ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Sentence Structures in English

Grammar: A Comprehensive Guide
1. Basic Sentence Structures
English sentences are built around subjects (S), verbs (V), and objects
(O). The four fundamental structures are:

A. Simple Sentence (One Independent Clause)

 Contains a single subject and predicate.

 Example:

o "She runs." (S + V)
o "The dog barked loudly." (S + V + Adverb)

B. Compound Sentence (Two Independent Clauses)

 Joined by coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS: For, And, Nor, But,

Or, Yet, So) or semicolons.
 Example:

o "I wanted to go, but it rained." (S + V + , but + S + V)

o "She studies hard; she excels in exams."

C. Complex Sentence (One Independent + One Dependent

Clause)

 Uses subordinating conjunctions (because, although, since, if, when,

etc.).
 Example:

o "Because he was tired, he went to bed early."

o "She smiled when she saw the surprise."
 D. Compound-Complex Sentence (Two Independent + One
Dependent Clause)

 Combines compound and complex structures.

 Example:

o "I finished my work (independent), and I went home (independent) because I

was exhausted (dependent)."

2. Sentence Types by Function

A. Declarative (Statement)

 Ends with a period.

o "The sky is blue."

B. Interrogative (Question)

 Ends with a question mark.

o "Are you coming?"

o "Who left this here?"

C. Imperative (Command/Request)

 Often omits the subject ("you" implied).

o "Close the door."

o "Please be quiet."

D. Exclamatory (Strong Emotion)

 Ends with an exclamation mark.

o "What a beautiful day!"

o "I can’t believe it!"
 3. Advanced Structures
A. Passive Voice (Object → Subject)

 Used when the doer is unknown or unimportant.

o "The book was written by Shakespeare." (Passive)

o "Shakespeare wrote the book." (Active)

B. Conditional Sentences (If-Clauses)

1. Zero Conditional (General truths):

o "If you heat ice, it melts."

2. First Conditional (Likely future):

o "If it rains, we will cancel the trip."

3. Second Conditional (Hypothetical):

o "If I won the lottery, I would travel the world."

4. Third Conditional (Past hypothetical):

o "If she had studied, she would have passed."

C. Inverted Sentences (For Emphasis)

 Rare structure for dramatic effect or questions.

o "Never have I seen such beauty." (Instead of "I have never seen...")

4. Common Errors & Fixes

Error Correction

"She go to school." "She goes to school." (Subject-verb agreement)

 Error Correction

"Because I was late. I missed the "Because I was late, I missed the bus." (Fragment → Complex
bus." sentence)

"He likes pizza, but she likes

Correct (Compound sentence)
sushi."

5. Key Takeaways
1. Simple = 1 clause | Compound = 2+ independent clauses | Complex = 1
independent + 1 dependent.
2. Passive voice shifts focus from the doer to the action.
3. Conditionals express real, hypothetical, or past situations.
4. Avoid fragments (incomplete sentences) and run-ons (missing
conjunctions).

Would you like exercises to practice these structures? 😊

some more on sentence structures

Advanced Sentence Structures in

English Grammar
1. Specialized Sentence Patterns
A. Parallel Structure

 Uses the same grammatical form for similar ideas

 Correct: "She likes hiking, swimming, and biking."
 Incorrect: "She likes hiking, to swim, and biking."

B. Balanced Sentences
 Contains two parts of equal length and importance
 "The more you practice, the better you become."
 "To err is human; to forgive, divine."

C. Periodic Sentences

 Main clause comes at the end for dramatic effect

 "After years of struggle, despite numerous setbacks, he finally succeeded."

D. Cumulative (Loose) Sentences

 Begins with main clause and adds details

 "She ran through the park, jumping over puddles, dodging trees, and
laughing all the way."

2. Rhetorical Structures
A. Anaphora

 Repetition at the beginning of clauses

 "We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we
shall fight in the fields."

B. Chiasmus

 Reversed parallel structure (ABBA pattern)

 "Ask not what your country can do for you - ask what you can do for your
country."

