplied by -2, so when we remove -1/4 from the

parentheses, we must multiply it by -2.

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= -2(x - 1/2)2 + 1/2 + 3.

= -2(x - 1/2)2 + 7/2.

The vertex is the point (1/2, 7/2). Since the graph opens downward (-2 < 0), the vertex is the highest

point on the graph.

Exercise 2:

Write f(x) = 3x2 + 12x + 8 in standard form. Sketch the graph of f find its vertex, and find the zeros off.
22 BECC-102
Alternate method of finding the vertex: In some cases completing the square is not the easiest way to

find the vertex of a parabola. If the graph of a quadratic function has two x-intercepts, then the line of

symmetry is the vertical line through the midpoint of the x-intercepts.

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The x-intercepts of the graph above are at -5 and 3. The line of symmetry goes through -1, which is the
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average of -5 and 3. (-5 + 3)/2 = -2/2 = -1. Once we know that the line of symmetry is x = -1, then we
know the first coordinate of the vertex is -1. The second coordinate of the vertex can be found by
evaluating the function at x = -1.
Example 5: Find the vertex of the graph of f(x) = (x + 9)(x - 5).
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Since the formula for f is factored, it is easy to find the zeros: -9 and 5.
The average of the zeros is (-9 + 5)/2 = -4/2 = -2. So, the line of symmetry is x = -2 and the first
coordinate of the vertex is -2.
The second coordinate of the vertex is f(-2) = (-2 + 9)(-2 - 5) = 7*(-7) = -49.
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Therefore, the vertex of the graph of f is (-2, -49).

Applications:
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Example 6: A rancher has 600 meters of fence to enclose a rectangular corral with another fence
dividing it in the middle as in the diagram below.
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As indicated in the diagram, the four horizontal sections of fence will each be x meters long and the
three vertical sections will each be y meters long.
The rancher's goal is to use the entire fence and enclose the largest possible area.
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The two rectangles each have area xy, so we have

total area: A = 2xy.
There is not much we can do with the quantity A while it is expressed as a product of two variables.
However, the fact that we have only 1200 meters of fence available leads to an equation that x and y
must satisfy.
3y + 4x = 1200.
3y = 1200 - 4x.
y = 400 - 4x/3.
We now have y expressed as a function of x, and we can substitute this expression for y in the
formula for total area A.
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A = 2xy = 2x (400 -4x/3).
We need to find the value of x that makes A as large as possible. A is a quadratic function of x, and
the graph opens downward, so the highest point on the graph of A is the vertex. Since A is factored,
the easiest way to find the vertex is to find the x-intercepts and average.
2x (400 -4x/3) = 0.
2x = 0 or 400 -4x/3 = 0.
x = 0 or 400 = 4x/3.
x = 0 or 1200 = 4x.

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x = 0 or 300 = x.
Therefore, the line of symmetry of the graph of A is x = 150, the average of 0 and 300.
Now that we know the value of x corresponding to the largest area, we can find the value of y by

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going back to the equation relating x and y.
y = 400 - 4x/3 = 400 -4(150)/3 = 200.

Q. Describe functions like exponential, logarithmic and inverse

Ans. Inverse Functions: An inverse function is a function that undoes another function: An inverse

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function is a function that undoes another function. If an input xx into the function ff produces an

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output yy, then putting yy into the inverse function gg produces the output xx, and vice versa
(i.e., f(x)=yf(x)=y, and g(y)=xg(y)=x ). More directly, g(f(x))=xg(f(x))=x, meaning g(x)g(x) composed
with f(x)f(x), leaves xx unchanged. A function ff that has an inverse is called invertible; the inverse
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function is then uniquely determined by ff and is denoted by f−1f−1.
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Instead of considering the inverses for individual inputs and outputs, one can think of the function as
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sending the whole set of inputs—the domain —to a set of outputs—the range. Let ff be a function
whose domain is the set XX and whose range is the set YY. Then ff is invertible if there exists a
function gg with domain YY and range XX, with the following property:
f(x)=y⇔g(y)=xf(x)=y⇔g(y)=x
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24 BECC-102
If ff is invertible, the function gg is unique; in other words, there is exactly one function gg satisfying
this property (no more, no fewer). That function gg is then called the inverse of ff, and is usually
denoted as f−1f−1.
Stated otherwise, a function is invertible if and only if its inverse relation is a function on the
range YY, in which case the inverse relation is the inverse function. Not all functions have an inverse.
For this rule to be applicable, each element y∈Yy∈Y must correspond to no more than one x∈Xx∈X; a
function ff with this property is called one-to-one, information-preserving, or an injection.
Example

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Let’s take the function y=x2+2y=x2+2. To find the inverse of this function, undo each of the operations
on the xx side of the equation one at a time. We start with the +2+2 operation. Notice that we start in
the opposite order of the normal order of operations when we undo operations. The opposite

