#college/sem4/os

Combined slides for

Unit 1 - Operating Systems: UE23CS242B - 2025
OPERATING SYSTEMS

Introduction, Computer System

Organization
Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science
 OPERATING SYSTEMS
Slides Credits for all the PPTs of this course

• The slides/diagrams in this course are an adaptation, combination, and

enhancement of material from the following resources and persons:

1. Slides of Operating System Concepts, Abraham Silberschatz, Peter Baer

Galvin, Greg Gagne - 9th edition 2013 and some slides from 10th edition
2018
2. Some conceptual text and diagram from Operating Systems - Internals and
Design Principles, William Stallings, 9th edition 2018
3. Some presentation transcripts from A. Frank – P. Weisberg
4. Some conceptual text from Operating Systems: Three Easy Pieces, Remzi
Arpaci-Dusseau, Andrea Arpaci Dusseau
OPERATING SYSTEMS

Introduction, Computer System Organization

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Need for Operating System

If OS is not developed then how will the application developers access the hardware?
 OPERATING SYSTEMS
General Definition

• An Operating System is a program that acts as an intermediary

between a user of a computer and the computer hardware
• It provides a user-friendly environment in which a user may easily
develop and execute programs. Otherwise, hardware knowledge
would be mandatory for computer programming.
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Genesis
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Operating System Goals

● Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier

● Make the computer system convenient to use

● Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner

● Manage resources such as

• Memory

• Processor(s)

• I/O Devices
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Why Study Operating Systems?

● Only a small percentage of computer practitioners will be involved in

the creation or modification of an operating system.

● However almost all code runs on top of an operating system, and thus
knowledge of how operating systems work is crucial to proper,
efficient, effective, and secure programming.

● Understanding the fundamentals of operating systems

 OPERATING SYSTEMS
Four Components of a Computer System (Abstract view)

© copyright Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne, 2013

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Computer System Structure

● Hardware – provides basic computing resources

4 CPU, memory, I/O devices

● Operating system

4 Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various applications and users

● Application programs – define the ways in which the system resources are used to solve
the computing problems of the users

4 Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database systems, video games

● Users

4 People, machines, other computers

OPERATING SYSTEMS
What Operating Systems Do

● Depends on the point of view user and system

● Users want convenience, ease of use and good performance

● Don’t care about resource utilization

● But shared computer such as mainframe or minicomputer must keep all

users happy.

● Maximize resource utilization.

● Available CPU time, memory, and I/O are used efficiently and that no

individual user takes more than her fair share

OPERATING SYSTEMS
What Operating Systems Do

● Users of dedicated systems such as workstations have dedicated resources but

frequently use shared resources from servers.

o resources like file, compute, and print servers are shared.
o operating system is designed to compromise between individual usability
and resource utilization

● Handheld computers are resource poor, optimized for usability and battery life.

● Some computers have little or no user interface, such as embedded computers in

devices and automobiles

 OPERATING SYSTEMS
System View

● OS is a resource allocator

● Manages all resources

● Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair resource use

● OS is a control program

● Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and improper use of

the computer
 OPERATING SYSTEMS
Defining Operating System

● The OS has many roles and functions

● The fundamental goal of computer systems is to execute user programs and to make solving
user problems easier.

● The common functions of controlling and allocating resources are then brought together into
one piece of software: the operating system

● “The one program running at all times on the computer” is the kernel.

● Everything else is either

● a system program (ships with the operating system) , or

● an application program.
 OPERATING SYSTEMS
Computer System Organization

● Computer-system consists of,

● One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common bus

providing access to shared memory

● The CPU and the device controllers can execute concurrently, competing
for memory cycles.

● memory controller is provided to synchronize access to the

memory.

© copyright Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne, 2013

 OPERATING SYSTEMS
Computer System Organization

A modern computer system

© copyright Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne, 2013

 OPERATING SYSTEMS
Computer System Operation
• I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently

• Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type

• Each device controller has a local buffer

• Each device controller has registers for action (like “read character from
keyboard”) to take

• CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers

• I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller

• Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by causing
an interrupt
 OPERATING SYSTEMS
Computer System Organization

• When the system is booted, the first program that starts running is a Boostrap.

• It is stored in read-only memory (ROM) or electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM).

• Bootstrap is known by the general term firmware, within the computer hardware.

• It initializes all aspects of the system, from CPU registers to device controllers to memory contents.

• The bootstrap program must know how to load the operating system and how to start executing that
system.

• The bootstrap program must locate and load into memory the operating system kernel.

• The first program that is created is init, after the OS is booted. It waits for the occurrence of event.

© copyright Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne, 2013

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Common Functions of Interrupts

• An operating system is interrupt driven

• Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service

routine generally, through the interrupt vector, which

contains the addresses of all the service routines

• Interrupt architecture must save the address of the

interrupted instruction

• A trap or exception is a software-generated interrupt

caused either by an error or a user request

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Interrupt Handling

• The operating system saves the state of the CPU by

storing registers and the program counter

• Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:

• polling

• vectored interrupt system

• Separate segments of code determine what action

should be taken for each type of interrupt

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Interrupt Timeline for a single process doing output

Interrupt
processing
times vary..

..and so do I/O
transfer times
 OPERATING SYSTEMS
Storage Structure

• Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can

access directly (Random access memory and typically volatile)

• Implemented with semiconductor technology called DRAM

• Computers use other forms of memory like ROM, EEPROM

• Smart phones have EEPROM to store factory installed programs.

 OPERATING SYSTEMS
Program Execution Model

• Typical instruction execution

• The processor fetches instructions from memory, decodes and executes

them.
• The Fetch, Decode and Execute cycles are repeated until the program
terminates.
• source
Image This:https://computersciencewiki.org/index.php/The_machine_instruction_cycle
is called the Von Neumann model of computing.
 OPERATING SYSTEMS
Storage Structure

• Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large nonvolatile storage capacity

• Hard disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic recording material

• Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into sectors

• The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device and the computer

• Solid-state disks – faster than hard disks, nonvolatile

• Various technologies and becoming more popular

• Flash memory used in camera’s PDA’s

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Storage Hierarchy

• Storage systems organized in hierarchy

• Speed

• Cost

• Volatility

• Caching – copying information into faster storage system; main memory

can be viewed as a cache for secondary storage

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Storage-Device Hierarchy
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Caching

• Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer (in hardware,

operating system, software)

• Information in use copied from slower to faster storage temporarily

• Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if information is there

• If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)

• If not, data copied to cache and used there

• Cache smaller than storage being cached

• Cache management important design problem

OPERATING SYSTEMS
I/O Structure

• Storage is a type of I/O device

• A large portion of operating-system code is dedicated to managing I/O
• As reliability and performance of a system is the main concern.
• General-purpose computer system consists of CPUs and multiple device controllers
that are connected through a common bus.
• Each device controller is in charge of a specific type of device.

