Example 2.

6: A6 = {x │ x is a student and x is absent from school}

Example 2.7: A7 = {England, France, Denmark}

Example 2.8: A8 = {x│x is a capital city and x is in Nigeria}

Example 2.9: A9 = {1, 3, 7, 10}

Example 2.10: A10 = { x│x is a river and x is in Nigeria} It is easy as that!

Exercise 1.2

Write These Sets in a Set-Builder Form

1. Let A consist of the letters a, b, c, d and e

2. Let B = {2, 4, 6, 8........}

3. Let C consist of the countries in the United Nations

4. Let D = {3}

5. Let E be the Heads of State Obasanjo, Yaradua and Jonathan

Solution

1. A={x │x appears before f in the alphabet} = {xx is one of the first

letters in the alphabet}

2. B = {x │x is even and positive}

3. C = {x │x is a country, x is in the United Nations}

4. D = {x │x – 2 = 1} = {x│2x = 6}

5. E = {x │x was Head of state after Abacha}

If an object x is a member of a set A, i.e., A contains x as one of its\elements,

then we write: x∈A

Which can be read “x belongs to A” or ‘x is in A”. If, on the otherhand, an

object x is not a member of a set A, i.e A does not contain x as one of its
elements, then we write; x∉A
It is a common custom in mathematics to put a vertical line “” or “ \ ”
through a symbol to indicate the opposite or negative meaning of the symbol.

Example 3:1: Let A = {a, e, i o, u}. Then a∈A, b∉A, f∉A.

Example 3.2: Let B = {x< x is even}. Then 3∉B, 6∈B, 11∉B,14∈B

3.1.2 Finite & Infinite Sets

Sets can be finite or infinite. Intuitively, a set is finite if it consists of a specific

number of different elements, i.e. if in counting the different members of the
set the counting process can come to an end. Otherwise a set is infinite. Lets
look at some examples.

Example 4:1: Let M be the set of the days of the week. The M is finite

Example 4:2: Let N = {0,2,4,6,8........}. Then N is infinite

Example 4:3: Let P = {x< x is a river on the earth}. Although it maybe

difficult to count the number of rivers in the world, P is still a finite set.

Exercise 1.3: Which sets are finite?

1. The months of the year

2. {1, 2, 3, ......... 99, 100}

3. The people living on the earth

4. {x | x is even}

5. {1, 2, 3,........}

Solution:

The first three sets are finite. Although physically it might be impossible to
count the number of people on the earth, the set is still finite. The last two sets
are infinite. If we ever try to count the even numbers, we would never come to
the end.
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3.1.3 Equality of Sets

Set A is equal to set B if they both have the same members, i.e if every
element which belongs to A also belongs to B and if every element which
belongs to B also belongs to A. We denote the equality of sets A and B by:

A=B

Example 5.1 Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 1, 4, 2}. Then A = B,

that is {1,2,3,4} = {3,1,4,2}, since each of the elements

1,2,3 and 4 of A belongs to B and each of the elements

3,1,4 and 2 of B belongs to A. Note therefore that a set does not change if its
elements are rearranged.

Example 5.3 Let E={x | x²–3x = -2}, F={2,1} and G ={1,2,2, 1},

Then E= F= G

3.1.4 Null Set

It is convenient to introduce the concept of the empty set, that is, a set which
contains no elements. This set is sometimes called the null set.

We say that such a set is void or empty, and we denote its symbol ∅

Example 6.1: Let A be the set of people in the world who are older than 200
years. According to known statistics A is the null set.

Example 6.2: Let B = {x | x²= 4, x is odd}, Then B is the empty set.

3.2 SUBSETS

If every element in a set A is also a member of a set B, then A is called subset

of B.

More specifically, A is a subset of B if x∈A implies x∈B. We denote this

relationship by writing; A⊂B, which can also be read “A is contained in B”.
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Example 7.1

The set C = {1,3,5} is a subset of D = {5,4,3,2,1}, since each number 1, 3 and

5 belonging to C also belongs to D.

Example 7.2

The set E = {2,4,6} is a subset of F = {6,2,4}, since each number 2,4, and 6
belonging to E also belongs to F. Note, in particular, that E = F. In a similar
manner it can be shown that every set is a subset of itself.

Example 7.3

Let G = {x | x is even}, i.e. G = {2,4,6}, and let F = {x | x is a positive power

of 2}, i.e. let F = {2,4,8,16.....} Then F⊂G, i.e. F is contained in G.

With the above definition of a subset, we are able to restate the definition of
the equality of two sets.

Two set A and B are equal, i.e. A = B, if an only if A⊂B and B⊂A. If A is a
subset of B, then we can also write:

B⊃A

Which reads “B is a superset of A” or “B contains A”. Furthermore, we write:

A⊄B

if A is not a subset of B.

Conclusively, we state:

1. The null set ∅ is considered to be a subset of every set

2. If A is not a subset of B, that is, if A⊄B, then there is at least one

element in A that is not a member of B.

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3.2.1 Proper Subsets

Since every set A is a subset of itself, we call B a proper subset of A if, first, is
a subset of A and secondly, if B is not equal to A. More briefly, B is a proper
subset of A if:

B⊂A and B≠A

In some books “B is a subset of A” is denoted by

B⊆A

and B” is a proper subset of A” is denoted by

B⊂A

We will continue to use the previous notation in which we do not distinguished

between a subset and a proper subset.

3.2.2 Comparability

Two sets A and B are said to be comparable if:

A⊂B or B⊂A;

That is, if one of the sets is a subset of the other set. Moreover, two sets A and
B are said to be not comparable if:

A⊄B and B⊄A

Note that if A is not comparable to B then there is an element in A.which is not

in B and ... also, there is an element in B which is not in A.

Example 8.1: Let A = {a,b} and B = {a,b,c}. The A is comparable to B, since

A is a subset of B.

Example 8.2: Let R – {a,b} and S = {b,c,d}. Then R and S are not
comparable, since a∈R and a∉S and c∉R

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