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of +2+2 is −2−2. We are left with x2x2. To undo use the square root operation. Thus, the inverse
of x2+2x2+2 is √x−2x−2. We can check to see if this inverse “undoes” the original function by plugging
that function in for xx:
√(x2+2)−2=√x2=x(x2+2)−2=x2=x
Derivatives of Exponential Functions: The derivative of the exponential function is equal to the

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value of the function. The importance of the exponential function in mathematics and the sciences

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stems mainly from properties of its derivative. In particular:
ddxex=exddxex=ex
That is to say, exex is its own derivative.
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Functions of the form cexcex for constant cc are the only functions with this property.
Other ways of saying this same thing include:
• The slope of the graph at any point is the height of the function at that point.
• The rate of increase of the function at xx is equal to the value of the function at xx.
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• The function solves the differential equation y′=yy′=y.

• Exex is a fixed point of derivative as a functional.
If a variable’s growth or decay rate is proportional to its size—as is the case in unlimited population
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growth, continuously compounded interest, or radioactive decay—then the variable can be written as
a constant times an exponential function of time. Explicitly for any real constant kk, a
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function f:R→Rf:R→R satisfies f'=kff′=kf if and only if f(x)=cekxf(x)=cekx for some constant cc.
Furthermore, for any differentiable function f(x)f(x), we find, by the chain rule:
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ddxef(x)=f′(x)ef(x)ddxef(x)=f′(x)ef(x)
Logarithmic Functions: The logarithm of a number is the exponent by which another fixed value
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must be raised to produce that number.

The logarithm of a number is the exponent by which another fixed value, the base, must be raised to
produce that number. For example, the logarithm of 1000 to base 10 is 3, because 1000 is 10 to the
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power 3: 1000 = 10 10 10 = 103.

More generally, if x=byx=by, then yy is the logarithm of xx to base bb, and is
written y=logb(x)y=logb⁡(x), so log10(1000)=3log10⁡(1000)=3 log10(1000) = 3.
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The logarithm to base b=10b=10 is called the common logarithm and has many applications in science
and engineering. The natural logarithm has the constant ee (≈2.718≈2.718) as its base; its use is
widespread in pure mathematics, especially calculus. The binary logarithm uses base b=2b=2 and is
prominent in computer science.
The idea of logarithms is to reverse the operation of exponentiation that is raising a number to a
power. For example, the third power (or cube) of 2 is 8, because 8 is the product of three factors of
2: 23=2×2×2=823=2×2×2=8. It follows that the logarithm of 8 with respect to base 2 is 3, so log2 8 = 3.
Shrichakradhar.com 25

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A naive way of defining the logarithm of a number xx with respect to base b is the exponent by which
b must be raised to yield x. In other words, the logarithm of xx to base b is the solution y to the
equation: by=xby=x.
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This definition assumes that we know exactly what we mean by ‘raising a real positive number to a
real power’. Raising to integer powers is easy. It is clear that two raised to the third is eight, because 2
multiplied by itself 3 times is 8, so the logarithm of eight with respect to base two will be 3.
However, the definition also assumes that we know how to raise numbers to non-integer powers.
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What would be the logarithm of ten? The definition tells us that the binary logarithm of ten is 3.3219
because two raised to the 3.3219th power is ten. So, the definition only makes sense if we know how
to multiply 2 by itself 3.3219 times.
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For the definition to work, it must be understood that ‘raising two to the 0.3219 power’ means ‘raising
the 10000th root of 2 to the 3219th power’. The ten-thousandth root of 2 is 1.0000693171 and this
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number raised to the 3219th power is 1.2500, therefore ‘ 2 multiplied by itself 3.3219 times’ will be 2 x
2 x 2 x 1.2500 namely 10.
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Making this proviso, if the base b is any positive number except 1, and the number xx is greater than
zero, there is always a real number y that solves the equation: by=xby=x so the logarithm is well
defined.
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The logarithm is denoted “logb(x)”. In the equation y = logb(x), the value y is the answer to the
question “To what power must b be raised, in order to yield x?”. To define the logarithm, the base b
must be a positive real number not equal to 1 and x must be a positive number.
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Q. What is Cartesian Co-ordinate system?