• Device Driver for each device controller to manage I/O

• Provides uniform interface between controller and kernel

• Small Computer-Systems Interface (SCSI) controller enables to connect more
devices.
OPERATING SYSTEMS
I/O Structure

• A device controller maintains some local buffer storage and a set of

special-purpose registers.
• The device controller is responsible for moving the data between the
peripheral devices.
OPERATING SYSTEMS
I/O Structure

• After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon I/O completion

• Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt

• Wait loop (contention for memory access)

• At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no simultaneous I/O processing

• After I/O starts, control returns to user program without waiting for I/O completion

• System call – request to the OS to allow user to wait for I/O completion

• Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device indicating its type, address, and state

• OS indexes into I/O device table to determine device status and to modify table entry to include
interrupt.
 OPERATING SYSTEMS
Direct Memory Access Structure

• Used for high-speed I/O devices able to

transmit information at close to memory

speeds

• Device controller transfers blocks of data from

buffer storage directly to main memory

without CPU intervention

• Only one interrupt is generated per block,

rather than the one interrupt per byte

THANK YOU

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science Engineering
[email protected]
OPERATING SYSTEMS

Computer-System Architecture,
OS Structure and Operations
Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science
 OPERATING SYSTEMS
Slides Credits for all the PPTs of this course

• The slides/diagrams in this course are an adaptation, combination, and

enhancement of material from the following resources and persons:

1. Slides of Operating System Concepts, Abraham Silberschatz, Peter Baer Galvin,

Greg Gagne - 9th edition 2013 and some slides from 10th edition 2018
2. Some conceptual text and diagram from Operating Systems - Internals and
Design Principles, William Stallings, 9th edition 2018
3. Some presentation transcripts from A. Frank – P. Weisberg
4. Some conceptual text from Operating Systems: Three Easy Pieces, Remzi
Arpaci-Dusseau, Andrea Arpaci Dusseau
OPERATING SYSTEMS

Computer-System Architecture,
OS Structure & Operations

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science
 OPERATING SYSTEMS
Computer-System Architecture

• Most systems use a single general-purpose processor

• Most systems have other special-purpose processors as well.
• Device specific processors like disk, keyboard, graphic controller
• Special-purpose processors run a limited number of instructions
• Special-purpose processors are low-level components built into the hardware
• Managed by OS.
• OS monitors the status.
• Example Disk controller microprocessor
• Receives sequence of requests from CPU.
• Implements its own disk queue and scheduling algorithm
• Relieves the main CPU of the overhead of disk scheduling.
 OPERATING SYSTEMS
Computer-System Architecture

• Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance

• Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems

• Advantages include:

• Increased throughput

• Economy of scale

• Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Multiprocessors

Two types of Multiprocessor Systems

1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing – each processor is assigned a specific task.
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing – each processor performs all tasks
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture

• In SMP all processors are peers; no

boss–worker relationship exists between
processors.
• Each processor has its own set of registers, as
well as a private or local cache.
• All processors share physical memory.
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Multi-Core Design

• A recent trend in CPU design is to include multiple computing

cores on a single chip. Such multiprocessor systems are
termed multicore.

• More efficient than multiple chips with single cores because

on-chip communication is faster than between-chip
communication.

• One chip with multiple cores uses significantly less power

than multiple single-core chips.
A dual-core design with two cores placed on the same
chip

Command to know the number of cores, cache details

$cat /proc/cpuinfo|more
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Multi-Core Design

Command to know the number of cores, cache details

$more /proc/cpuinfo
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Blade servers

• Blade servers are a recent development in which multiple processor boards,

I/Oboards, and networking boards are placed in the same chassis.
• blade-processor board boots independently and runs its own
operating system.
• Some blade-server boards are multiprocessor as well, which blurs the
lines between types of computers.
• In essence, these servers consist of multiple independent
multiprocessor systems.
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Clustered Systems

• Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working together

• Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network (SAN)

• Provides a high-availability service which survives failures

• Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby mode

• Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running applications, monitoring each other

• Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)

• Applications must be written to use parallelization

• Some have distributed lock manager (DLM) to avoid conflicting operations (Ex: when multiple hosts
access the same data on shared storage)
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Clustered Systems

SAN allow many systems to attach to a pool of storage

General structure of a clustered system.

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Operating-System Structure - Multiprogramming

• Multiprogramming (Batch system) needed for efficiency

• Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times

• Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has

one to execute

• A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory

• One job selected and run via job scheduling

• When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job
 OPERATING SYSTEMS
Operating-System Structure - Multitasking

• Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs so

frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating
interactive computing

• Response time should be < 1 second

• Each user has at least one program executing in memory 🡺process

• If several jobs ready to run at the same time 🡺 CPU scheduling

• If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run

• Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Operating-System Operations

• Interrupt driven (hardware and software)

• Hardware interrupt by one of the devices

• Software interrupt (exception or trap):

• Software error (e.g., division by zero)

• Request for operating system service

• Other process problems include infinite loop, processes modifying

each other or the operating system
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Dual-Mode and Multimode Operation

• Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system components

• User mode and kernel mode

• Mode bit provided by hardware

• Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code or kernel code

• Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in kernel mode

• System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to user

• Increasingly CPUs support multi-mode operations

• i.e. virtual machine manager (VMM) mode for guest VMs

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Transition from user to kernel mode

• When a trap or interrupt occurs, hardware switches from user mode to

kernel mode (changes the state of the mode bit to 0).

• When the request is fulfilled, the system always switches to user mode (by

setting the mode bit to 1) before passing control to a user program.

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Timer

• Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources

• Timer is set to interrupt the computer after a specified period (fixed 1/60 sec or variable 1 msec to 1 sec)

• A variable timer is generally implemented by a fixed-rate clock and a counter.

• Operating system sets the counter (privileged instruction)

• Every time the clock ticks, the counter is decremented.

• When counter reaches zero, an interrupt occurs

• Timer can be used to prevent a user program from running too long (terminate the program)
THANK YOU

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science Engineering
[email protected]
OPERATING SYSTEMS

Kernel Data Structures and

Computing Environments
Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science
 OPERATING SYSTEMS
Slides Credits for all the PPTs of this course

• The slides/diagrams in this course are an adaptation,

combination, and enhancement of material from the following
resources and persons:

1. Slides of Operating System Concepts, Abraham Silberschatz,

Peter Baer Galvin, Greg Gagne - 9th edition 2013 and some
slides from 10th edition 2018
2. Some conceptual text and diagram from Operating Systems -
Internals and Design Principles, William Stallings, 9th edition
2018
3. Some presentation transcripts from A. Frank – P. Weisberg
4. Some conceptual text from Operating Systems: Three Easy
Pieces, Remzi Arpaci-Dusseau, Andrea Arpaci Dusseau
OPERATING SYSTEMS

Kernel Data Structures

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Kernel Data Structures
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Kernel Data Structures

Array:
• An array is a simple data structure in which each element can be accessed directly.

• Main Memory constructed with array.

• How the data is accessed?

• Items with multiple bytes are accessed as item number × item size

• But what about storing an item whose size may vary?

• what about removing an item if the relative positions of the remaining items must be

preserved?
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Lists

• Standard programming data structures are used extensively in OS

Singly linked list

• The items in a list must be accessed in a particular order.
• common method for implementing this structure is a linked list

• In a singly linked list, each item points to its successor.

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Lists

Doubly linked list

In a doubly linked list, a given item can refer either to its predecessor or to its successor.

Circular linked list

In a circularly linked list, the last element in the list refers to the first element, rather than
to null.
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Lists

Advantages:
• Linked lists accommodate items of varying sizes.
• Allow easy insertion and deletion of items
Disadvantages:
• Performance for retrieving a specified item in a list of size n is linear — O(n) , as it requires
potentially traversing all n elements in the worst case.
Usage:
• Lists are used by the some of the kernel algorithms
• Constructing more powerful data structures such as stacks and queues
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Stacks & Queues

Stack - a sequentially ordered data structure that uses LIFO principle for adding and removing items
• OS often uses a stack when involving function calls.

• Parameters, local variables and the return address are pushed onto the stack when a function is called

• Return from the function call pops those items off the stack

Queue - a sequentially ordered data structure that uses FIFO principle for adding and removing items
• Tasks waiting to be run on an available CPU are organized in queues

• Print jobs sent to a printer are printed in the order of submission

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Trees

• Data structure used to represent data hierarchically.

