Signal Processing (1st Part)

Equipment and Sound Systems

Equipos y Sistemas de Sonido

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 References
Modern Recording Techniques
David Miles Huber, Robert E. Runstein
Elsevier, 2010

CHAPTER 14 Signal Processing

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 Outline (1st part)
1. Introduction
1.1. Signal paths in effects processing: Inline routing,
Parallel routing
2. EQs and filters
2.1. Filters
2.2. Equalizer types
2.3. Applying equalization

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 1. Introduction
Signal Processors exert control over:
• Filters (peaking filters, shelving
• Spectral content of a sound:
filters, high‐pass and low‐pass
equalization & bandpass filtering
filters), equalizers (EQ)

• Amplitude level processing: dynamic • Compressors, limiters,

expansors, noisy gates (puertas
range processing
de ruido)

• Time‐based effects: Augmentation or • Multi‐effects processors (delay,

re‐creation of room ambience, delay, reverb, pitch shifting, time and
time/pitch alterations shift changes)

• All the possible combinations in

between

• Audio enhancer (intensificadores de audio),

• Others
sonic exciters (excitadores aurales)
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 1. Introduction
• Audio processing in the world of analog:
– devices that alter a source’s relative volume levels (EQ and
dynamics),
– devices that can be used to alter effects that are time based
– Blocks inside a mixer (HPF, EQ)

– Line inputs and outputs are found on pro audio gear.

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 1. Introduction

Analog EQ types:
• Older equalizers and newer
“retro” systems often base their
design around filters that use
passive components and employ
amplifiers only to make up for Figure 14.10. Manley Massive Passive
internal losses in level, called Stereo Equalizer (www.manleylabs.com.)
insertion loss.

• Modern EQs are of the active filter type that change their
characteristics by altering the feedback loop of an operational amp.
Advantages: low cost, size, weight, wide gain range and line‐driving
capabilities.

6
 1. Introduction
• Signal processing in the world of digital audio:
– Devices >> mixers, effects processors
– Software programming >> effects (reverb, echo, delay,
equalization, dynamics, pitch shifting, gain changing, etc).

– Advantage: Settings can be saved and precisely duplicated

at any time upon recall.

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 1. Introduction

Plug‐ins
• Software utilities that offer virtually every processing
function imaginable
• Cheaper than hardware counterparts with little or no
reduction in quality, capabilities or automation features.
• Are designed to be integrated into an editor or DAW
production environment in order to perform a particular
real‐time or non‐real‐time processing function.
• Popular standards: VST (PC/Mac), DirectX (PC),
AudioSuite (Mac), Audio Units (Mac), MAS (MOTU for
PC/Mac), TDM and RTAS (Digidesign for PC/Mac).

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EQ plug‐ins: 1. Introduction

9
 1. Introduction
1.1. Signal Paths in Effects Processing

1.1. Signal Paths in Effects Processing

A signal processing device can be inserted into an
analog or digital chain in several ways.
The most common of these are:
– Inline routing
– Parallel routing

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 1. Introduction
1.1. Signal Paths in Effects Processing

1.1.1. Inline routing: serial fashion

Often used to alter a signal (EQ y Gating).
The path passes from an audio source, through the signal processor
and directly out to another device or point in the chain.
Generally used for the processing of a single instrument, voice or
grouped signals that are present on a particular line.
Ex: Inserts in the mixer
(Channel, Group, Main)

Cuando los efectos se aplican en serie solo quedará señal con efecto.
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 1. Introduction
1.1. Signal Paths in Effects Processing

1.1.2. Parallel routing: “side‐chain” routing

Often used to augment a signal (reverb, delay, …)
A portion of the original signal is allowed to pass through the chain
while a side signal is simultaneously fed to an effects device.
The signal is then proportionately mixed back in with the original
signal to create an effects blend.

Ex: Aux‐sends + Aux Returns

in the mixer

Cuando los efectos se aplican en paralelo queda:

α•señal con efecto + β•señal sin efecto 12
 1. Introduction
1.1. Signal Paths in Effects Processing

1.1.2. Parallel routing: “side‐chain” routing

This form of side‐chain routing can happen in either of two ways:
1.1.2.A. A signal source (or mixed grouping of effects send
sources) can be sent to an effects device, which is then mixed back
in with the original source at a console input or effects return bus.