Ans. A Cartesian coordinate system is a coordinate system that specifies each point uniquely in
a plane by a set of numerical coordinates, which are the signed distances to the point from two
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fixed perpendicular oriented lines, measured in the same unit of length. Each reference line is called
a coordinate axis or just axis (plural axes) of the system, and the point where they meet is its origin, at
ordered pair (0, 0). The coordinates can also be defined as the positions of the perpendicular
projections of the point onto the two axes, expressed as signed distances from the origin.
One can use the same principle to specify the position of any point in three-dimensional space by
three Cartesian coordinates, its signed distances to three mutually perpendicular planes (or,
equivalently, by its perpendicular projection onto three mutually perpendicular lines). In
general, n Cartesian coordinates (an element of real n-space) specify the point in an n-
dimensional Euclidean space for any dimension n. These coordinates are equal, up to sign, to
distances from the point to n mutually perpendicular hyperplanes.
26 BECC-102

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Cartesian coordinate system with a circle of radius 2 centered at the origin marked in red. The

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equation of a circle is (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r2 where a and b are the coordinates of the

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center (a, b) and r is the radius. The invention of Cartesian coordinates in the 17th century by René
Descartes (Latinized name: Cartesius) revolutionized mathematics by providing the first systematic
link between Euclidean geometry and algebra. Using the Cartesian coordinate system, geometric
shapes (such as curves) can be described by Cartesian equations: algebraic equations involving the
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coordinates of the points lying on the shape. For example, a circle of radius 2, centered at the origin of
the plane, may be described as the set of all points whose coordinates x and y satisfy the
equation x2 + y2 = 4.
Cartesian coordinates are the foundation of analytic geometry, and provide enlightening geometric
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interpretations for many other branches of mathematics, such as linear algebra, complex
analysis, differential geometry, multivariate calculus, group theory and more. A familiar example is
the concept of the graph of a function. Cartesian coordinates are also essential tools for most applied
disciplines that deal with geometry, including astronomy, physics, engineering and many more. They
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are the most common coordinate system used in computer graphics, computer-aided geometric
design and other geometry-related data processing.
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The adjective Cartesian refers to the French mathematician and philosopher René Descartes, who
published this idea in 1637. It was independently discovered by Pierre de Fermat, who also worked in
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three dimensions, although Fermat did not publish the discovery. The French cleric Nicole
Oresme used constructions similar to Cartesian coordinates well before the time of Descartes and
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Fermat.
Both Descartes and Fermat used a single axis in their treatments and have a variable length measured
in reference to this axis. The concept of using a pair of axes was introduced later, after Descartes' La
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Géométrie was translated into Latin in 1649 by Frans van Schooten and his students. These
commentators introduced several concepts while trying to clarify the ideas contained in Descartes'
work.
The development of the Cartesian coordinate system would play a fundamental role in the
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development of the calculus by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. The two-coordinate
description of the plane was later generalized into the concept of vector spaces.
Many other coordinate systems have been developed since Descartes, such as the polar
coordinates for the plane, and the spherical and cylindrical coordinates for three-dimensional space.

Q. Describe different expressions of a straight line

Ans. A straight line may be defined as the shortest distance between two points. A straight line can be
specified if we know either the two points through which the line passes, or one point on the line and
the slope (also called gradient) of that line. The simplest position in which a straight line can be
displayed on a co-ordinate system is that in which it is parallel to one of the axis. It is, therefore,
Shrichakradhar.com 27
reasonable that we begin with lines in these positions and find the corresponding algebraic equations.
Proposition 1:The equation of a straight line parallel to the x-axis and at a distance of |b| units from
it, is y = b. Consider a straight line AB drawn parallel to the x-axis that meets the y-axis at point C so
that OC = b units (see figure 5.4). Let P be any arbitrary point on AB such that PM is perpendicular to
the x-axis. Here, MP = OC = b units. AB represents a locus of all the points which are at a distance of b
units from the xaxis. Thus, it follows that y = b is the required equation of the line parallel to the x-axis
at a distance of b units from it.

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If b is positive, the line is above the x-axis; and if b is negative, the line is below the x-axis.
Proposition 2 : The equation of a straight line parallel to the y-axis and at a distance of |a| units from
it is x = a. If the line is to the right of the y-axis, a is positive, and if it is to the left, a is negative. Lines
other than those of the form x = Constant can be rewritten in the form y = mx + b, where m and b are
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constants. If x = 0, then y = m.0 + b = b, which indicates that the point (0, b) is on the graph of the line
parallel to the x-axis at a distance of b units from it. Since (0, b) is the point where the line crosses the
y-axis, it is called the y-intercept. The number m is called the slope of the line and is a measure of the
inclination of the line. If (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are the two points on the line y = mx + b, then equation
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for the line becomes y1 = mx1+b and y2 = mx2+b

Subtracting the top equation from the bottom equation:
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y2 −y1= (mx2+b) − (mx1+b) or y2− y1= m(x2 − x1)

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Q. Explain The Parabola
Ans. A parabola is a curve that looks like the one shown above. Its open end can point up, down, left

or right. A curve of this shape is called 'parabolic', meaning 'like a parabola'.

There are three common ways to define a parabola:

1. Focus and Directrix: In this definition we start with a line (directrix) and a point (focus) and

plot the locus of all points equidistant from each.

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2. The graph of a function: When we plot the graph of a function of the form y=ax2+b
the x2 term causes it to be in the shape of a parabola.
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3. As a conic section: A parabola is formed at the intersection of a plane and a cone when the
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plane is parallel to one side of the cone.

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