• Data values in a tree structure are linked through parent–child relationships

• Binary search tree

• ordering between 2 children: left <= right

• Search performance is O(n)

• Balanced binary search tree – (a tree containing n items has at most log n levels)

• Search performance is O(log n)

• Used by Linux for selecting which task to run next (CPU-Scheduling algorithm)
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Hash Functions and Maps

• Hash functions can result in the same output value for 2 inputs

• Hash function can be used to implement a hash map

• Maps or associates key:value pairs using a hash function

• Search performance is O(1)

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Bitmaps

Bitmap - string of n binary digits representing the status of n items

• Availability of each resource is indicated by the value of a binary digit

• 0 – resource is available

• 1 – resource is unavailable

• Value of the ith position in the bitmap is associated with the ith resource

• Example: bitmap 001011101 shows resources 2, 4, 5, 6, and 8 are unavailable; resources 0, 1, 3, and 7
are available

• Commonly used to represent the availability of a large number of resources (disk blocks)
 OPERATING SYSTEMS
Computing Environments – Traditional

• Stand-alone general purpose machines

• But blurred as most systems interconnect with others (i.e.,

the Internet)

• Portals provide web access to internal systems

• Network computers (thin clients) are like Web terminals

• Mobile computers interconnect via wireless networks

• Networking becoming ubiquitous – even home systems use

firewalls to protect home computers from Internet attacks

 OPERATING SYSTEMS
Computing Environments – Mobile

• Handheld smartphones, tablets, etc

• What is the functional difference between them and a

“traditional” laptop?

• Extra feature – more OS features (GPS, gyroscope)

• Allows new types of apps like augmented reality

• Use IEEE 802.11 wireless, or cellular data networks for

connectivity

• Leaders are Apple iOS and Google Android

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Computing Environments – Distributed

Distributed computing
• Collection of separate, possibly heterogeneous systems networked together
• Network is a communications path, TCP/IP most common
• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Wide Area Network (WAN)
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Personal Area Network (PAN)
• Network Operating System provides features between systems across network
• Communication scheme allows systems to exchange messages
• Illusion of a single system
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Computing Environments – Client-Server

Client-Server Computing

• Dumb terminals replaced by smart PCs

• Many systems now servers, responding to requests

generated by clients

• Compute-server system provides an interface to

client to request services (i.e., database)

• File-server system provides interface for clients to

store and retrieve files
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Computing Environments – Peer-to-Peer

• Another model of distributed system

• P2P does not distinguish clients and servers

• Instead all nodes are considered peers

• May each act as client, server or both

• Node must join P2P network

• Registers its service with central lookup service on network, or

• Broadcast request for service and respond to requests for service via discovery protocol

• Examples include Napster and Gnutella, Voice over IP (VoIP) such as Skype
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Computing Environments – Virtualization

• Allows operating systems to run applications within other OSes

• Vast and growing industry
• Emulation used when source CPU type different from target type (i.e. PowerPC to Intel x86)
• Generally slowest method
• When computer language not compiled to native code – Interpretation
• Virtualization – OS natively compiled for CPU, running guest OSes also natively compiled
• Consider VMware running WinXP guests, each running applications, all on native
WinXP host OS
• VMM (virtual machine Manager) provides virtualization services
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Computing Environments – Virtualization

• Use cases involve laptops and desktops running multiple OSes for exploration

or compatibility

• Apple laptop running Mac OS X host, Windows as a guest

• Developing apps for multiple OSes without having multiple systems

• QA testing applications without having multiple systems

• Executing and managing compute environments within data centers

• VMM can run natively, in which case they are also the host
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Computing Environments – Virtualization
 OPERATING SYSTEMS
Computing Environments – Cloud Computing

• Cloud computing environments

composed of traditional OSes, plus
VMMs, plus cloud management tools

• Internet connectivity requires

security like firewalls

• Load balancers spread traffic

across multiple applications
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Computing Environments – Cloud Computing

• Delivers computing, storage, even apps as a service across a network

• Logical extension of virtualization because it uses virtualization as the base for it

functionality.
• Amazon EC2 has thousands of servers, millions of virtual machines, petabytes of
storage available across the Internet, pay based on usage

• Many types

• Public cloud – available via Internet to anyone willing to pay

• Private cloud – run by a company for the company’s own use
• Hybrid cloud – includes both public and private cloud components
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Computing Environments – Cloud Computing

● Software as a Service (SaaS) – one or more applications available via the

Internet (i.e., word processor)
● Platform as a Service (PaaS) – software stack ready for application use via
the Internet (i.e., a database server)
● Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) – servers or storage available over
Internet (i.e., storage available for backup use)
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Computing Environments – Real-Time Embedded Systems

• Real-time embedded systems most prevalent form of computers

• Vary considerable, special purpose, limited purpose OS, real-time OS
• Use expanding
• Many other special computing environments as well
• Some have OSes, some perform tasks without an OS
• Real-time OS has well-defined fixed time constraints
• Processing must be done within constraint
• Correct operation only if constraints met
THANK YOU

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science Engineering
[email protected]
OPERATING SYSTEMS

Operating-System Services,
Design and Implementation
Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science
 OPERATING SYSTEMS
Slides Credits for all the PPTs of this course

• The slides/diagrams in this course are an adaptation,

combination, and enhancement of material from the following
resources and persons:

1. Slides of Operating System Concepts, Abraham Silberschatz,

Peter Baer Galvin, Greg Gagne - 9th edition 2013 and some
slides from 10th edition 2018
2. Some conceptual text and diagram from Operating Systems -
Internals and Design Principles, William Stallings, 9th edition
2018
3. Some presentation transcripts from A. Frank – P. Weisberg
4. Some conceptual text from Operating Systems: Three Easy
Pieces, Remzi Arpaci-Dusseau, Andrea Arpaci Dusseau
OPERATING SYSTEMS

Operating-System Services

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science
OPERATING SYSTEMS
A View of Operating System Services
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Services

• Operating systems provide an environment for execution of programs and services to programs and users

• Set of operating-system services provides functions that are helpful to the user:

• User interface - Almost all operating systems have a user interface (UI).

• Command-Line (CLI) - Command interpreters (shells)

• Graphics User Interface (GUI)
• Batch
• Program execution - The system must be able to load a program into memory and to run that program,
end execution, either normally or abnormally (indicating error)

• I/O operations - A running program may require I/O, which may involve a file or an I/O device
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Services

• File-system manipulation - The file system is of particular interest. Programs need

to read and write files and directories, create and delete them, search them, list file
Information, permission management.

• Communications – Processes may exchange information, on the same computer or

between computers over a network

• Communications may be via shared memory or through message passing

(packets moved by the OS)
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Services

• Error detection – OS needs to be constantly aware of possible errors

• May occur in the CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices, in user
program

• For each type of error, OS should take the appropriate action to

ensure correct and consistent computing

• Debugging facilities can greatly enhance the user’s and

programmer’s abilities to efficiently use the system
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Services

• Another set of OS functions exists for ensuring the efficient operation of the system itself

via resource sharing

• Resource allocation - When multiple users or multiple jobs running concurrently,

resources must be allocated to each of them

• Many types of resources - CPU cycles, main memory, file storage, I/O devices.

• Accounting - To keep track of which users use how much and what kinds of computer
resources
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Services

• Protection and security - The owners of information stored in a multiuser or

networked computer system may want to control use of that information,
concurrent processes should not interfere with each other

• Protection involves ensuring that all access to system resources is controlled

• Security of the system from outsiders requires user authentication, extends to

defending external I/O devices from invalid access attempts
OPERATING SYSTEMS
System calls

• System calls provide an interface to the services

made available by an operating system.

• These calls are generally available as routines written

in a higher level programming language or
assembly-language

• Example: Sequence of system calls used for copying

contents from one file to another
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Types of System calls

System calls can be grouped roughly into six major categories:

1. Process control

2. File manipulation

3. Device manipulation

4. Information maintenance

5. Communications

6. Protection
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Example of a system call

• A C program invokes the printf() statement

• The C library intercepts this call and invokes

the necessary system call write() in the
operating system

• The C library takes the value returned by

write() and passes it back to the user program
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Operating-System Design and Implementation

Design goals
• Start the design by defining goals and specifications

• Affected by choice of hardware and the type of system

• Requirements can be categorized as User goals and System goals

• User goals – operating system should be convenient to use, easy to learn, reliable,
safe, and fast
• System goals – operating system should be easy to design, implement, and maintain,
as well as flexible, reliable, error-free, and efficient
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Operating-System Design and Implementation

• Important principle to separate

Policy: What will be done?
Mechanism: How to do it?
• Mechanisms determine how to do something, policies decide what will be done

• The separation of policy from mechanism is a very important principle, it allows

maximum flexibility if policy decisions are to be changed later (example – timer to

prevent a user program from running too long)

• Specifying and designing an OS is highly creative task of software engineering

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Implementation

• Much variation
• Early OSes in assembly language
• Then system programming languages like Algol, PL/1
• Now C, C++
• Actually usually a mix of languages
• Lowest levels in assembly
• Main body in C
• Systems programs in C, C++, scripting languages like PERL, Python, shell scripts
• More high-level language easier to port to other hardware
• But slower
• Emulation can allow an OS to run on non-native hardware
THANK YOU

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science Engineering
[email protected]
OPERATING SYSTEMS

Process Management

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science
 OPERATING SYSTEMS
Slides Credits for all the PPTs of this course

• The slides/diagrams in this course are an adaptation,

combination, and enhancement of material from the following
resources and persons:

1. Slides of Operating System Concepts, Abraham Silberschatz,

Peter Baer Galvin, Greg Gagne - 9th edition 2013 and some
slides from 10th edition 2018
2. Some conceptual text and diagram from Operating Systems -
Internals and Design Principles, William Stallings, 9th edition
2018
3. Some presentation transcripts from A. Frank – P. Weisberg
4. Some conceptual text from Operating Systems: Three Easy
Pieces, Remzi Arpaci-Dusseau, Andrea Arpaci Dusseau
OPERATING SYSTEMS

Process Concept

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Process Concept

• An operating system executes a variety of programs:

• Batch system – jobs
• Time-shared systems – user programs or tasks
• Textbook uses the terms job and process almost interchangeably
• Process – a program in execution; process execution must progress in sequential fashion

• Program is passive entity stored on disk (executable file), process is active

• Program becomes process when executable file loaded into memory
• Execution of program started via GUI mouse clicks, command line entry of its name, etc
• One program can be several processes
• Consider multiple users executing the same program
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Process Concept

Structure of a process in memory

• The program code, also called text section.
• Includes current activity including program counter, processor
registers
• Stack containing temporary data
• Function parameters, return addresses, local variables
• Data section containing global variables
• Heap containing memory dynamically allocated during run time
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Memory Layout of a C Program
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Process State

As a process executes, it changes state

• New: The process is being created
• Running: Instructions are being executed
• Waiting: The process is waiting for some
event to occur
• Ready: The process is waiting to be
assigned to a processor
• Terminated: The process has finished
execution
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Process Control Block (PCB)
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Process Control Block (PCB)

Each process is represented in the operating system by a Process Control

Block (also called task control block)
• Process state – running, waiting, etc
• Program counter – location of instruction to next execute
• CPU registers – contents of all process-centric registers
• CPU scheduling information- priorities, scheduling queue pointers
• Memory-management information – memory allocated to the process
• Accounting information – CPU used, clock time elapsed since start, time
limits
• I/O status information – I/O devices allocated to process, list of open files
OPERATING SYSTEMS
CPU switch from process to process
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Process Scheduling

• Maximize CPU use, quickly switch processes onto CPU for time sharing
• Process scheduler selects among available processes for next execution on CPU
• Maintains scheduling queues of processes
• Job queue – set of all processes in the system
• Ready queue – set of all processes residing in main memory, ready and
waiting to execute
• Device queues – set of processes waiting for an I/O device
• Processes migrate among the various queues
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Ready Queue And Various I/O Device Queues
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Representation of Process Scheduling
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Schedulers

• Short-term scheduler (or CPU scheduler) – selects which process should be

executed next and allocates CPU
• Sometimes the only scheduler in a system
• Short-term scheduler is invoked frequently (milliseconds) ⇒ (must be fast)
• Long-term scheduler (or job scheduler) – selects which processes should be
brought into the ready queue
• Long-term scheduler is invoked infrequently (seconds, minutes) ⇒ (may be
slow)
• The long-term scheduler controls the degree of multiprogramming
 OPERATING SYSTEMS
Schedulers

• Processes can be described as either:

• I/O-bound process – spends more time doing I/O than computations,

many short CPU bursts

• CPU-bound process – spends more time doing computations; few very

long CPU bursts

• Long-term scheduler strives for good process mix

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Representation of Process Scheduling

• Medium-term scheduler can be added if degree of multiple

programming needs to decrease
• Remove process from memory, store on disk, bring back in from disk
to continue execution: swapping
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Context Switch

• When CPU switches to another process, the system must save the state of the old

process and load the saved state for the new process via a context switch

• Context of a process represented in the PCB

• Context-switch time is overhead; the system does no useful work while switching

• The more complex the OS and the PCB 🡺 the longer the context switch

• Time dependent on hardware support

• Some hardware provides multiple sets of registers per CPU 🡺 multiple contexts
loaded at once
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Operations on Processes

System must provide mechanisms for:

• process creation
• process termination
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Process Creation

• Parent process creates children processes, which, in turn

create other processes, forming a tree of processes
• Generally, process identified and managed via a process
identifier (pid)
• Resource sharing options
• Parent and children share all resources
• Children share subset of parent’s resources
• Parent and child share no resources
• Execution options
• Parent and children execute concurrently
• Parent waits until children terminate
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Process creation using fork()

• Address space
• Child duplicate of parent
• Child has a program loaded into it
• UNIX examples
• fork() system call creates new process
• exec() system call used after a fork() to replace the
process’ memory space with a new program
OPERATING SYSTEMS
C Program forking Separate Process
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Process Termination

• Process executes last statement and then asks the operating system to delete it using the exit() system call.

• Returns status data from child to parent (via wait())

• Process’ resources are deallocated by operating system

• Parent may terminate the execution of children processes using the abort() system call. Some reasons for
doing so:

• Child has exceeded allocated resources

• Task assigned to child is no longer required

• The parent is exiting and the operating systems does not allow a child to continue if its parent
terminates
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Process Termination

• Some operating systems do not allow child to exist if its parent has terminated. If a process
terminates, then all its children must also be terminated.

• cascading termination. All children, grandchildren, etc. are terminated.

• The termination is initiated by the operating system.

• The parent process may wait for termination of a child process by using the wait() system call.
The call returns status information and the pid of the terminated process

• pid = wait(&status);

• If no parent waiting (did not invoke wait()) process is a zombie

• If parent terminated without invoking wait , process is an orphan

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Process Termination

• What happens if parent process terminates before child process

• What happens if child process terminates before parent( i.e When

the parent process in sleep)

• How to know the state of the process?