Figure 14.8. An effects plug‐in can be inserted into an

effects send bus, allowing multiple channels to be assigned
to a single effects processor. www.digidesign.com

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 1. Introduction
1.1. Signal Paths in Effects Processing

1.1.2. Parallel routing: “side‐chain” routing

1.1.2.B. A signal source can be sent to an effects device that has
an internal “Mix” control, which serves as a side‐chain mix
control for varying the amount of “dry” (original) signal to be
mixed with the “wet” (effected) signal.

Virtualizer Pro DSP1000P, Berhinger

Dry/wet mix control:

Mix control that allows an inline
device to work in a parallel fashion.

Virtualizer Pro DSP2024P, Berhinger

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 2. EQs and filters
2.1. Filters
2.1.1. Peaking filters
2.1.2. Shelving filters
2.1.3. High‐pass and low‐pass filters
2.1.4. Bandpass filters
2.1.5. Notch filter
2.2. Equalizer types
2.2.1. Parametric equalizer
2.2.2. Selectable frequency equalizer (Semi‐paramétrico)
2.2.3. Graphic equalizer
2.3. Applying equalization
Applying equalization
2.3.1. In the studio
2.3.2. Room equalization
2.3.3. Reducing Feeback 15
 2. EQs and filters
2.1. Filters
2.1.1. Peaking filters (“bell filter”, resonante)
Normalmente el BW se mide en octavas
Figure 14.14. The number of hertz
between the two points that are 3dB
down from the center frequency
determines the bandwidth of a
peaking filter.

Gain
Figure 14.13. Peaking equalization curves
(fc=1kHz).

BW
Q = fc / BW

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 2. EQs and filters
2.1. Filters

2.1.1. Peaking filters (“bell filter”, resonante)

Q (quality factor) determines how many frequencies will be
affected around a chosen centerline Q = fc / BW
Figure 14.12. Various boost/cut EQ curves centered around 1kHz:
Q = 1,4 Q = 0,4

700 1.4kHz 350 2.8kHz

(a) center frequency, 1‐kHz bandwidth 1 octave, ±15dB boost/cut;

(b) center frequency, 1‐kHz bandwidth 3 octaves, ±15dB boost/cut 17
 2. EQs and filters
Elysia museq: EQ 2‐channels 2.1. Filters

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 2. EQs and filters

2.1.2. Shelving filters 2.1. Filters

Shelving refers to a rise or drop in frequency response at a selected

frequency, which tapers off (disminuir) to a preset level and continues at
that level to the end of the audio spectrum.
Shelving can be inserted at either the high or low end of the audio range
and is the curve type that’s commonly found on home stereo bass (bajos)
and treble (agudos) controls

Figure 14.15. High/low, boost/cut curves Two first‐order shelving filters: a ‐3

of a shelving equalizer. dB bass cut (red), and a +9 dB treble
boost (blue)
Shelving filters are designed to boost or cut specific
frequencies, leaving the remaining frequencies unaffected 19
 2. EQs and filters
2.1.2. Shelving filters 2.1. Filters
Shelving turnover /rolloff frequency is where the gain is 3dBs above (or below) the
shelving level.
Shelving stop/corner frequency is the point at which the gain stops increasing or
decreasing.
Shelving centre/crossover frequency is the point at the very of the transition band.
Shelving cutoff frequency is where the gain is 3dBs above (or below) 0dBs level.

corner frequency

3dBs
cutoff frequency

‐3dBs
centre/crossover
frequency

Low‐frecuency shelving filter 20

 Elysia museq: EQ 2‐channels 2. EQs and filters
2.1. Filters

A filter of order n (for a shelving filter) will have

a steepness n*6 dB/octave (n*20 dB/decade).

