Modelling of the Seismic Accelerometer

We start by modelling the response of the basic so-called Seismic accelerometer, which consists of mass
that is connected to the frame by a spring and damper. This forms a second order system. When the
case is subjected to an acceleration a, the mass will move in the opposite direction.
A common accelerometer comprises a spring, a damper, a seismic mass, and a displacement sensor
arranged within a housing attached to a base , as shown in Figure 1. In operation, the base is mounted
on the vibrating structure to be measured, and the relative displacement between the seismic mass
and the base is recorded by the displacement sensor.

Following Newton’s second law, the force acting on the seismic mass m can be
expressed as.
 𝐹 = 𝑚 ⋅ 𝑎 = 𝑚 ⋅ 𝑥̈ + 𝑘𝑑 ⋅ 𝑥̇ + 𝑘𝑠 ⋅ 𝑥
Represents a second-order differential equation that describes the motion of a system
under the influence of an external force. Let's break down each part of the equation:

𝑚⋅𝑥 :̈ This term represents the inertial force, where 𝑚 is the mass of the system and 𝑥 ̈ is the
second derivative of displacement (position) with respect to time. It describes the resistance to
change in motion due to the inertia of the system. The larger the mass, the greater the inertial
force.

𝑘_𝑑⋅𝑥 ̇: This term represents the damping force, where 𝑘_𝑑 is the damping coefficient and 𝑥 ̇ is
the first derivative of displacement (velocity) with respect to time. It accounts for the resistive
forces, such as friction or air resistance, that oppose the motion of the system. The damping
coefficient determines the strength of the damping force.

𝑘_𝑠⋅𝑥: This term represents the spring force, where 𝑘_𝑠 is the spring constant and 𝑥 represents
the displacement of the system from its equilibrium position. It models the restorative force
exerted by a spring or any elastic element in the system. The spring constant determines the
stiffness of the spring and thus the strength of the restorative force.

When these terms are combined, the equation represents the sum of the inertial force, damping
force, and spring force, equal to the applied external force (𝐹). By solving this equation, you can
determine the motion of the system (represented by 𝑥) in response to the applied force.

This equation is commonly used in various fields, such as mechanics, physics, and engineering,
to analyze the behavior of mechanical and electrical systems, including vibrating systems,
harmonic oscillators, and control systems.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XhBHp8tUWPQ

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=To7JagpPDwY
Seismic Capacitive Accelerometer
Capacitive Sensing: The accelerometer consists of two
plates, one fixed and one movable. The fixed plate is
typically part of the accelerometer housing, while the
movable plate is attached to a seismic mass. The plates
form a capacitor, and the capacitance between them
changes as the distance between the plates changes.

Seismic Mass: The seismic mass is suspended within the

accelerometer and responds to the applied acceleration.
When acceleration is experienced, the seismic mass tends
to resist the change due to its inertia. As a result, it lags
behind the movement of the accelerometer housing.

Sensing Principle: As the seismic mass moves relative to

the accelerometer housing, the distance between the fixed
and movable plates changes. This variation in distance
alters the capacitance of the capacitor. The change in
capacitance is directly related to the applied acceleration.

Electrical Circuit: The capacitance variation is converted

into an electrical signal using an associated circuitry. The
circuit typically includes an oscillator that generates an
alternating current (AC) signal, and the capacitance forms
part of the oscillator's feedback network. The resulting
output signal frequency is proportional to the capacitance,
which, in turn, represents the applied acceleration.

Signal Processing: The electrical signal from the

accelerometer is then processed and analyzed to
determine the magnitude and direction of the acceleration.
Signal conditioning and amplification may be performed
to improve the signal quality and sensitivity.

Seismic capacitive accelerometers offer advantages such

as high sensitivity, low power consumption, and a wide
frequency range. They can measure both static and
dynamic acceleration, making them suitable for a range of
applications where precise acceleration measurements are
required.

The figure above shows the complete analogy for a

MEMS accelerometer. There are two voltages,
one applied, V0, and one measured, Vx. In this diagram,
the applied voltages create two capacitors each with a
separation distance, d. It is pertinent also to remember the
motion of the entire system, where the walls and plates of
the capacitors with applied voltages move as a whole, and
the mass (with its appending arm) is free to move in
opposition to the motion. This results in a change in
capacitance through change of separation distance
between plates.
One method for balancing the system above is to break
down the electrical contributions using conservation of
charge:

Furthermore, when the system is set into motion, the

capacitances change and the setup can be explicitly
modeled as follows:
• Higher accuracy and repeatability