THANK YOU

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science Engineering
[email protected]
UE20CS254
Operating Systems

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science
and Engineering
Operating Systems

System calls for Process Management

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Process Identifiers

• Every process has a unique process ID, a non-negative integer

• The process ID is the only well-known identifier of a process that is always unique
• It is often used as a piece of other identifiers, to guarantee uniqueness.
• Although unique, process IDs are reused. As processes terminate, their IDs become
candidates for reuse.
• Most UNIX systems implement algorithms to delay reuse, so that newly created
processes are assigned IDs different from those used by processes that terminated
recently
OPERATING SYSTEMS
fork()

• An existing process can create a new one by calling the fork function

• The new process created by fork is called the child process

• Return value in the child is 0
• Return value in the parent is the process ID of the new child
• Return value is -1 on error
• The child is a copy of the parent. The child gets a copy of the parent’s data space, heap,
and stack
OPERATING SYSTEMS
exit()

• A process can terminate normally in five ways

1. Executing a return from the main function
2. Calling the exit function.
3. Calling the _exit or _Exit function.
4. Executing a return from the start routine of the last thread in the process.
5. Calling the pthread_exit function from the last thread in the process
A process can terminate abnormally in three ways
6. Calling abort
7. When the process receives certain signals
8. The last thread responds to a cancellation request
• Regardless of how a process terminates, the same code in the kernel is eventually executed.
• This kernel code closes all the open descriptors for the process, releases the memory that it was using
OPERATING SYSTEMS
wait() and waitpid()

• A process that calls wait or waitpid can

• Block, if all of its children are still running
• Return immediately with the termination status of a child, if a child has terminated and is waiting for
its termination status to be fetched
• Return immediately with an error, if it doesn’t have any child processes
• If the process is calling wait because it received the SIGCHLD signal, wait will return immediately. But if we
call it at any random point in time, it can block.

Both return: process ID on success, 0 if state hasn’t changed or −1 on failure

OPERATING SYSTEMS
waitid()

• waitid() allows a process to specify which children to wait for.

• Instead of encoding this information in a single argument combined with the process ID or process group
ID, two separate arguments are used

• Returns: 0 if OK, −1 on error

OPERATING SYSTEMS
exec()

• When a process calls one of the exec functions, that process is completely replaced by the new
program, and the new program starts executing at its main function.
• The process ID does not change across an exec, because a new process is not created;
• exec merely replaces the current process — its text, data, heap, and stack segments — with a
brand-new program from disk.

• Return: −1 on error, no return on success

OPERATING SYSTEMS
getpid() and getppid()

• getpid() returns the process ID (PID) of the calling process.

• getppid() returns the process ID of the parent of the calling process.

• This will be either the ID of the process that created this process using fork() or if that
process has already terminated, the ID of the process to which this process has been
re-parented
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Race condition

• A race condition occurs when multiple processes are trying to do something with shared data and
the final outcome depends on the order in which the processes run.
• The fork function is a lively breeding ground for race conditions, if the logic after the fork either
explicitly or implicitly depends on whether the parent or child runs first after the fork.
• In general, which process runs first cannot be predicted
• A process that wants to wait for a child to terminate must call one of the wait functions.
• If a process wants to wait for its parent to terminate, a loop of the following form could be used:

• The problem with this type of loop, called polling, is that it wastes CPU time, as the caller is
awakened every second to test the condition.
• To avoid race conditions and to avoid polling, some form of signaling is used between multiple
processes
THANK YOU

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
[email protected]
OPERATING SYSTEMS

CPU Scheduling

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science
 OPERATING SYSTEMS
Slides Credits for all the PPTs of this course

• The slides/diagrams in this course are an adaptation,

combination, and enhancement of material from the following
resources and persons:

1. Slides of Operating System Concepts, Abraham Silberschatz,

Peter Baer Galvin, Greg Gagne - 9th edition 2013 and some
slides from 10th edition 2018
2. Some conceptual text and diagram from Operating Systems -
Internals and Design Principles, William Stallings, 9th edition
2018
3. Some presentation transcripts from A. Frank – P. Weisberg
4. Some conceptual text from Operating Systems: Three Easy
Pieces, Remzi Arpaci-Dusseau, Andrea Arpaci Dusseau
OPERATING SYSTEMS

CPU Scheduling

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science
OPERATING SYSTEMS
CPU Scheduling - Basic Concepts

• In a system with a single CPU core, only one process can run at a time. Others must wait
until the CPU is free and can be rescheduled.

• The objective of multiprogramming is to have some process running at all times, to

maximize CPU utilization.

• Several processes are kept in memory at one time.

• When one process has to wait, the operating system takes the CPU away from that
process and gives the CPU to another process. This pattern continues.

• Every time one process has to wait, another process can take over use of the CPU. On a
multicore system, this concept of keeping the CPU busy is extended to all processing
cores on the system.
OPERATING SYSTEMS
CPU Scheduling - Basic Concepts (Contd)

• A process is executed until it must wait, typically for the completion

of some I/O request.

• In a simple computer system, the CPU then just sits idle. All this

waiting time is wasted; no useful work is accomplished. With

multiprogramming, we try to use this time productively.

• Scheduling of this kind is a fundamental operating-system function.

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Alternating Sequence of CPU and I/O bursts

• Maximum CPU utilization obtained with

multiprogramming

• CPU–I/O Burst Cycle – Process execution

consists of a cycle of CPU execution and

I/O wait

• CPU burst followed by I/O burst

• CPU burst distribution is of main concern

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Histogram of CPU-burst Times

• The durations of CPU bursts have been measured

extensively. Although they vary greatly from process to

process and from computer to computer, they tend to
have a frequency curve similar to that shown in the Figure.
• An I/O-bound program typically has many short CPU

bursts. A CPU-bound program might have a few long CPU

bursts. This distribution can be important when
implementing a CPU-scheduling algorithm.
OPERATING SYSTEMS
CPU Scheduler

• Short-term scheduler selects from among the processes in ready

queue, and allocates the CPU to one of them

• Queue may be ordered in various ways
• It can be FIFO, Priority, queue, tree, unordered linked list
• The records in the queue are PCB’s of the processes
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Preemptive Scheduling
• CPU scheduling decisions may take place when a process

1. Switches from running to waiting state

2. Switches from running to ready state
3. Switches from waiting to ready
4. Terminates
• Scheduling under 1 and 4 is non-preemptive

• All other scheduling is preemptive

• Consider access to shared data

• Consider preemption while in kernel mode
• Consider interrupts occurring during crucial OS activities
• Scheduling algorithms used in windows3.x, non-preemptive
• Win 95 onwards used preemptive
• Preemptive Scheduling Algorithm is used in Macintosh OS
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Preemptive vs Non-Preemptive Scheduling

• Unfortunately, pre-emptive scheduling can result in race conditions when

data are shared among several processes. Ex: While one process is updating
the shared data, it is pre-empted so that the second process can run. The
second process then tries to read the data, which are in an inconsistent
state.

• A pre-emptive kernel requires mechanisms such as mutex locks to prevent

race conditions when accessing shared kernel data structures. Most modern
operating systems are now fully pre-emptive when running in kernel mode.
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Dispatcher

• Dispatcher module gives control of the CPU to the process selected by the

short-term scheduler; this involves:

• switching context
• switching to user mode
• jumping to the proper location in the user program to restart that
program
• Dispatch latency – time it takes for the dispatcher to stop one process and

start another running

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Scheduling Criteria

• CPU utilization – keep the CPU as busy as possible

• Throughput – # of processes that complete their execution per time unit

• Turnaround time – amount of time to execute a particular process (performance

metric)

• Waiting time – amount of time a process has been waiting in the ready queue

• Response time – amount of time it takes from when a request was submitted until the

first response is produced, not output (for time-sharing environment)

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Scheduling Algorithm Optimization Criteria

• Max CPU utilization

• Max throughput
• Min turnaround time
• Min waiting time
• Min response time
THANK YOU

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science Engineering
[email protected]
OPERATING SYSTEMS

Scheduling Algorithms

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science
 OPERATING SYSTEMS
Slides Credits for all PPTs of this course

• The slides/diagrams in this course are an adaptation,

combination, and enhancement of material from the following
resources and persons:

1. Slides of Operating System Concepts, Abraham Silberschatz,

Peter Baer Galvin, Greg Gagne - 9th edition 2013 and some
slides from 10th edition 2018
2. Some conceptual text and diagram from Operating Systems -
Internals and Design Principles, William Stallings, 9th edition
2018
3. Some presentation transcripts from A. Frank – P. Weisberg
4. Some conceptual text from Operating Systems: Three Easy
Pieces, Remzi Arpaci-Dusseau, Andrea Arpaci Dusseau
OPERATING SYSTEMS

FCFS and SJF Scheduling

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science
OPERATING SYSTEMS
First- Come, First-Served (FCFS) Scheduling

Process Burst Time

P1 24
P2 3
P3 3

• Suppose that the processes arrive in the order: P1 , P2 , P3

The Gantt Chart for the schedule is:

Waiting time for P1 = 0; P2 = 24; P3 = 27

• Average waiting time: (0 + 24 + 27)/3 = 17

OPERATING SYSTEMS
FCFS Scheduling (Cont.)