In the case that a high shelf filter does have a Q

factor, it will likely also have a centre frequency
control

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 2. EQs and filters
2.1. Filters
2.1.3. High‐pass and low‐pass filters

Figure 14.16. A 700‐Hz filter:

(a) High‐pass filter with a slope of 6dB per octave
(b) Low‐pass filter with a slope of 12dB per octave

High‐ and low‐pass filters differ from shelving EQ in that their attenuation
doesn’t level off (estabilizarse) outside the passband. Instead, the cutoff
attenuation continues to increase.

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 2. EQs and filters
2.1. Filters
2.1.3. High‐pass and low‐pass filters
Clean up tracks: Reduce Hiss (Eliminar soplido de alta frecuencia)
 Reduce the competition between instruments in the high‐end in
order to allow instruments to be heard.
 It can give the illusion of the source being further back in the mix.
En micrófonos inalámbricos. Multiplex filter. Elimina subportadora piloto
FM (fc=19 kHz). BW de canales L y R transmitidos: de 0 a 15kHz.

Anti‐Aliasing & Reconstruction Filters

Subwoofer Crossovers

 Clean up tracks. Remove annoying low‐freq noise:

ruido de red, zumbidos (hum)
Remove infrasonic energy which may consume undue
amplifier power and cause excessive excursions
(vibraciones) in (or even damage to) speakers.
Remove infrasonic energy which may alter the
musical program (too much power). 23
 2. EQs and filters
2.1. Filters
2.1.3. High‐pass and low‐pass filters
We can find them in:

High‐pass filter

polar pattern
High‐Pass Filter
PAD

NR2000 Rode
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Mixer Console
 2. EQs and filters
Elysia museq: EQ 2‐channels 2.1. Filters

Figures show the effect of changing the gain

without changing thre frequency.

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 2. EQs and filters

2.1.4. Bandpass filters 2.1. Filters

A high‐pass filter in combination with a low‐pass filter can be used to

create a bandpass filter, with the passband being controlled by their
respective turnover frequencies and the Q by the filter’s slope

Figure 14.17. A bandpass filter is created by combining a high‐ and low‐

pass filter with different cutoff frequencies.

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 2.1.5. Notch filters
Notch filters are often used to zero in on and remove 60‐ or 50‐Hz hum
(zumbido) or other undesirable discrete‐frequency noises.
They use a very narrow bandwidth to fine‐tune and attenuate a particular
frequency in such a way as to have little effect on the rest of the audio
program.
Notch filters are used more in film location sound and broadcast than in
studio recording, because severe narrow‐band problems aren’t often
encountered in a well‐designed studio.

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 2.2. Equalizers
An audio equalizer is a circuit, device or plug‐in that lets us
exert control over the harmonic or timbral content of a sound
(alteration in frequency response).

EQ is specified as either plus or minus a certain number of

decibels at a certain frequency.

EQ may need to be applied to a single recorded channel, to a

group of channels or to an entire program:
• To correct specific problems in an instrument or in the
recorded sound (possibly to restore a sound to its natural
tone)
• To overcome deficiencies in the frequency response of a mic
• To allow contrasting sounds from several instruments or
recorded tracks to better blend together in a mix
• To alter a sound purely for musical or creative reasons
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 2. EQs and filters
2.2. Equalizers

Equalizer types
The three most commonly used equalizer types that can
incorporate one or more of the previously described filter
types are the:
• Parametric equalizer
• Selectable frequency equalizer
• Graphic equalizer

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 2. EQs and filters
2.2.1. Parametric equalizer 2.2. Equalizers

Parametric EQ lets you adjust most or all of

its frequency parameters in a continuously
variable fashion. Between 3 and 5 bands Gain
(filters).