• Real-time measurement to better access and transmit

data

• Measurement at very low frequencies

• Higher reliability

• Relatively low cost

• Continuous wireless data collection because of very low

energy consumption
An inductive accelerometer
https://www.engineersgarage.com/accelerometers/
is a type of accelerometer that measures acceleration
based on changes in inductance. It is designed to detect
and measure acceleration in various applications,
including industrial monitoring, automotive systems, and
vibration analysis.
Here's a general explanation of how an inductive
accelerometer works:
Coil and Mass System: The inductive accelerometer
consists of a coil and a seismic mass. The coil is typically
fixed within the accelerometer housing, while the seismic
mass is attached to a movable part within the
accelerometer.
Inductive Sensing: When the accelerometer experiences
acceleration, the seismic mass tends to resist the change
due to its inertia. As a result, it lags behind the movement
of the accelerometer housing. This relative motion
between the coil and the seismic mass induces changes in
the magnetic field around the coil.
Inductance Variation: The change in the magnetic field
induces a change in the inductance of the coil. The
inductance is directly related to the relative position and
velocity of the seismic mass. The variation in inductance
is proportional to the applied acceleration.
Electrical Circuit: The change in inductance is converted
into an electrical signal using associated circuitry. The
circuit typically includes an oscillator that generates an
alternating current (AC) signal, and the inductive element
forms part of the oscillator's feedback network. The
resulting output signal frequency or amplitude is
proportional to the inductance, which, in turn, represents
the applied acceleration.
Signal Processing: The electrical signal from the
accelerometer is then processed and analyzed to
determine the magnitude and direction of the acceleration.
Signal conditioning and amplification may be performed
to improve the signal quality and sensitivity.
Inductive accelerometers offer advantages such as high
linearity, wide bandwidth, and ruggedness. They can
measure both static and dynamic acceleration and are
suitable for applications where precise acceleration
measurements are required, such as in structural health
monitoring or automotive crash testing.
 Piezo-accelerometer

A piezoelectric accelerometer is a type of accelerometer

that utilizes the piezoelectric effect to measure
acceleration. It is commonly used in various applications,
including vibration analysis, shock testing, and industrial
monitoring
Here's a general explanation of how a piezoelectric
accelerometer works:
Piezoelectric Material: The accelerometer contains a
piezoelectric material, typically a crystal or ceramic, that
exhibits the piezoelectric effect. This effect refers to the
property of certain materials to generate an electric charge
in response to applied mechanical stress or strain.

Sensing Element: The piezoelectric material is usually

shaped into a seismic mass or a cantilever beam structure.
When the accelerometer experiences acceleration, the
seismic mass or beam deforms, applying mechanical
stress to the piezoelectric material.

Electric Charge Generation: The mechanical stress on the

piezoelectric material causes a polarization shift within
the crystal lattice structure, resulting in the generation of
an electric charge across the material.
Charge Measurement: The electric charge generated by
the piezoelectric material is measured using an associated
circuitry. The circuit includes a charge amplifier that
converts the charge signal into a voltage signal for further
processing and analysis.

Signal Processing: The voltage signal is then processed

and analyzed to determine the magnitude and direction of
the acceleration. Signal conditioning and filtering may be
applied to improve the signal quality and remove noise.

Piezoelectric accelerometers offer several advantages,

including high sensitivity, wide frequency range, and
durability. They can measure both static and dynamic
acceleration and provide a direct electrical output signal
that is proportional to the applied acceleration.
Piezoelectric accelerometers are widely used in various
industries for accurate and reliable acceleration
measurements.
L
This type is suitable for slowly varying accelerations and
low frequency vibrations in the range of 0 to 50 g.
It has a resolution of 1 to 400; a cross sensitivity of ±1%;
inaccuracy of around ±1%; a life expectancy of around 2
million reversals.
It has a typical weight of 500 gm and a typical size of 125
cm3.

The relationship between accelerations and the output

voltage of a piezoelectric accelerometer is influenced by
the design and characteristics of the accelerometer.
Generally, piezoelectric accelerometers generate an
output voltage that is proportional to the acceleration
applied to the device. The specific relationship can be
described using the following equation:
�out=�⋅�Vout=S⋅a
Where:
• VoutVout is the output voltage of the accelerometer.
• S is the sensitivity of the accelerometer, which
represents the voltage generated per unit of
acceleration (typically in mV/g or mV/m/s²).
• a is the applied acceleration.
For example, if the sensitivity of the accelerometer is 10
mV/g, and an acceleration of 5 g is applied, the output
voltage (VoutVout) would be:
Vout=10 mV/g×5 g=50 Mv
Vout=10mV/g×5g=50mV
Keep in mind that the actual sensitivity value and units
can vary depending on the specific accelerometer model
and manufacturer. It's essential to check the datasheet
provided by the manufacturer for accurate information.
Additionally, the relationship can become more complex
if the accelerometer's frequency response, resonant
frequency, and other factors are considered. These
parameters might affect the output at different
frequencies. In practice, calibration and careful
consideration of the accelerometer's specifications are
necessary for accurate measurements.