• Suppose that the processes arrive in the order: P2 , P3 , P1

The Gantt Chart for the schedule is:

• Waiting time for P1 = 6; P2 = 0; P3 = 3

• Average waiting time: (6 + 0 + 3)/3 = 3

• The average waiting time under an FCFS policy is generally not minimal and may vary

substantially if the processes’ CPU burst times vary greatly

OPERATING SYSTEMS
FCFS Scheduling (Cont.)

• Convoy effect - short process behind long process

• Consider one CPU-bound and many I/O-bound processes

• FCFS scheduling algorithm is non-preemptive. Once the CPU has been allocated to a

process, that process keeps the CPU until it releases the CPU

• FCFS algorithm is thus particularly troublesome for time-sharing systems, where it is

important that each process to get a share of the CPU at regular intervals.

• It is not desirable to allow one process to keep the CPU for an extended period
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Shortest-Job-First (SJF) Scheduling

• Associate with each process the length of its next CPU burst

• Use these lengths to schedule the process with the shortest time

• SJF is optimal – gives minimum average waiting time for a given set of processes

• The difficulty is knowing the length of the next CPU request

• Compute an approximation of the length of the next CPU burst

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Example of SJF Scheduling

Process Burst Time

P1 6
P2 8
P3 7
P4 3

● SJF scheduling chart

● Average waiting time = (3 + 16 + 9 + 0) / 4 = 7

Note: If FCFS scheduling is used, average waiting time = (0 + 6 + 14 + 21) / 4 = 10.25 ms.
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Determining Length of Next CPU Burst

● Can be estimated using the length of previous CPU bursts, using exponential averaging

where τn+1 is the predicted value for the next CPU burst,

The parameter α controls the relative weight of recent and past history in the prediction .

Commonly, α = 1/2, so recent history and past history are equally weighted

The value of tn contains most recent information

The value τn stores the past history

● Preemptive version is called shortest-remaining-time-first

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Determining Length of Next CPU Burst

Calculate the exponential averaging with T1 = 10, α = 0.5 and the algorithm is SJF
with previous runs as 8, 7, 4, 16.
Initially T1 = 10 and α = 0.5 and the run times given are 8, 7, 4, 16 as it is shortest job first,
So the possible order in which these processes would serve will be 4, 7, 8, 16 since SJF is a non-preemptive
technique.
So, using formula: T2 = α*t1 + (1-α)T1
we have,
T2 = 0.5*4 + 0.5*10 = 7, here t1 = 4 and T1 = 10
T3 = 0.5*7 + 0.5*7 = 7, here t2 = 7 and T2 = 7
T4 = 0.5*8 + 0.5*7 = 7.5, here t3 = 8 and T3 = 7
T5 = 0.5*16 + 0.5*7.5 = 11.8, here t4 = 16 and T4 = 7.5
Src: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/shortest-job-first-cpu-scheduling-with-predicted-burst-time/
th
So the prediction for 5 burst time will be T5 = 11.8
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Prediction of the Length of the Next CPU Burst
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Examples of Exponential Averaging

• α =0
• τn+1 = τn
• Most recent CPU burst does not count
• α =1
• τn+1 = α tn
• Only the actual last CPU burst counts
• If we expand the formula, we get:
• τn+1 = α tn+(1 - α)α tn-1 + …
• +(1 - α )j α tn-j + …
• +(1 - α )n+1 τ0

• Since both α and (1 - α) are less than or equal to 1, each successive term has less weight than its predecessor
OPERATING SYSTEMS
More examples

Suppose that the following processes arrive for execution at the times indicated. Each process
will run for the amount of time listed. In answering the questions, use non-preemptive
scheduling, and base all decisions on the information you have at the time the decision must be
made.

• What is the average wait time for these processes with the FCFS scheduling algorithm?
Average wait time = (0 + 8 + 12)/3 = 6.67

• What is the average wait time for these processes with the SJF scheduling algorithm?
Average wait time = (5 + 1 + 0)/3 = 2
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Example of Shortest-remaining-time-first

• Preemptive SJF Scheduling is sometimes called SRTF

• Now we add the concepts of varying arrival times and preemption to the analysis

Process Arrival Time Burst Time

P1 0 8
P2 1 4
P3 2 9
P4 3 5
• Preemptive SJF Gantt Chart

• Average waiting time = [(10-1)+(1-1)+(17-2)+(5-3)]/4 = 26/4 = 6.5 msec

THANK YOU

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science Engineering
[email protected]
OPERATING SYSTEMS

Scheduling Algorithms

Chandravva Hebbi
Department of Computer Science
 OPERATING SYSTEMS
Slides Credits for all PPTs of this course

• The slides/diagrams in this course are an adaptation,

combination, and enhancement of material from the following
resources and persons:

1. Slides of Operating System Concepts, Abraham Silberschatz,

Peter Baer Galvin, Greg Gagne - 9th edition 2013 and some
slides from 10th edition 2018
2. Some conceptual text and diagram from Operating Systems -
Internals and Design Principles, William Stallings, 9th edition
2018
3. Some presentation transcripts from A. Frank – P. Weisberg
4. Some conceptual text from Operating Systems: Three Easy
Pieces, Remzi Arpaci-Dusseau, Andrea Arpaci Dusseau
OPERATING SYSTEMS

Priority and Round Robin Scheduling

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Priority Scheduling

• A priority number (integer) is associated with each process

• The CPU is allocated to the process with the highest priority (smallest integer ≡ highest
priority)
• Preemptive
• Nonpreemptive

• SJF is priority scheduling where priority is the inverse of predicted next CPU burst time

• Problem ≡ Starvation – low priority processes may never execute

• Solution ≡ Aging – as time progresses increase the priority of the process

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Example of Priority Scheduling

Process Burst TimeT Priority

P1 10 3
P2 1 1
P3 2 4
P4 1 5
P5 5 2

● Priority Scheduling Gantt chart

● Average waiting time = (6 + 0 + 16 + 18 + 1) / 5 = 41/5 = 8.2

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Round-Robin Scheduling

• Round-robin (RR) scheduling algorithm is designed especially for timesharing

systems.
• It is similar to FCFS scheduling, but preemption is added to enable the
system to switch between processes
• A small unit of time, called a time quantum or time slice, is defined.
• A time quantum is generally from 10 to 100 milliseconds in length
• The ready queue is treated as a circular queue
• The CPU scheduler goes around the ready queue, allocating the CPU to each
process for a time interval of up to 1 time quantum
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Round-Robin Scheduling Example

• Consider the following set of processes that arrive at time 0, with the length of the CPU
burst given in milliseconds:

Process Burst TimeT

P1 24
P2 3
P3 3
• RR scheduling Gantt chart using a time quantum of 4 milliseconds

• P1 waits for 6 milliseconds (10 - 4)

• P2 waits for 4 milliseconds
• P3 waits for 7 milliseconds.

• The average waiting time = (6 + 4 + 7)/3 = 5.66 milliseconds

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Round-Robin Scheduling Performance

• If there are n processes in the ready queue and the time quantum is q, then each
process gets 1/n of the CPU time in chunks of at most q time units.
• Each process must wait no longer than (n − 1) × q time units until its next time
quantum.
• For example, with five processes and a time quantum of 20 milliseconds, each
process will get up to 20 milliseconds every 100 milliseconds.
• Performance of the RR algorithm depends heavily on the size of the time quantum
• If the time quantum is extremely large, the RR policy is the same as the FCFS policy
• If the time quantum is extremely small, the RR approach can result in a large
number of context switches
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Example of Round-Robin Scheduling Performance

• Consider only one process of 10 time units.