Typical adjustments controls in each band:

BW
• Center frequency (selectable or
continuously variable)
• Q (selectable or continuously variable)
• Gain: amount of boost or cut
• Generally, each set of frequency bands will overlap into the next band
section, so as to provide smooth transitions between frequency bands or
allow for multiple curves to be placed in nearby frequency ranges.
• Because of its flexibility and performance, the parametric equalizer has
become the standard design for most input strips, digital equalizers and
workstations. 30
 2. EQs and filters
Example: 7‐band Parametric Equalizer
2.2. Equalizers

(Matlab)
Description:
• 4 bands use peaking filters,
• 3 bands can be choosen as
peaking, shelving, highpass or
lowpass filters
• Required Products: Signal
Processing Toolbox

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 2. EQs and filters
Figure 14.18. The EQF‐100 full range, parametric vacuum tube equalizer.
2.2. Equalizers

Ver solapes de frecuencia

Selectable Frequencies (Etapa 1 y 4 pueden ser Shelving filters):

• Band 1: 33 Hz, 56 Hz, 100 Hz, 180 Hz, 220 Hz, 270 Hz, 390 Hz
• Band 2: 250 Hz, 330 Hz, 470 Hz, 560 Hz, 680 Hz, 820 Hz, 1.2 kHz
• Band 3 : 1 kHz, 1.5 kHz, 1.8 kHz, 2.2 kHz, 2.7 kHz, 3.9 kHz, 5.6 kHz
• Band 4 : 3.3 kHz, 4.7 kHz, 6.8 kHz, 8.2 kHz, 10 kHz,12.5 kHz, 15 kHz

Filters:
• HIGH FILTER: 8.2 kHz, 12 kHz,18 kHz
• LOW FILTER: 22 Hz, 47 Hz, 82 Hz
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 2. EQs and filters
1. Frequency Select Selects one of seven frequencies on which the 2.2. Equalizers
band boost/attenuate and bandwidth controls operate.
2. Determines the amount of boost or cut
that takes place (continuously variable)
4. Boost‐Out‐Cut: Sets the section for boost or
cut; the center position turns the sections off.
6. Low Filter

8. Bypass Switc

7. High Filter
3. Bandwidth. ‘0’ is a narrow bandwidth 5. Shelving‐Resonant: Changes the high or low band
and ’10’ is a wide bandwidth. between a shelf or peak type of response curve.

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2.2.2.Selectable frequency equalizer 2. EQs and filters
2.2. Equalizers
(Semi‐paramétrico)
Typical adjustments controls in each band:
• Center frequency (selectable or continuously variable)
• Gain: amount of boost or cut
• Q (selectable or continuously variable) Q is predetermined (fixed BW)

They are most often found on older console designs, certain low cost
production consoles and outboard gear (equipos externos)

Figure 14.19. The API 550A

selectable frequency equalizer
within the 7600 outboard module 34
 2. EQs and filters

2.2.3. Graphic equalizer 2.2. Equalizers

• It provides boost and cut level control over a series of center

frequencies that are equally spaced (ideally according to music
intervals).

Graphic EQ applications: compensate for the acoustics in various types of

rooms, auditoriums and studio control rooms (to fine‐tune a system)
(ecualización de recintos)

Ultragraph Pro GEQ3102 31‐band stereo Graphic EQ. 1/3‐octave graphic equalizer 35
 2. EQs and filters
The vertical sliders positions provide a 2.2. Equalizers
“graphic” readout of the overall
frequency response curve at a glance.

1/3 octava 2/3 octava

25*POTENCIA(2;A3/3) 28,34*POTENCIA(2;A3/3)
1 31 36
• Amateur EQ : 5 bands (2‐octave graphic EQ) 2 40 45
3 50 57
• Semiprofessional: 10 bands (1‐octave graphic EQ) 4 63 71
5 79 90
• Professional EQ: 6 100 113
7 126 143
• 15 bands (2/3‐octave graphic EQ) 8 159 180
9 200 227
• 30 bands (1/3‐octave graphic EQ) 10 252 286
11 317 360
12 400 36 453
13 504 571
 2. EQs and filters
2.2. Equalizers
Standard frequencies for
acoustic measurements (EN ISO 266)
1st octave
31.5 63 125 250
cycle
2nd octave
45 90 180
cycle
1st 1/3
31.5 40 50 63 80 100 125 160 200 250
octave cycle
2nd 1/3
35,5 45 56 71 90 112 140 180 224 280
octave cycle
1st octave
500 1000 2000
cycle
2nd octave
355 710 1400 2800
cycle
1st 1/3
315 400 500 630 800 1000 1250 1600 2000 2500
octave cycle
2nd 1/3
355 450 560 710 900 1120 1400 1800 2240 2800
octave cycle
1st octave
4000 8000 16000
cycle
2nd octave
5600 11200 22400
cycle
1st 1/3 315
4000 5000 6300 8000 10000 12500 16000 20000 25000
octave cycle 0
2nd 1/3
3550 4500 5600 7100 9000 11200 14000 18000
octave cycle

