What is SQL?

SQL (Structured Query Language) is a domain-specific language used for managing and
manipulating relational databases. It allows you to create, read, update, and delete (CRUD
operations) data stored in relational database systems like MySQL, PostgreSQL, Oracle, SQL
Server, etc.

SQL is used to interact with databases to perform a variety of tasks, including querying data,
updating records, creating tables, and defining access controls.

Ques 1: Is SQL-supported programming?

Ans.

Basically, SQL is a command-based programming language but it doesn’t contain any control
flow statements.

Ques 2: State the difference between char and varchar.

Ans.

Both char and varchar are datatypes only, used for character strings. The only difference
between them is the length. Varchar is used for a variable length of strings and char is used for
a fixed length of strings. In char data type, if the length of the string is less than the fixed length
then it is padded with blank spaces to attain the fixed length. While varchar, padding won’t be
done.

Ques 3: Write the Syntaxes for joins.

Ans.

● INNER JOIN: select column_name From table1 INNER JOIN table2 on

table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

● OUTER JOIN: select column_name From table1 OUTER JOIN table2 on

table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

● LEFT JOIN: select column_name From table1 LEFT JOIN table2 on table1.column_name =
table2.column_name;
 ● RIGHT JOIN: select column_name From table1 RIGHT JOIN table2 on
table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

● FULL JOIN: select column_name From table1 INNER JOIN table2 on

table1.column_name = table2.column_name WHERE condition;

Ques 4: Write the syntaxes for set operators.

Ans. Consider two tables T1 and T2 having attributes like id, name.

● UNION: select name from T1 UNION select name from T2;

● UNION ALL: select name from T1 UNION ALL select name from T2;

● INTERSECT: select name from T1 INTERSECT select name from T2;

● MINUS: select name from T1 MINUS select name from T2;

Ques 5: What is DBMS? Explain types of DBMS.

Ans.

DBMS is software that interacts with users, applications, and the database itself to capture and
analyze the data. It is a structured collection of data. There are two types of DBMS. They are:

● Relational DBMS: Data is stored in tables(relations). This involves the concept of tuples,
attributes.

● Non – Relational DBMS: In this, there won’t be any concept of tables, tuples, attributes.

Ques 6: State the difference between OLTP and OLAP.

Ans.

● OLTP: OLTP means Online Transaction Processing, it is an online database modification

system. When data in the database is changed, this database transaction occurs.

● OLAP: OLAP means Online Analytical Processing, it is an online query response system.

Ques 7: What are joins in SQL?

Ans. As the name suggests a JOIN clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables,
based on a related column between them. It is used to merge two tables or retrieve data from
there. There are 4 joins in SQL namely:

o Inner Join

o Right Join

o Left Join

o Self Join

Ques 8: What are tables and Fields?

Ans. Data organized in a model with Rows and Columns is called a table. Rows are horizontal
and Columns can be categorized as vertical. A table has a specified number of columns called
fields but can have an infinite number of rows which is called a record.

Ques 9: What is virtual memory?

Ans.

Virtual memory is a memory management method that helps to execute the process using the
primary and secondary memory. Though the program gets executed using the main memory,
the resources and pages load from the secondary memory.

Ques 10: What is Foreign Key?

Ans.
FOREIGN KEY: This is a key used for linking 2 tables.

1. A FOREIGN KEY is a field or maybe a collection of fields in a table that corresponds to the
PRIMARY KEY of another table.

2. The table containing the FOREIGN KEY is called the CHILD TABLE and the table
containing the CANDIDATE KEY is called the PARENT TABLE.

Ques 11: What is the difference between DELETE and TRUNCATE statements?
Ans: DELETE:

● The DELETE command helps to delete a row of a table.

● The rollback of data is possible after using the delete statement.

● It is a DML command.

● It is slower than a TRUNCATE statement.

TRUNCATE:

● The TRUNCATE command helps to delete a row of a table.

● Rollback of data is not possible.

● It is a DDL command.

● As compared to DELETE the TRUNCATE command is faster.

Ques 12: What is Data Integrity?

Ans: The assurance of consistency and accuracy of the data over the entire life cycle is Data
Integrity. It is a critical aspect of the implementation, design, and usage of any system that
processes, stores or retrieves data. It also defines integrity constraints to enforce business rules
on the data when it is entered into an application or a database.

Ques 13: What is the SELECT statement?

Ans: SELECT is a SQL command that is used for selecting data from a database. The data which
is returned is saved in a result table, called the result-set.

Example: select * from customers;

Ques 14: What is normalization?

Ans. Normalization is a way of organizing fields and tables of the database in a way that
reduces redundancy and dependency. The main objective is to create a single table where
operations like add, delete or modify can be performed on the field.

