EE 651A - Assignment 2 (2024-25-II)

Q.1
For each of the following systems, find all the equilibrium points. Linearize the systems about the equilibrium
point(s). Linearize the system about the equilibrium point(s). For each isolated equilibrium point determine its
type (stable(unstable) node(focus), saddle point) for the nonlinear system.

x31
A. ẋ1 = x2 , ẋ2 = −x1 + − x2 .
6
B. ẋ1 = −x1 + x2 , ẋ2 = 0.1x1 − 2x2 − x21 − 0.1x31 .
 
2x1 x2 x2
C. ẋ1 = (1 − x1 ) x1 − , ẋ2 = 2 − x2 .
1 + x1 1 + x1
D. ẋ1 = x2 , ẋ2 = −x1 + x2 (1 − 3x21 − 2x22 ).

E. ẋ1 = (x1 − x2 )(x21 + x22 − 1), ẋ2 = (x1 + x2 )(x21 + x22 − 1)

F. ẋ1 = x31 + x2 , ẋ2 = x1 x32 .

Remember for nonlinear system given by ẋ = f (x) , with equilibrium at x = x∗ we have f (x∗ ) = 0. So
equilibrium points are the real roots of the equation f (x) = 0. Note that x = [x1 , x2 ]T ∈ R2 , f : D → R2 and
f (x) = [f1 (x), f2 (x)]T . The nonlinear system is linearized about its origin where

∂f1 ∂f1
 

A =  ∂x ∂x2 
 1
∂f2 ∂f2  .
∂x1 ∂x2 x=x∗

Q.2
For each of the following systems use a quadratic Lyapunov function candidate to show that the origin is asymp-
totically stable.

A.

ẋ1 = −x2 − x1 (1 − x21 − x22 ), ẋ2 = x1 − x2 (1 − x21 − x22 ).

Consider the following Lyapunov function: V := 1/2(x21 + x22 ).

B.

ẋ1 = −x1 − x2 , x˙2 = 2x1 − x32 .

Try to construct a Lyapunov function for B.

Q.3
Determine the equilibrium points of the following systems and analyze the stability of the equilibrium points by
using Lyapunov theory and/or La Salle’s invariance principle or Chetaev’s instability theorem.

1
 A.

ẋ1 = x2 , ẋ2 = − tanh(x1 + x2 ).

Consider the following Lyapunov function: V := log cosh(x1 + x2 ) + (1/2)x22 .

ẋ1 = x2 , ẋ2 = − tanh x1 − tanh x2 .

Try to construct a Lyapunov function for B.

Q.4
Consider the pendulum equation with friction

ẋ1 = x2 , ẋ2 = −a sin x1 − bx2 a, b > 0.

Study the stability of the equilibrium point at the origin. Consider the following Lyapunov function: V :=
a(1 − cos x1 ) + 0.5x22 .

Q.5
Consider the following non-linear system :

ẋ1 = −x2 + ax1 x22 , ẋ2 = x1 − bx21 x2 .

with a > 0, b > 0 and a ̸= b. Investigate the stability/instability of the equilibrium of the system. Consider the
following Lyapunov function: V := 1/2(x21 + x22 ).

Q.6
Determine the nature of the equilibrium points (stable (unstable) node (focus), saddle point) for Q.2-5 using
Linearization technique.

Q.7
Show that the following systems are exponentially stable:
A.

ẍ = −ẋ − x

Consider the following Lyapunov function: V = 12 [2x2 + ẋ2 + (x + ẋ)2 ].

ẋ1 = −x1 − x4
ẋ2 = −x2
ẋ3 = x 2 − x3
ẋ4 = x 1 − x4

Consider the following Lyapunov function: V = 12 [x21 + x24 + (x2 + x3 )2 + x23 + x22 ].

2
Q.8
Design a u so that the equilibrium point x = 0 becomes globally asymptotically stable for the following system.
Ensure that the u remains bounded for all time.

ẋ = sin x + u

Q.9
The following equations describe the motion of an UAV. For simplicity, we assume that all physical parameter
are unity.

r̈ = u (1)

The control objective is to track a signal rT such that t → ∞

r = rT , ṙ = ṙT , r̈ = r̈T (2)

A.
Design a linear control law u such that (2) is satisfied. [Hint. Choose e1 = r − rT , e2 = ṙ − ṙT . Use the
Lyapunov function V given in Q.7.A for stability analysis.]

B.
Design a non-linear control law u such that (2) is satisfied. Along with this, ensure that your control input u
remains bounded for bounded r̈T . [Hint. Choose e1 = r − rT , e2 = ṙ − ṙT . Use the Lyapunov function V given
in Q.3.A or Q.3.B for stability analysis.]

C.
Due to unavailability of true state measurements, some estimates are being used to design the control law u.
[This technique is widely used in Multi-Agent Systems]. Update laws of these estimates are given as follows:

ξ˙ = r̈T − (ξ − ṙT ) − (r − rT ) (3)

We design the following non-linear control law.

u = ξ˙ − (ṙ − ξ) − (r − rT ) (4)

You have to prove that for any initial conditions of state variables, followings are satisfied at t → ∞:

r = rT , ṙ = ṙT , r̈ = r̈T , ξ = ṙT . (5)

Hint. Choose e1 = ṙ − ξ, e2 = r − rT , e3 = ξ − ṙT . Try to construct the Lyapunov function.

D.
Due to unavailability of true state measurements, some estimates are being used to design the control law u.
[This technique is widely used in Multi-Agent Systems]. Update laws of these estimates are given as follows:

ϕ̇ = ξ + tanh(r − ϕ) − tanh(ϕ − rT ) (6)

3
We design the following non-linear control law.

u = ξ˙ − tanh(ṙ − ξ) − tanh(r − ϕ) (8)

You have to prove that for any initial conditions of state variables, followings are satisfied at t → ∞:

r = rT , ṙ = ṙT , r̈ = r̈T , ϕ = rT , ξ = ṙT . (9)

Hint. Choose e1 = ṙ − ξ, e2 = ξ − ṙT , e3 = r − ϕ, e4 = ϕ − rT . Use the following Lyapunov function for

E.
Design a non-linear control u for Q.9.C so that u remain bounded for bounded r̈T .