C. Antithesis

 Contrasting ideas in parallel structure

 "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times."

3. Complex Clause Combinations

A. Absolute Phrases
 Modifies the whole sentence
 "His homework finished, John went to play."
 "The sun having set, we headed home."

B. Appositive Phrases

 Renames a noun right beside it

 "Mr. Smith, our English teacher, gave extra homework."
 "Paris, the capital of France, is beautiful."

4. Inversion Structures
A. Negative Adverb Inversion

 "Never have I seen such beauty."

 "Rarely does he arrive on time."

B. Conditional Inversion

 "Had I known, I would have helped." (Instead of "If I had known...")

 "Were I rich, I would travel." (Instead of "If I were rich...")

5. Elliptical Constructions
A. Omission in Parallel Structures

 "John likes pizza; Mary, pasta." ("likes" is omitted)

 "Some went left; others, right."

B. Comparative Ellipsis

 "She runs faster than I." (omitted "run")

 "This book is better than that." (omitted "book is")

6. Syntactic Ambiguity Examples

A. Garden Path Sentences
 "The old man the boats." (At first seems ungrammatical)
 "The horse raced past the barn fell."

B. Multiple Modifiers

 "They are cooking apples." (Are they cooking, or are they apples for
cooking?)
 "Flying planes can be dangerous." (The act of flying, or planes that fly?)

7. Stylistic Variations
A. Asyndeton

 Omitting conjunctions for speed

 "I came, I saw, I conquered."

B. Polysyndeton

 Extra conjunctions for emphasis

 "The meal was huge - and delicious, and cheap, and filling!"

C. Anacoluthon

 Breaking off a sentence structure

 "I was going to - wait, did you hear that noise?"

8. Sentence Structure in Different Registers

Register Typical Structure Example

Long, complex with many "The party of the first part hereby agrees to
Legal
clauses indemnify..."

Academic Passive voice, nominalizations "The results were analyzed using SPSS."

Inverted pyramid (key info

Journalistic "Five died yesterday in a plane crash near..."
first)

Conversational Fragments, contractions "Sounds good! Wanna go later?"

 9. Sentence Combining Techniques
A. Subordination

 "He was tired. He kept working." → "Although he was tired, he kept working."

B. Coordination

 "She studied hard. She passed the exam." → "She studied hard, so she
passed the exam."

C. Reduction

 "The man who is standing there is my uncle." → "The man standing there is
my uncle."

10. Historical Development

A. Old English (450-1150)

 Flexible word order, many inflections

 "Þā cwōm hē tō þǣre byrig" (Then came he to the city)

B. Middle English (1150-1500)

 Developing SVO order

 "Whan that Aprille with his shoures soote" (Chaucer)

C. Modern English (1500-present)

 Fixed SVO order, loss of cases

 "The king gave the queen a necklace."

Verb Tenses in English Grammar: A

Complete Guide
1. Overview of English Verb Tenses
 English has 12 primary verb tenses that indicate time (past, present,
future) and aspect (simple, continuous, perfect, perfect continuous).

2. The 12 Verb Tenses with Examples

A. Present Tenses

1. Simple Present

o Usage: Habitual actions, general truths

o Example: "She works at a bank."
2. Present Continuous (Progressive)

o Usage: Actions happening now or around now

o Example: "They are watching a movie."
3. Present Perfect

o Usage: Actions completed at an unspecified time / still relevant

o Example: "I have visited Paris."
4. Present Perfect Continuous

o Usage: Actions that started in the past and continue to the present
o Example: "He has been working here since 2020."

B. Past Tenses

5. Simple Past

o Usage: Completed actions at a specific past time

o Example: "She finished her homework."
6. Past Continuous (Progressive)

o Usage: Actions in progress at a past moment

o Example: "I was reading when you called."
7. Past Perfect
o Usage: An action completed before another past action
o Example: "She had left before I arrived."
8. Past Perfect Continuous

o Usage: Ongoing actions before another past action

o Example: "They had been waiting for hours."