Ques 15: What is the ACID property in a database?

Ans.

To ensure that the data transactions are processed reliably in a database system we use the
ACID property.

● Atomicity: It states that each transaction is all or nothing. It states that the entire
transaction fails if one part of the transaction fails and the database state is left
unchanged.

● Consistency: It ensures that the data must follow all validation rules. According to this a
transaction never leaves your database without its state being completed.

● Isolation: The main goal of providing isolation is concurrency control. This property
ensures that the concurrent property of execution should not be met.

● Durability: this property states that once a transaction has been committed, it remains
committed, whatever the situation be, even power loss, crashes, or errors.

Ques 16: Explain different types of indexes.

Ans.

There are three major types of index:

● Unique Index: It does not allow the field to possess redundant values if the column is
indexed uniquely. A unique index can be applied automatically if a primary key is
defined.

● Clustered Index: It rearranges the order of the table and searches based on key values.
Every table has only one clustered index.

● Non-Clustered Index: It causes no change in the order of the table and keeps a logical
order of the data intact. There can be many non-clustered indexes for a table.

Ques 17: What are the types of joins and explain each?

Ans. There are 4 types of Join:-

● Inner Join: Inner join returns rows when there is at least one match of rows between
the tables.
 ● Right Join: Right join return rows which are common between the tables and all rows of
the Right-hand side table. Simply, it returns all the rows from the right-hand side table
even though there are no matches in the left-hand side table.

● Left Join: Left join return rows which are common between the tables and all rows of
the Left-hand side table. Simply, it returns all the rows from the Left-hand side table
even though there are no matches in the Right-hand side table.

● Full Join: Full join return rows when there are matching rows in any one of the tables.
This means it returns all the rows from the left-hand side table and all the rows from the
right-hand side table.

Ques 18: What do you mean by “Trigger” in SQL?

Ans. A trigger is a special type of stored procedure that executes automatically in place or after
data changes. It allows executing a batch of code when an insert, update, or any other query is
executed against a specific table.

Ques 19 :What is a constraint?

Ans.

Constraints are the limitations on the data type of a given table. A constraint can be specified
while creating or altering the table statement.

● NOT NULL.

● CHECK.

● DEFAULT.

● UNIQUE.

● PRIMARY KEY.

● FOREIGN KEY.

Ques 20: What are the set operators in SQL?

Ans.
SQL supports a set of operations that can be performed on the table data. These are used to get
meaningful results from data stored in the table, under different special conditions. The set
operators in SQL are :

● UNION.

● UNION ALL

● INTERSECT

● MINUS

Ques 21: What is the usage of the DISTINCT keyword?

Ans. The SQL DISTINCT keyword is used in conjunction with the SELECT statement to eliminate
all the duplicate records and fetch unique records.

Ques 22: What is a primary key?

Ans. A primary key also called a primary keyword, is a key in a relational database that is unique
for each record. This is a special kind of unique key, and it has an implicit, NOT NULL constraint.
It means Primary key values cannot be NULL. A relational database must always have one and
only one primary key.

Ques 23: What is a unique key?

Ans. A Unique key constraint uniquely identified each record in the database. This provides
uniqueness for the column or set of columns. A unique key is a set of one or more than one
field/column of a table that uniquely identifies a record in a database table. You can say that it
is a little like a primary key but it can accept only one null value and it cannot have duplicate
values.

Ques 24:What are all the different normalizations?

Ans.

The normal forms can be divided into 4 forms, and they are explained below -.

● First Normal Form (1NF): According to this, remove all the redundant columns from a
table. Creation of tables for the related data and identification of unique columns.
 ● Second Normal Form (2NF): Should follow all requirements of the first normal form.
Arranging the data subsets in separate tables and Creation of relationships between the
tables using a primary key.

● Third Normal Form (3NF): Should follow all requirements of the 2NF. Removing the
columns which are not dependent on primary key constraints.

● BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form): Meeting all the requirements of the third normal
form and it should not have multi-valued dependencies.

Ques 25: What is a query?

Ans. A query is a request for data. A DB query is a code written to get the information back
from the database. You ask the database for something and it answers in the best way it knows
with data as a result of a query.

Ques 26: What is a stored procedure? State the Advantages and Disadvantages of Stored
Procedure?

Ans. A stored procedure is a prepared SQL code that you can save, so the code can be reused
over and over again. Stored Procedure is a function that consists of many SQL statements to
access the database system. Stored procedure supports faster execution instead of executing
multiple queries. This reduces network traffic and provides better security to the data. The
disadvantage is that it can be executed only in the Database and uses more storage memory.

Ques 27: Write a SQL query to find the names of employees that begin with ‘A’?