• If the quantum is 12 time units, the process finishes in
less than 1 time quantum, with no overhead.
• If the quantum is 6 time units, the process requires 2
quanta, resulting in one context switch.
• If the time quantum is 1 time unit, then nine context
switches will occur, slowing the execution of the process
accordingly

• In practice, most modern systems have time quanta ranging from 10 to 100 milliseconds.
• The time required for a context switch is typically less than 10 microseconds. Thus, the
context-switch time is a small fraction of the time quantum.
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Turnaround Time Varies With The Time Quantum

80% of CPU bursts should be shorter than the time quantum

THANK YOU

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science Engineering
[email protected]
OPERATING SYSTEMS

Scheduling Algorithms

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science
 OPERATING SYSTEMS
Slides Credits for all the PPTs of this course

• The slides/diagrams in this course are an adaptation,

combination, and enhancement of material from the following
resources and persons:

1. Slides of Operating System Concepts, Abraham Silberschatz,

Peter Baer Galvin, Greg Gagne - 9th edition 2013 and some
slides from 10th edition 2018
2. Some conceptual text and diagram from Operating Systems -
Internals and Design Principles, William Stallings, 9th edition
2018
3. Some presentation transcripts from A. Frank – P. Weisberg
4. Some conceptual text from Operating Systems: Three Easy
Pieces, Remzi Arpaci-Dusseau, Andrea Arpaci Dusseau
OPERATING SYSTEMS

Multi-level Queue & Feedback Queue Scheduling

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Multilevel Queue

• Ready queue is partitioned into separate queues:

• foreground (interactive)
• background (batch)
• Process permanently assigned to a queue
• Each queue has its own scheduling algorithm:
• foreground – RR
• background – FCFS
• In addition, scheduling must be done between the queues
• Fixed priority scheduling; (serve all from foreground then from background). Possibility of starvation.
• Time slice – each queue gets a certain amount of CPU time which it can schedule amongst its
processes; i.e., 80% to foreground in RR, 20% to background in FCFS
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Multilevel Queue Scheduling

• Each queue has absolute priority over

lower-priority queues
• No process in the batch queue, for example,
could run unless the queues for system
processes, interactive processes, and interactive
editing processes were all empty
• If an interactive editing process entered the
ready queue while a batch process was running,
the batch process would be preempted.
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Multilevel Feedback Queue

• A process can move between the various queues; aging can be implemented this

way

• Multilevel-feedback-queue scheduler defined by the following parameters:

• Number of queues

• Scheduling algorithms for each queue

• Method used to determine when to upgrade a process

• Method used to determine when to demote a process

• Method used to determine which queue a process will enter when that process needs service
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Example of Multilevel Feedback Queue

• Three queues:
• Q0 – RR with time quantum 8 milliseconds
• Q1 – RR time quantum 16 milliseconds
• Q2 – FCFS

• Scheduling
• A new job enters queue Q0 which is served FCFS
• When it gains CPU, job receives 8 milliseconds
• If it does not finish in 8 milliseconds, job is moved to queue Q1
• At Q1 job is again served FCFS and receives 16 additional milliseconds
• If it still does not complete, it is preempted and moved to queue Q2
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Multilevel Feedback Queue

• Three queues:
• Q0 – RR with time quantum 8 milliseconds
• Q1 – RR time quantum 16 milliseconds
• Q2 – FCFS

• The scheduler first executes all processes in queue 0.

• Only when queue 0 is empty will it execute processes in queue 1.
• Processes in queue 2 will be executed only if queues 0 and 1 are empty.
• A process that arrives for queue 1 will preempt a process in queue 2.
• A process in queue 1 will in turn be preempted by a process arriving in queue 0.
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Multiple-processor Scheduling
If multiple CPUs are available, load sharing becomes possible, but scheduling problems become
correspondingly more complex.
1. Asymmetric multiprocessing
• CPU scheduling in a multiprocessor system has all scheduling decisions, I/O processing, and other
system activities handled by a single processor—the master server.
• The other processors execute only user code.
• Asymmetric multiprocessing is simple because only one processor accesses the system data
structures, reducing the need for data sharing.
2. Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP)
• Each processor is self-scheduling. All processes may be in a common ready queue, or each
processor may have its own private queue of ready processes.
• All modern operating systems support SMP
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Processor Affinity

• When a process has been running on a specific processor, the data most recently accessed by
the process populate the cache of the processor.
• Successive memory accesses by the process are often satisfied in cache memory.
• If the process migrates to another processor, the contents of cache memory must be
invalidated for the first processor and the cache for the second processor must be repopulated.
• Because of the high cost of invalidating and repopulating caches, most SMP systems try to
avoid migration of processes from one processor to another and instead attempt to keep a
process running on the same processor. This is known as processor affinity
• Soft affinity - OS will attempt to keep a process on a single processor, but it is possible for a process to
migrate between processors
• Hard affinity – OS provides system calls for process to specify a subset of processors on which it may
run
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Load Balancing

• On SMP systems, it is important to keep the workload balanced among all processors to fully
utilize the benefits of having more than one processor.
• Load balancing attempts to keep the workload evenly distributed across all processors in an
SMP system.
• Load balancing is typically necessary only on systems where each processor has its own private
queue of eligible processes to execute
1. Push migration - a specific task periodically checks the load on each processor and if it finds
an imbalance, evenly distributes the load by moving (or pushing) processes from overloaded
to idle or less-busy processors
2. Pull migration occurs when an idle processor pulls a waiting task from a busy processor.
• Push and pull migration need not be mutually exclusive
THANK YOU

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science Engineering
[email protected]
OPERATING SYSTEMS

Case Study: Linux/ Windows

Scheduling Policies.
Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science
 OPERATING SYSTEMS
Slides Credits for all PPTs of this course

• The slides/diagrams in this course are an adaptation,

combination, and enhancement of material from the following
resources and persons:

1. Slides of Operating System Concepts, Abraham Silberschatz,

Peter Baer Galvin, Greg Gagne - 9th edition 2013 and some
slides from 10th edition 2018
2. Some conceptual text and diagram from Operating Systems -
Internals and Design Principles, William Stallings, 9th edition
2018
3. Some presentation transcripts from A. Frank – P. Weisberg
4. Some conceptual text from Operating Systems: Three Easy
Pieces, Remzi Arpaci-Dusseau, Andrea Arpaci Dusseau
OPERATING SYSTEMS

Case Study: Linux/ Windows Scheduling Policies

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Linux Scheduling Through Version 2.5

• Process Scheduling in Linux

• Linux kernel ran a variation of standard UNIX scheduling algorithm

• It did not support for SMP systems

• It had poor performance for larger processes

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Linux Scheduling Version 2.5

• Kernel moved to constant order O(1) scheduling time

• Supported SMP systems - processor affinity and load balancing between processors with

good performance

• Poor response times for the interactive processes that are common on many desktop

computer systems
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Linux Scheduling in Version 2.6.23 +

• Completely Fair Scheduler (CFS) is the default scheduling algorithm.

• Based on Scheduling classes

• Each class is assigned a specific priority.

• Using different scheduling classes, the kernel can accommodate different scheduling algorithms

• Scheduler picks the highest priority task in the highest scheduling class

• Two scheduling classes are included, others can be added

1. A scheduling class with CFS algorithm

2. A real-time scheduling class

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Linux Scheduling in Version 2.6.23 + (Cont.)

Completely Fair Scheduler (CFS)

• CFS scheduler assigns a proportion of CPU processing time to each task.