C. Future Tenses

9. Simple Future (Will / Shall)

o Usage: Predictions, spontaneous decisions

o Example: "I will call you tomorrow."
10. Future Continuous (Progressive)

o Usage: Actions in progress at a future time

o Example: "At 8 PM, I will be sleeping."
11. Future Perfect

o Usage: Actions completed before a future time

o Example: "By 2025, she will have graduated."
12. Future Perfect Continuous

o Usage: Ongoing actions leading up to a future time

o Example: "Next year, I will have been working here for 10 years."

3. Verb Tense Usage & Common Mistakes

A. When to Use Each Tense

Tense Key Usage Signal Words

Simple Present General truths, habits always, often, usually

Present Perfect Unspecified past actions already, yet, ever

 Tense Key Usage Signal Words

Past Perfect "Past before past" before, after, by the time

Future
Future actions in progress at 9 PM, this time tomorrow
Continuous

B. Common Errors & Corrections

❌ "She is go to school." → ✅ "She goes to school." (Simple Present)

❌ "I have seen him yesterday." → ✅ "I saw him yesterday." (Simple Past)
❌ "They will working tomorrow." → ✅ "They will be
working tomorrow." (Future Continuous)

4. Advanced Tense Structures

A. Conditional Tenses (If-Clauses)

1. Zero Conditional (Facts)

o "If you heat ice, it melts."

2. First Conditional (Real Future)

o "If it rains, we will cancel the trip."

3. Second Conditional (Unreal Present/Future)

o "If I won the lottery, I would travel."

4. Third Conditional (Unreal Past)

o "If she had studied, she would have passed."

B. Passive Voice Tenses

 Present Simple Passive: "The book is written by the author."

 Past Perfect Passive: "The project had been completed before the
deadline."
 Future Continuous Passive: "The report will be being
reviewed tomorrow."

5. Summary Table of All 12 Tenses

Affirmative
Tense Negative Example Question Form
Example

Simple Present She works. She does not work. Does she work?

Present Continuous They are eating. They are not eating. Are they eating?

Future Perfect He will have left. He will not have left. Will he have left?

6. Key Takeaways
✔ English has 12 tenses (4 present, 4 past, 4 future).
✔ Aspect (simple, continuous, perfect) changes meaning.
✔ Conditionals and passive voice modify tense usage.
✔ Signal words help identify correct tenses.

Would you like exercises or more examples? 😊

some more

Advanced Verb Tense Usage in English

Grammar
1. Nuanced Tense Applications
 A. Present Perfect vs. Simple Past

 Present Perfect: Emphasizes the present result of a past action

o "I've lost my keys." (And I still don't have them)

o "She's visited Japan three times." (In her life up to now)
 Simple Past: Focuses solely on the completed past action

o "I lost my keys yesterday." (Specific time)

o "She visited Japan in 2019." (Definite time)

B. Future Forms Comparison

Form Usage Example

Will Spontaneous decisions "I'll answer the phone."

Be going to Planned future "I'm going to study law."

Present Continuous Arranged events "We're meeting at 8."

Simple Present Scheduled events "The train leaves at 6."

2. Special Tense Cases

A. Historical Present

 Using present tense for dramatic storytelling

o "So yesterday, I'm walking down the street when suddenly..."

B. Future in the Past

 Describing future from a past perspective

o "She said she would call." (Past of "will")

o "I was going to leave." (Past of "am going to")

C. Mixed Tenses in Narration

 "I had been waiting (past perfect continuous) for hours when he finally
arrived (simple past)."
 "By the time we get (present) there, the movie will have started (future
perfect)."

3. Tense Shifting in Reported Speech

Original Reported

"I work here." (present) He said he worked there. (past)

"I'm leaving." (present

She said she was leaving. (past continuous)
continuous)

"I've finished." (present perfect) They said they had finished. (past perfect)

"I'll help." (future) He said he would help. (conditional)

Exception: When reporting general truths, present tense may remain:

 "She said the Earth revolves around the Sun."