Ans. To display the name of the employees that begin with ‘A’, type in the below command:

SELECT * FROM Table_name WHERE EmpName like ‘A%’

Ques 28: What is the need for group functions in SQL?

Ans. An alias is a SQL function that most, if not all, RDBMSs support. It’s a fictitious name given
to a table or table column for the purposes of a SQL query. Furthermore, aliasing can be used as
an obfuscation strategy to protect the true names of database fields. A correlation name is
another name for a table alias. The “AS” keyword represents an alias.
Ques 29: What is a User-defined function? What are its various types?

Ans. The user-defined functions in SQL are like functions in any other programming language
that accept parameters, perform complex calculations, and return a value. They are written to
use the logic repetitively whenever required. There are two types of SQL user-defined
functions:

● Scalar Function: As explained earlier, user-defined scalar functions return a single scalar
value.

● Table-Valued Functions: User-defined table-valued functions return a table as output.

o Inline: returns a table data type based on a single SELECT statement.

o Multi-statement: returns a tabular result-set but, unlike inline, multiple SELECT

statements can be used inside the function body.

Ques 30: What is CLAUSE in SQL?

Ans. SQL clause helps to limit the result set by providing a condition to the query. A clause helps
to filter the rows from the entire set of records.

For example – WHERE, HAVING clause.

Ques 31: What is the difference between ‘HAVING’ CLAUSE and a ‘WHERE’ CLAUSE?

Ans. HAVING clause can be used only with SELECT statement. It is usually used in a GROUP BY
clause and whenever GROUP BY is not used, HAVING behaves like a WHERE clause. Having
Clause is only used with the GROUP BY function in a query whereas WHERE Clause is applied to
each row before they are a part of the GROUP BY function in a query.

Ques 32: What is AUTO_INCREMENT?

Ans. AUTO_INCREMENT is used in SQL to automatically generate a unique number whenever a

new record is inserted into a table.
Since the primary key is unique for each record, we add this primary field as the
AUTO_INCREMENT field so that it is incremented when a new record is inserted.
The AUTO-INCREMENT value is by default starts from 1 and is incremented by 1 whenever a
new record is inserted.
Ques 33: How to create empty tables with the same structure as another table?

Ans. Creating empty tables with the same structure can be done smartly by fetching the
records of one table into a new table using the INTO operator while fixing a WHERE clause to be
false for all records. Hence, SQL prepares the new table with a duplicate structure to accept the
fetched records but since no records get fetched due to the WHERE clause in action, nothing is
inserted into the new table.

SELECT * INTO Students_copy

FROM Students WHERE 1 = 2;

Ques 34: How to create empty tables with the same structure as another table?

Ans. Creating empty tables with the same structure can be done smartly by fetching the
records of one table into a new table using the INTO operator while fixing a WHERE clause to be
false for all records. Hence, SQL prepares the new table with a duplicate structure to accept the
fetched records but since no records get fetched due to the WHERE clause in action, nothing is
inserted into the new table.

Ques 35: What is the main difference between SQL and PL/SQL?

Ans. SQL is a query language that allows you to issue a single query or execute a single
insert/update/delete whereas PL/SQL is Oracle’s “Procedural Language” SQL, which allows you
to write a full program (loops, variables, etc.) to accomplish multiple operations such as
selects/inserts/updates/deletes.

Ques 36: What are Local and Global variables?

Ans.

● Local variables: These variables can be used or exist only inside the function. These
variables are not used or referred to by any other function.

● Global variables: These variables are the variables that can be accessed throughout the
program. Global variables cannot be created whenever that function is called.

Ques 37: How can you fetch the first 5 characters of the string?

● Ans. There are a lot of ways to fetch characters from a string.

 ● For example: Select SUBSTRING(StudentName,1,5) as studentname from
student;

Ques 38: What is a View?

Ans.

A view is a virtual table that consists of a subset of data contained in a table. Since views are
not present, it takes less space to store. A view can have data of one or more tables combined
and it depends on the relationship.

Ques 39: How to change the column data type in SQL?

Ans.We can change the data type of the column using the alter table. This will be the
command: ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY COLUMN column_name datatype; We start off
by giving the keywords ALTER TABLE, then we will give in the name of the table. After that, we
will give in the keywords MODIFY COLUMN. Going ahead, we will give in the name of the
column for which we would want to change the datatype and finally we will give in the data
type to which we would want to change.

Ques 40: What is the difference between SQL and NoSQL databases?
Ans. SQL stands for structured query language and is majorly used to query data from
relational databases. When we talk about a SQL database, it will be a relational database. But
when it comes to the NoSQL database, we will be working with non-relational databases.

Ques 41: What is RDBMS? How is it different from DBMS?

Ans.