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 2.3. Applying equalization

The “Good Rule”

Good musician + good instrument + good performance
+ good acoustics + good mic + good placement = good sound

38
 2.3. Applying equalization
– To correct specific problems in an instrument or in the recorded sound (possibly
to restore a sound to its natural tone) (ej. corrección de grabaciones antiguas)
– To overcome deficiencies in the frequency response of a mic
– To allow contrasting sounds from several instruments or recorded tracks to
better blend together in a mix
– To alter a sound purely for musical or creative reasons
– Control de presencia (reforzar tonos fundamentales)
– Increase the sense of power or punch (fuerza) to music.
– Add sparkle (chispa) and brilliance to a string or woodwind instrument.
– Add sense of clarity, definition and brightness (Claridad y definición)
– Intelligibility of speech (Inteligibilidad de la voz)
– Make music seem more distant (Sensación de lejanía)
– Corrección de la respuesta del oído humano
– Room equalization (Ecualización de recintos, de salas)
– Feedback destroyer (Eliminación de la realimentación) 39
2.3.1. In the studio 2.3. Applying equalization

Low (20 to 200Hz)

The audio spectrum can be divided into four
frequency bands:
• Low (20 to 200Hz),
• Low‐mid (200Hz to 1kHz)
• High‐mid (1 to 5kHz)
• High (5 to 20kHz)

The fundamental and the lower harmonic range of most bass information are in low band.
These sounds often are felt as well as heard, so boosting in this range can add a greater
sense of power or punch (fuerza) to music.
Lowering this range will weaken the lower frequency range. 40
2.3.1. In the studio 2.3. Applying equalization

Low‐mid (200Hz to 1kHz)

The audio spectrum can be divided into four
frequency bands:
• Low (20 to 200Hz),
• Low‐mid (200Hz to 1kHz)
• High‐mid (1 to 5kHz)
• High (5 to 20kHz)

Most instruments plays in the

low‐mid range.
The ear is very sensitive in this
range. Minor changes can result
in a very audible effect.

Changes in this range often result in dramatic variations in the signal’s overall energy.
The frequencies around 200Hz can add a greater feeling of warmth (calidez) to the
bass without loss of definition.
Frequencies in the 500‐ to 1000‐Hz range could make an instrument sound hornlike
(a bocina), while too much boost in this range can cause listening fatigue. 41
2.3.1. In the studio 2.3. Applying equalization

High‐mid (1 to 5kHz)
The audio spectrum can be divided into four
frequency bands:
• Low (20 to 200Hz),
• Low‐mid (200Hz to 1kHz)
• High‐mid (1 to 5kHz)
• High (5 to 20kHz)

Higher‐pitched instruments are

most often affected in the
high‐mid range.

Boosting these frequencies: added sense of clarity, definition and brightness.

Too much boost in the 1000‐ to 2000‐Hz range can have a “tinny” (cascado, metálico)
effect on the overall sound.
The upper mid‐frequency range (2000 to 4000Hz) affects the intelligibility of speech.
Boosting in this range can make music seem closer to the listener, but too much of a 42
boost often tends to cause listening fatigue.
2.3.1. In the studio 2.3. Applying equalization

High (5 to 20kHz)
The audio spectrum can be divided into four
frequency bands:
• Low (20 to 200Hz),
• Low‐mid (200Hz to 1kHz)
• High‐mid (1 to 5kHz)
• High (5 to 20kHz)

The high‐frequency region is

composed almost entirely of
instrument harmonics.