• Proportion calculated based on nice value which ranges from -20 to +19

• A numerically lower nice value indicates a higher relative priority.

• Tasks with lower nice values receive a higher proportion of CPU processing time than tasks with higher
nice values

• Calculates target latency – interval of time during which task should run at least once

• Proportions of CPU time are allocated from the value of targeted latency computed.

• Target latency can increase if number of active tasks increase

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Linux Scheduling in Version 2.6.23 + (Cont.)

Completely Fair Scheduler (CFS)

• CFS scheduler doesn’t directly assign priorities

• CFS scheduler maintains per task virtual run time in variable vruntime

• Associated with decay factor based on priority of task – lower priority is higher decay
rate

• Normal default priority yields virtual run time = actual run time

• To decide next task to run, scheduler picks task with lowest virtual run time
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Linux Scheduling in Version 2.6.23 + (Cont.)

Completely Fair Scheduler (CFS)

• Each runnable task is placed in a balanced binary search

tree whose key is based on the value of vruntime

• When a task becomes runnable, it is added to the tree

• When a task is not runnable, it is deleted from the tree

• Navigating the tree to discover the task to run (leftmost

node) will require O(lg N) operations (where N is the

number of nodes in the tree).
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Linux Scheduling in Version 2.6.23 + (Cont.)

Completely Fair Scheduler (CFS)

• Assume that two tasks have the same nice values.

• One task is I/O-bound and the other is CPU-bound

• The value of vruntime will be lower for the I/O-bound task than for the CPU-bound

task, giving the I/O-bound task higher priority than the CPU-bound task.

• If the CPU-bound task is executing when the I/O-bound task becomes eligible to run,

the I/O-bound task will preempt the CPU-bound task.

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Linux Real Time Scheduling

• Real-time scheduling according to POSIX.1b

• Real-time tasks have static priorities (0-99)
• Real-time plus normal map into global priority scheme
• Nice value of -20 maps to global priority 100
• Nice value of +19 maps to priority 139
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Windows Scheduling

• Uses priority based pre-emptive scheduling algorithm

• Scheduler ensures that the highest-priority thread will always run
• Windows kernel that handles scheduling is called the dispatcher
• Thread selected by the dispatcher runs until it is preempted by a higher-priority thread
or until it terminates or until its time quantum ends or until it calls a blocking system
call
• Dispatcher uses a 32-level priority scheme
• Variable class is 1-15, real-time class is 16-31
• Priority 0 is memory-management thread
• Queue for each priority class
• If no run-able thread, runs idle thread
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Windows Priority Classes

• Windows API identifies several priority classes to which a process can belong
• REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS, HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS,
ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS,NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS,
BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS, IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS
• All are variable except REALTIME
• A thread within a given priority class has a relative priority
• TIME_CRITICAL, HIGHEST, ABOVE_NORMAL, NORMAL, BELOW_NORMAL, LOWEST,
IDLE
• Priority class and relative priority combine to give numeric priority
• Base priority is NORMAL within the class
• If quantum expires, priority lowered, but never below base
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Windows Thread Priorities

• A thread within a given priority class also has a relative priority

• Priority of each thread is based on both the priority class it belongs to (top row in the
diagram) and its relative priority within that class (left column in the diagram)
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Windows Priority Classes (Cont.)

• If wait occurs, priority boosted depending on what was waited for

• Windows distinguishes between foreground process and background processes
• Foreground processes given 3x priority boost
• This priority boost gives the foreground process three times longer to run before a
time-sharing preemption occurs.
THANK YOU

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science Engineering
[email protected]
Operating Systems
UE22CS242B

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science
and Engineering
Operating Systems

Bash shell and cron

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
OPERATING SYSTEMS
What is a shell?

• The shell is the Linux command line interpreter.

• Shell provides an interface between the user and the kernel
and executes programs called commands.
• For example, if a user enters ls then the shell executes
the ls command.
• The shell can also execute other programs such as applications,
scripts, and user programs
OPERATING SYSTEMS
What is a shell?

• Instructions entered in response to the shell prompt have the following

syntax: command [arg1] [arg2] .. [argn]
• The brackets [] indicate that the arguments are optional. Many commands can be executed with or without
arguments
• The shell parses the words or tokens (commandname , options, filesnames[s]) and gets the kernel to
execute the commands assuming the syntax is correct.
• Typically, the shell processes the complete line after a carriage return (cr) (carriage return) is entered and
finds the program that the command line wants executing.
• The shell looks for the command to execute either in the specified directory if given (./mycommand) or it
searches through a list of directories depending on your $PATH variable.
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Various shells

• There are a number of shells available to a Linux user:

sh - This is known as the Borne Shell and is the original shell
csh, tcsh - These are well-known and widely used derivatives of the Borne shell
ksh - The popular Korn shell
bash - The Borne Again SHell is the most popular shell used for linux and developed by GNU

echo $SHELL
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Environment variables

• Environmental variables are variables that are defined for the current shell and are
inherited by any child shells or processes.
• Environmental variables are used to pass information into processes that are spawned from
the shell.
• Shell variables are variables that are contained exclusively within the shell in which they
were set or defined.
• They are often used to keep track of ephemeral data, like the current working directory.
• By convention, these types of variables are usually defined using all capital letters. This
helps users distinguish environmental variables within other contexts.
• We can see a list of all of our environmental variables by using the env or printenv
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Common Environment variables

• SHELL: This describes the shell that will be interpreting any commands you type in. In most cases,
this will be bash by default, but other values can be set if you prefer other options.
• TERM: This specifies the type of terminal to emulate when running the shell. Different hardware
terminals can be emulated for different operating requirements. You usually won’t need to worry
about this though.
• USER: The current logged in user.
• PWD: The current working directory.
• OLDPWD: The previous working directory. This is kept by the shell in order to switch back to your
previous directory by running cd -.
• PATH: A list of directories that the system will check when looking for commands. When a user
types in a command, the system will check directories in this order for the executable.
• HOME: The current user’s home directory.
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Common SHELL variables

• BASHOPTS: The list of options that were used when bash was executed. This can be useful
for finding out if the shell environment will operate in the way you want it to.
• BASH_VERSION: The version of bash being executed, in human-readable form.
• BASH_VERSINFO: The version of bash, in machine-readable output.
OPERATING SYSTEMS
SHELL basics

• Creating shell variables:

• Accessing the value of any shell or environmental variable:

• Spawning a child shell process

• In the child shell process, the shell variable defined in the parent is not available

• To terminate the child shell process,

• To pass the shell variables to child shell processes, you need to export the variable
OPERATING SYSTEMS
SHELL basics

• Removing a shell variable

• For setting environment variables at login, edit the .profile file in the $HOME directory and add
the export command
OPERATING SYSTEMS
SHELL control flow - if

Example: To check if the file exists

OPERATING SYSTEMS
SHELL control flow - loops

Nested loop:
OPERATING SYSTEMS
SHELL control flow – continue and break
OPERATING SYSTEMS
cron

• In Unix and Linux, cron is a daemon, which is an unattended program that runs continuously
in the background and wakes up (executes) to handle periodic service requests when
required. The daemon runs when the system boots
• Cron is a job scheduling utility present in Unix like systems. The crond daemon enables cron
functionality and runs in background.
• The cron reads the crontab (cron tables) for running predefined scripts.
• By using a specific syntax, you can configure a cron job to schedule scripts or other
commands to run automatically.
• Checking for jobs scheduled in cron
OPERATING SYSTEMS
cron

• Starting/checking status of cron

• Adding jobs to the scheduler

• crontab -e: edits crontab entries to add, delete, or edit cron jobs.
OPERATING SYSTEMS
cron examples
OPERATING SYSTEMS
cron examples

Executing a program every minute

crontab -l
THANK YOU

Suresh Jamadagni
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
[email protected]