4. Tense Usage in Different Contexts

A. Academic Writing

 Present Simple dominates for general truths

o "The data suggest..."

o "Shakespeare's works demonstrate..."
 Past Simple for specific studies/experiments

o "Smith (2020) found that..."

B. News Reporting

 Present Perfect for recent developments

o "The president has announced..."

 Simple Past for specific events
o "The explosion occurred at 8pm."

C. Business Communication

 Future forms for proposals

o "We will deliver the project by June."

o "Our team is going to implement..."
 Present Perfect for achievements

o "We have expanded to three new markets."

5. Common Tense Mistakes & Fixes

Mistake Correction Rule

"I live here since 2020." "I've lived here since 2020." Present Perfect for duration

Stative verbs don't use

"She is believing in ghosts." "She believes in ghosts."
continuous

"When I will see him, I will tell "When I see him, I will tell Present after "when" in time
him." him." clauses

"I'm understanding now." "I understand now." Stative verb exception

6. Tense Usage with Modals

Modal Tense Relationship Example

Can Present ability "She can swim."

Could Past ability "He could run fast when young."

May/Might Present/future possibility "It might rain."

Would Hypotheticals "I would go if I could."

Must Present obligation "You must finish today."

Had to Past obligation "We had to leave early."

7. Tense in Conditional Sentences
Type If-Clause Main Clause Example

0 Present Present "If you heat water, it boils."

1 Present Future "If it rains, we'll cancel."

2 Past Would + base "If I won, I'd celebrate."

Past
3 Would have + past part. "If you'd called, I'd have helped."
Perfect

Past
Mixed Would + base "If you'd studied, you'd know this."
Perfect

8. Tense Consistency in Paragraphs

Inconsistent:
"I went (past) to the store. I buy (present) some milk. I was carrying (past
continuous) it home when I drop (present) it."

Consistent:
"I went (past) to the store. I bought (past) some milk. I was carrying (past
continuous) it home when I dropped (past) it."

9. Tense Usage with Time Expressions

Expression Typical Tense Example

For + duration Present Perfect "I've worked here for years."

Since + point Present Perfect "We've lived here since 2015."

By + time Future Perfect "I'll have finished by noon."

Past
While "She called while I was cooking."
Continuous
 10. Tense in Idiomatic Expressions
 "I've been meaning to call." (Present Perfect Continuous)
 "You're always forgetting things!" (Present Continuous for habit)
 "This time tomorrow, I'll be lying on a beach." (Future Continuous)
 "I was wondering if..." (Past Continuous for polite request)

Subject-Verb Agreement in English

Grammar: A Complete Guide
Subject-verb agreement is the grammatical rule that the verb must match
("agree with") its subject in number (singular/plural) and person
(first/second/third). This fundamental rule ensures clarity and correctness
in English sentences.

1. Basic Rules of Agreement

A. Singular Subjects → Singular Verbs

 "The dog barks at night." (singular subject + singular verb)

 "She writes novels." (third-person singular)

B. Plural Subjects → Plural Verbs

 "The dogs bark at night." (plural subject + plural verb)

 "They write novels." (plural verb form)
 C. The Verb "To Be" (Special Cases)

Subject Present Past

I am was

You are were

He/She/It is was

We/They are were

 "I am happy." / "They were late."

2. Complex Agreement Cases

A. Compound Subjects (Joined by "And")

 Plural verb when subjects are joined by "and":

o "Tom and Jerry fight constantly."

 Exception: When subjects refer to one thing:

o "Bread and butter is my breakfast." (considered a single dish)

B. Compound Subjects (Joined by "Or"/"Nor")

 Verb agrees with the closer subject:

o "Neither the teacher nor the students were ready."

o "Either the cat or the dog is responsible."

C. Collective Nouns (Team, Family, Government)

 Singular verb if acting as a unit:

o "The team has won." (the team as one)

 Plural verb if members act individually:
o "The team are arguing." (focus on individual members)

D. Indefinite Pronouns

Always Singular Always Plural Depends on Context

Everyone, somebody, each,

Both, few, many All, some, none, any
either

 "Everyone has left." (singular)

 "Both are guilty." (plural)
 "Some of the cake is gone." (uncountable → singular)
 "Some of the cookies are gone." (countable → plural)

E. Titles, Names, and Quantities

 Singular verb for titles/names, even if plural-sounding:

o "The United States is large."

o "Physics is difficult."
 Quantities as a single unit take singular verbs:

o "Ten dollars is enough." (a single amount)

o "Ten dollars are scattered." (individual bills)

3. Tricky Agreement Situations

A. "There is/There are"

 Verb agrees with the subject after it:

o "There is a cat on the roof." (singular)

o "There are cats on the roof." (plural)

B. Relative Clauses (Who/Which/That)

 Verb agrees with the antecedent:

o "She is one of those people who are always late." (modifies "people," plural)
o "She is the only one who is on time." (modifies "one," singular)

C. Fractions/Percentages

 Depends on the noun they refer to:

o "Half of the pizza is gone." (uncountable)

o "Half of the students are absent." (countable)

D. "The number" vs. "A number"

 "The number of accidents has decreased." (singular)

 "A number of people have complained." (plural = "many")

4. Common Errors & Corrections

Incorrect Correct Rule

"The list of items are long." "The list of items is long." Subject = "list" (singular)

"Neither John nor his friends "Neither John nor his Verb agrees with "friends"
is coming." friends are coming." (closer)

"Each of the students have a

"Each of the students has a book." "Each" = singular
book."

"The committee is divided." (if acting Collective noun

"The committee are divided."
as one) agreement

5. Summary Table
 Subject Type Verb Agreement Example

Singular noun Singular verb "The bird sings."

Plural noun Plural verb "The birds sing."

Compound ("and") Usually plural "Tom and Jerry fight."

Compound
Match closest subject "Neither she nor I am going."
("or/nor")

Collective noun Singular (unit) / Plural (members) "The jury disagrees." (unit)

Indefinite pronoun Depends on pronoun "Nobody knows." (singular)

6. Key Takeaways
1. Singular subjects → singular verbs ("He runs.").
2. Plural subjects → plural verbs ("They run.").
3. Compound subjects with "and" = plural ("A cat and a dog fight.").
4. "Or/nor" → verb agrees with the closer subject ("Neither the dog nor
the cats are here.").
5. Collective nouns can be singular or plural depending on meaning.

1. Mathematical Expressions

 Single quantities take singular verbs:

"Five plus five equals ten."
"Ten times five is fifty."

 However, when numbers are treated as individual items:

"Five and five are the numbers we need."

2. "The + adjective" for groups

 Always takes plural verb:
"The rich get richer."
"The poor need more help."

3. "More than one" paradox

 Grammatically singular despite meaning:

"More than one student was late."
But: "More students than one were late."

4. "One of those who" construction

 The verb agrees with "those" (plural):

"She is one of those people who always arrive late."
Compare with: "One of my friends is sick."

5. "What" clauses

 Verb agrees with complement:

"What we need is more time." (singular complement)
"What we need are new ideas." (plural complement)

6. "A variety/diversity/range"

 Can be singular or plural:

"A wide variety of books is available." (emphasis on "variety")
"A variety of solutions were proposed." (emphasis on "solutions")

7. "The majority/minority"

 Singular when collective, plural when individuals:

"The majority rules." (as a unit)
"The majority of voters were unhappy." (individual voters)

8. "None" controversy
 Traditionally singular, but plural is now accepted:
"None of the cake was eaten." (formal)
"None of the cookies were eaten." (informal)

9. "Data/media" dilemma

 Technically plural but often singular in modern usage:

"The data show an increase." (traditional)
"The data shows an increase." (modern)
"Social media is addictive." (always singular now)

10. "Each/every" after subject

 Doesn't change the verb agreement:

"The students each have a textbook." (plural verb)
"Every student has a textbook." (but "every" makes subject singular)

Bonus: Titles of works

 Always singular even when plural in form:

"Great Expectations is my favorite novel."
"The Rolling Stones is a famous band."