Foundation of Mathematics 1

Chapter 2 Sets
Dr. Bassam AL-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana

Mustansiriyah University-College of Science-Department of Mathematics

2021-2022
Foundation of Mathematics 1 Dr. Bassam AL-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana
Mustansiriyah University College of Science Dept. of Math. (2021-2022)

Chapter Two
Sets
2.1. Definitions

Definition 2.1.1. A set is a collection of (objects) things. The things in the collection
are called elements (member) of the set.

A set with no elements is called empty set and denoted by ; that is, .
A set that has only one element, such as , is sometimes called a singleton set.

List of the symbols we will be using to define other terminologies:

or : : such that
: an element of (belong to)
: not an element of (not belong to)
or : a proper subset of
: a subset of
: not a subset of
: Set of all natural numbers
: Set of all integer numbers
: Set of all positive integer numbers
: Set of all negative integer numbers
: Set of all odd numbers
: Set of all even numbers
: Set of all rational numbers
: Set of all real numbers

Set Descriptions 2.1.2.

(i) Tabulation Method

The elements of the set listed between commas, enclosed by braces.
(1)
(2) Consists of the lowercase vowels in the English alphabet.
(3) Continue from left side
Continue from right side
Continue from left and right sides.
(4) { }.
1

Dr. Bassam AL-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana

Foundation of Mathematics 1 Dr. Bassam AL-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana
Mustansiriyah University College of Science Dept. of Math. (2021-2022)

(ii) Rule Method

Describe the elements of the set by listing their properties writing as
,
where is a statement related to the elements . Therefore,
is hold

(1)
.
(2)
.
(3) .
(4) .

Examples 2.1.3.
(i) Integer numbers.
(ii)
. Even numbers
Note that 2 is an element of so, we write . But, 5 .

(iii) Let be the set of all natural numbers which are less than 0.
In this set, we observe that there are no elements. Hence, is an empty set; that is,
.
Definition 2.1.4.
(i) A set is said to be a subset of a set if every element of is an element of
and denote that by . Therefore,
.

(ii) If is a nonempty subset of set and contains an element which is not a

member of , then is said to be proper subset of and denoted this by or
; that is, is said to be a proper subset of if and only if
(1) , (2) and (2) .

We use the expression means that is not a subset of .

Examples 2.1.5.
(i) An empty set is a subset of any set ; that is, for every set , .

If this were not so, there would be some element such that . However,
this would contradict with the definition of an empty set as a set with no elements.

Dr. Bassam AL-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana

Foundation of Mathematics 1 Dr. Bassam AL-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana
Mustansiriyah University College of Science Dept. of Math. (2021-2022)

(ii) Let B be the set of natural numbers. Let be the set of even natural numbers.
Clearly, is a subset of . However, is not a subset of , for , but .

Theorem 2.1.6. (Properties of Sets)

Let , and be sets.
(i) For any set . (Reflexive Property)
(ii) If and , then . (Transitive Property)

Proof.
(ii)

1 Hypothesis and Def.

2 Hypothesis and Def.
Inf. (1),(2) Syllogism Law
Def. of

Definition 2.1.7 If is a set, the power set of is another set, denoted

as and defined to be the set of all subsets of . In symbols,
.
That is, if and only if .

Example 2.1.8.
(i) and a set are always members of .
(ii) suppose . Then
.
The way to finding all subsets of is illustrated in the following figure.

Dr. Bassam AL-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana

Foundation of Mathematics 1 Dr. Bassam AL-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana
Mustansiriyah University College of Science Dept. of Math. (2021-2022)

From the above example, if a finite set has elements, then it has subsets, and
thus its power set has elements.
(iii) .
(iv) .
(v) .
(vi) .

The following are wrong statements.

(v) .
(vi) .
(vii) .

Dr. Bassam AL-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana

Foundation of Mathematics 1 Dr. Bassam AL-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana
Mustansiriyah University College of Science Dept. of Math. (2021-2022)

2.2. Equality of Sets

Definition 2.2.1. Two sets, and , are said to be equal if and only if A and B
contain exactly the same elements and denote that by . That is, if and
only if and .
The description means that and are not equal sets.

Example 2.2.2.
Let be the set of even integer numbers and .
Then .
Proof.
To prove .
.
Def. of .
Divide both side of by .
Def. of .
(1) Def. of subset.
To prove .
Def. of .
Multiply by .
Def. of .
(2) Def. of subset.

inf (1),(2) and def. of equality.

Remark 2.2.3.
(i) Two equal sets always contain the same elements. However, the rules for the sets
may be written differently, as in Example 2.2.2.
(ii) Since any two empty sets are equal, therefore, there is a unique empty set.
(iii) the symbols are used to show a relation between two sets and not
between an element and a set. With one exception, if is a member of a set , we
may write or , but not .
(iv) .

Theorem 2.2.4. (Properties of Set Equality)

(i) For any set . (Reflexive Property)
(ii) If , then . (Symmetric Property)
(iii) If and , then . (Transitive Property)
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Dr. Bassam AL-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana

Foundation of Mathematics 1 Dr. Bassam AL-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana
Mustansiriyah University College of Science Dept. of Math. (2021-2022)

Definition 2.2.5. Let and be subsets of a set . The intersection of and is

the set
,
or
.

Therefore, is the set of all elements in common to both and .

Example 2.2.6.
(i) Given that the box below represents the shaded area represents :

(ii) Let and . Then, .

(iii) Let and . Then

Definition 2.2.7. If two sets, and are two sets such that we say that
and are disjoint.