RDBMS (Relational Database Management System) is a type of database system that

organizes and manages data in a tabular format with rows and columns. It differs from a
DBMS (Database Management System) by its ability to establish relationships between tables
and enforce data integrity through features like foreign keys and normalization. RDBMS
systems like MySQL, Oracle, and PostgreSQL are widely used in applications where structured
data and relational associations are essential.
Ques 42: What is the difference between SQL and MySQL?

SQL (Structured Query Language) and MySQL are related but distinct concepts in database
management. Below is a breakdown of their differences:

1. Definition:

● SQL:

o SQL is a language used to interact with relational databases.

o It defines the structure and syntax used to query, insert, update, and delete
data.

o SQL is not a database system itself but a standardized language for managing
relational databases.

● MySQL:

o MySQL is an open-source relational database management system (RDBMS)

that uses SQL as its query language.

o It is a software application that stores and manages databases and provides

tools for interacting with them using SQL.

o MySQL allows users to create and manage databases, and execute SQL queries
on the data.

2. Purpose:

● SQL:

o SQL is designed for interacting with relational databases and defining database
structures (tables, views, etc.).

o It is a language used to communicate with any RDBMS.

● MySQL:

o MySQL is a system that manages databases and provides tools to interact with
them.
 o It allows users to store data, execute SQL queries, and maintain databases in a
multi-user environment.

3. Usage:

● SQL:

o SQL is used to query and manipulate data within any database that supports
the SQL language (like MySQL, PostgreSQL, Oracle, etc.).

o Example SQL command:

SELECT * FROM users;

● MySQL:

o MySQL is the software or service that actually executes SQL queries on the
database, stores the data, and maintains the structure.

o Example MySQL command:

CREATE DATABASE my_database;

4. Flexibility and Compatibility:

● SQL:

o SQL is standardized and works with any relational database that supports the
language (including MySQL, PostgreSQL, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle, etc.).

o There may be slight variations in SQL syntax and features depending on the
RDBMS.

● MySQL:

o MySQL is a specific RDBMS, so it works within the context of MySQL databases.

It adheres to SQL standards but also offers MySQL-specific extensions and
optimizations.

o Example: MySQL supports specific features like AUTO_INCREMENT for primary

keys.
Ques 43: What are Aggregate and Scalar functions?
Ans.

● Aggregate functions perform calculations on sets of data and return a single result,
often used with the GROUP BY clause.

● Scalar functions operate on individual data points within a row and return a result for
each row, allowing data transformation and manipulation.

Ques 44: How can you optimize subqueries?

Ans.

To optimize subqueries:

1. Use EXISTS or IN.

2. Avoid correlated subqueries.

3. Limit results with LIMIT.

4. Ensure proper indexing.

5. Simplify subquery logic.

6. Consider using CTEs.

7. Evaluate execution plans.

8. Test and benchmark for performance.

Ques 45: What is OLTP?

Ans.

OLTP, or Online Transaction Processing, is a type of database system designed for handling a
large volume of real-time, short, and frequent transactions. It’s commonly used in applications
like e-commerce, banking, and inventory management to process day-to-day operations
efficiently. OLTP systems focus on maintaining data integrity and fast transaction processing.
Ques 46: What is composite key?
Ans.

A composite key in a relational database consists of multiple columns used together to

uniquely identify rows in a table. It’s used when a single column cannot provide unique
identification on its own.

CREATE TABLE SalesOrderItems (

OrderNumber INT,

LineItemNumber INT,

ProductID INT,

Quantity INT,

PRIMARY KEY (OrderNumber, LineItemNumber)

);

Ques 47: Discuss the optimization techniques for OLAP system?

Ans.

Optimization techniques for OLAP (Online Analytical Processing) systems include aggregating
data, partitioning, indexing, using materialized views, caching, parallel processing,
compression, and hardware acceleration. These methods aim to speed up query execution
and enhance data analysis performance in OLAP environments.

Ques48: How does data indexing work?

Ans.

Indexing in a database creates a separate structure (like a B-tree) that stores a sorted version
of certain columns, allowing for faster data retrieval. It speeds up queries but requires
maintenance and careful selection of indexed columns for optimal performance
Ques 50: What is Cursor? How to use a Cursor?
Ans.

A cursor in databases is a pointer used to iterate through the rows of a result set. To use a
cursor:

1. Declare: Declare a cursor, specifying which result set to iterate through.

2. Open: Open the cursor to establish the result set.

3. Fetch: Retrieve rows one by one from the result set using FETCH.

4. Process: Process the fetched data or perform actions.

5. Close: Close the cursor when done.

6. Deallocate: Optionally, deallocate the cursor to free resources.

Cursors are typically used for row-by-row data manipulation and are supported in SQL-based
database systems like SQL Server, Oracle, and PostgreSQL.