Boosting frequencies in this range: add sparkle (chispa) and brilliance to a string or
woodwind instrument.
Boosting too much might produce sibilance on vocals and make the upper range of certain
percussion instruments sound harsh (áspero) and brittle (frágil).
Boosting at around 5kHz has the effect of making music sound louder. A 6‐dB boost at
5kHz, for example, can sometimes make the overall program level sound as though it’s 43
been doubled in level; conversely, attenuation can make music seem more distant.
2.3.1. In the studio 2.3. Applying equalization

Eqing Instruments

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2.3.1. In the studio 2.3. Applying equalization

EQ in action!
One way to zero in (identificar) on a particular frequency using an equalizer
(especially a parametric one) is to accentuate or attenuate the EQ level and then
vary the center frequency until the desired range is found.
The level should then be scaled back until the desired effect is obtained.

https://www.soundgym.co/playground/eq

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 2.3. Applying equalization
2.3.1. In the studio

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2.3.1. In the studio 2.3. Applying equalization

EQ in action!

• EQ can greatly enhance or restore the musical and

sonic balance of a signal.
• Experimentation and experience are the keys to proper
EQ usage, and no book can replace the trial‐and‐error
process of “just doing it!”

The “Good Rule”

Good musician + good instrument + good performance
+ good acoustics + good mic + good placement = good sound

47
 EcuRecinto1 2.3. Applying equalization
2.3.2. Room equalization Mezclador

Las características de la sala de audición

influyen en la respuesta en frecuencia de
la señal de audio que se escucha; el
recinto puede atenuar o reforzar ciertas
frecuencias en función de la posición
donde nos situemos. Ecualizador

Altavoz Altavoz
Amplificador
“A room cannot be equalized,
only the direct sound of the
speaker can be equalized."

RECINTO
Use the Real‐Time Analyzer (RTA) to represents
the frequency response of the signal chain.
By using EQ , find a proper frequency response
of the system. Micrófono
Calibrado
Be sure the EQ settings are correct for the
Analizador de
frequency response of the equipment Espectros
(speakers, ampl)
48
 2.3. Applying equalization

2.3.2. Room equalization

House Curve EQ
Correct irregularities in loudspeaker
freq response
Compensate some room acoustics
problems

Smile Face Curve EQ

Aplications: car audio, disc jockeys,
electric bass guitar players, home
stereo owners and live sound
reinforcement system operators.
49
 2.3. Applying equalization

4.7. EQ in action!
• In EQ, use normal listening level. Listen the signal with and without EQ.
• Don’t adjust any single filter more than 1 or 2 dB at any time. If this
doesn’t seem to create the desired effect, try adjusting adjacent filters.
Avoid more than 3dB of boost at any freq. Avoid more than a 6 dB cut at
any freq.

• AutoEQ (AEQ) function

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 2.3. Applying equalization

2.3.3. Feedback
When the gain on a sound amplification system is turned too high, the output
from the loudspeaker changes to an unpleasant, loud, usually high‐pitched
sound.
This is the result of too much feedback, but instead of reproducing the sound
being amplified, it usually produces a single pitch (tono puro) at the frequency
which is amplified the most by the sound system/room combination.

The components in a feedback loop

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 2.3. Applying equalization

2.3.3. Feedback, ringing noise

Feedback is almost always the factor which limits
the maximum amplification from a sound system

52
 2.3. Applying equalization

2.3.3. Feedback
Posibles realimentaciones
en un sistema de sonido:
1. Sistema de monitores
2. Sistema de P.A. 1.
3. Cables de baja calidad
2.
4. Incorrecto envío y retorno
de señal para su procesado

3.
4.

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 2.3. Applying equalization

2.3.3. Feedback
In order to reduce the feedback:
• Use unidirectional mics
• Use directional speakers
• Mic positioning ‐ near to source, bearing in mind pickup patterns
• Mic positioning – away from speakers
• Speaker positioning ‐ near to the audience
• Mute unused mics
• Use EQ to reduce the gain of the system at the “bull” frequency.

• Improve room acoustics

• Hang some absorbent material behind the stage, such as a thick
curtain helps to reduce the reflect sound from the monitors back
into the mics.
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