Definition 2.2.8. Let and be two subsets of a set . The union of and is the
set
,
or

Therefore, the set of all elements belonging to or .

Example 2.2.9.

(i) Given that the box below represents , the shaded area represents :
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Dr. Bassam AL-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana

Foundation of Mathematics 1 Dr. Bassam AL-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana
Mustansiriyah University College of Science Dept. of Math. (2021-2022)

X:

(ii) Let and . Then,

(iii) .

Remark 2.2.10.
It is easy to extend the concepts of intersection and union of two sets to the
intersection and union of a finite number of sets. For instance, if are sets,
then
for all }
and
={ | .

Similarly, if we have a collection of sets { indexed by the set of

positive integers, we can form their intersection and union. In this case, the
intersection of the is

and the union of the is

Dr. Bassam AL-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana

Foundation of Mathematics 1 Dr. Bassam AL-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana
Mustansiriyah University College of Science Dept. of Math. (2021-2022)

Theorem 2.2.11. Let , and C be arbitrary subsets of a set . Then

(i) (Commutative Law for Intersection)

(Commutative Law for Union)

(ii) (Associative Law for Intersection)

(Associative Law for Union)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi) (Distributive Law of Union with
respect to Intersection).
(vii) (Distributive Law of Intersection
with respect to Union),
(viii) (Idempotent Laws)
(ix) (Identity Laws)
(x) (Domination Laws)
(xi) (Absorption Laws) .
Proof.
(i) . This proof can be done in two ways.

The first proof

Uses the fact that the two sets will be equal only if
and

(1) Let be an element of

Therefore, Def. of
Thus, Commutative Property of
Hence, Def. of
Therefore, Def. of

(2) Let be an element of

Therefore, Def. of
Thus, Commutative property of
Hence, Def. of
Thus, Def. of

Therefore, Inf. (1),(2)

Dr. Bassam AL-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana

Foundation of Mathematics 1 Dr. Bassam AL-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana
Mustansiriyah University College of Science Dept. of Math. (2021-2022)

The second proof

Def. of
Commutative property of
Def, of

(iii)

It must be shown that each element of is an element of .

Let
Thus, Def. of
Hence,

Therefore,

(iv)

(1) Inf. (iii) above

(2) Let
Thus, is given
Hence, Def. of
Therefore, Def. of
Thus Def. of

Thus, Inf. (1),(2)

Definition 2.2.12. Let and be subsets of a set . The set , called the
difference of and , is the set of all elements in which are not in .
Thus,
.

Example 2.2.13.
(i) Let and .Then

(ii) .
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Dr. Bassam AL-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana

Foundation of Mathematics 1 Dr. Bassam AL-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana
Mustansiriyah University College of Science Dept. of Math. (2021-2022)

(iii) Given that the box below represents , the shaded area represents .

Theorem 2.2.14. Let and be subsets of a set . Then

(i) , and

Definition 2.2.15. If , then is called the complement of with respect

to and denoted that by the symbol
or .
Thus, .

Theorem 2.2.16. Let and be subsets of a set . Then

(i) .
(ii) ; .
(iii) (Inverse Laws)
(iv) If , then .
(v) .
Proof. Exercise.
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Dr. Bassam AL-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana

Foundation of Mathematics 1 Dr. Bassam AL-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana
Mustansiriyah University College of Science Dept. of Math. (2021-2022)

Theorem 2.2.17. Let and be subsets of a set . Then

(i) }, (De Morgan’s Law)
(ii) Let and be subsets of a set . Then, .
(iii) .
Proof.
(i) Let
Def. of complement
Def. of
Def. of A B
De Morgan’s Law
Def of
Def. of complement
Def. of
Hence .

(ii)
Def. of complement of
Def. of complement intersection

(iii) Exercise.

Definition 2.2.18. Let and be subsets of a set . The set

is called the symmetric difference.

Sometimes the symbol is used for symmetric difference.

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Dr. Bassam AL-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana

Foundation of Mathematics 1 Dr. Bassam AL-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana
Mustansiriyah University College of Science Dept. of Math. (2021-2022)

Example 2.2.19. Let and are subsets of

.

Theorem 2.2.20. Let , and are subsets of . Then

(i) .
(ii) .
(iii) .
(iv) .

Proof. Exercise.

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Dr. Bassam AL-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana

Foundation of Mathematics 1 Dr. Bassam AL-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana
Mustansiriyah University College of Science Dept. of Math. (2021-2022)

Theorem 2.2.21. (Properties of , , , and )

(i) De Morgan’s Low on
.
(ii)
.
(iii)
.
(iv) .
(v) If , then .
(vi) .
(vii) . The converse is not true.
(viii) .
(ix) .
(x) .
(xi) . Associative Law of
(xii) .
(xiii) If and , then .
(xiv) .
(xv) .
(xvi) . Dist. of on

Proof.
(i) Theorem 2.2.17(ii)
De Morgan’s Law
= Dist. Law
= . Theorem 2.2.17(ii)

(vii) Let
Def.
Def. of power set
Def.
Def. of power set

(x) Def. of
Def.
Def. of difference
Dist. Law of

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Dr. Bassam AL-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana

Foundation of Mathematics 1 Dr. Bassam AL-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana
Mustansiriyah University College of Science Dept. of Math. (2021-2022)

Tautology

Identity Law of

Def. of and
De Morgan’s Law

Theorem 2.2.17(ii)

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Dr. Bassam AL-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana