UNIT III: THERMOGRAPHY AND

EDDY CURRENT TESTING

 Thermography
Introduction
All objects around us emit electromagnetic radiations. At ambient
temperature and above, these are predominantly infrared radiations (IR).

IR are invisible to eye. Variation in the temperature of the surface of the

object can be visualized from the thermal image of an object. T

This means that deviations from normal temperature can be detected.

It is this advantage that the technique exploits for ever increasing

applications in a number of industries.
Basic Principle

The basic principle of thermal inspection involves the mapping or

measurement of surface temperature when heat flows through a test
object. Temperature differentials on a s/c or changes in s/c temperature
with time are related to heat flow pattern and can be used to detect flaws
IR radiation
Thermography makes use of the infrared spectral band of the electromagnetic
radiations. The infrared band is further subdivided into four smaller bands, the
boundaries of which are arbitrarily chosen. They include the

Near infrared (0.75-3 μm)

The middle infrared (3-6 μm)

The far infrared (6-15 μm)

The extreme infrared (15 μm-1000 μm).

Properties of IR radiation
The properties of infrared radiations are similar to those of other
electromagnetic radiations such as visible light except that their transmission
behavior and absorption behavior is different from that of visible light.

Infrared radiation travel in straight line outward from the source.

They can propagate in vacuum and in certain liquid, solid and gases.

They can be optically focused and directed by lenses or mirrors or

dispersed by prism.

IR can also be transmitted through certain materials which are opaque to
visible light.
Factor affecting thermal measurement
The basic factors affecting thermal measurement are
•Emissivity
•Surrounding
•Atmosphere

Emissivity
Emissivity is defined as the ratio of the radiance of a body at a given temperature
to the corresponding radiance of a black body at the same temperature.

For the black body the emissivity factor is 1.0. Normally various materials and
treated surfaces exhibit emissivites ranging from 0.1 to 0.95.

Emissivity is a critical parameter for quantitative measurement of the temperature.

Surrounding

It is important to have the object surroundings free from thermal radiation

sources, otherwise the radiation from these sources would also be reflected
by the object under examination leading to erroneous values.

Atmosphere
The effects of atmosphere are of importance when the object is far away.
The atmosphere not only attenuates the radiation from the target but also
alters the spectral characteristics.

However, these effects are negligible in cases where the object under
investigation is located and quite close and the atmosphere is
uncontaminated with vapours, smoke, fog, hot gases etc.
DETECTORS AND EQUIPMENT

The detection system for infra red imaging can be contact (surface) system such
as cholesterol liquid system or a non-contact tele-system such as a
thermographic camera.

Contact system tend to be less costly and simple. Camera system are more
expensive. However thermal imaging with tele-camera system has wider
engineering applications.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A
THERMOGRAPHY SYSTEM
The block diagram of a noncontact thermography system is shown in Fig.

It is basically consists of an infra red scanner, control unit and a monitor.

The output can be stored in a modified video thermal recorder which can be
analyzed later using a personal computer with image processing facilities.

The infra red scanner essentially consists of an optical system, scanning

mechanism, infrared detectors and associated electronics.

The optical system collimates the incoming infra red radiation into the detector.

The commonly used materials for mirrors and prisms in the optical system are
germanium, silicon, sapphire, barium fluoride and arsenic trisulphide.
The scanning mechanism scans the surface within the field of view. It consists
of two octagonal prisms rotating perpendicular to each other at high speed.

The heart of the thermography system is the infrared detector. There are
different modes for acquiring a thermal image.

Image converters: Here the thermal image is converted into electron image
through the use of converters which is then converted into an optical image.

Pyricon based devices: These are normal vidicon tubes with infrared sensitive
face plates (sulphate triglycine).

Mechanical Scanning devices. Here the image is scanned with a moving mirror
across a fixed and cooled detector. This is a type of system which is used
extensively in the field of NDT
The advent of personal computer has revolutionized the field of thermography.
Thermograms can be subjected to image processing and enhancement to obtain
the minute details not otherwise visible.

Software option for image processing includes contrast stretching, spatial

filtering, thermal chopping, relief presentation etc.
Advantages

Inspection is fast.

Interpretation of the indication is simple.

Disadvantages

If there is no change in thermal properties, defect cannot be

detected.

Limited thickness of the object can be examined.

The range of application of thermography is limited to 0.8 to

20mm
Applications

•Testing and evaluation of furnaces, ovens

•Cryogenic tanks
•Heat exchangers,
•Detection of overheating in electrical devices
•Detection of corrosion
•Fatigue cracks
•Poor soldering in space shuttle components
EDDY CURRENT TESTING (ET)

Eddy current

Eddy current is defined as oscillating electrical currents induced in a

conductive material by an alternating magnetic field due to electromagnetic
induction
Principle
In ECT an alternating current (frequency 1 kHz-2 MHz) is made to flow in a
coil which in turn produces an alternating magnetic field around it.
The coil when brought close to the electrically conducting surface of a metallic
material to be inspected induces an eddy current flow in the material due to
electromagnetic induction. These eddy current are parallel to the coil winding.
The presence of any defect or discontinuity in the material disturbs the eddy
current flow. These eddy current in turn generate an alternating magnetic field
in opposite direction which may be detected either as a voltage across a
second coil or by the perturbation of the impedance of the original coil.
During non-destructive testing changes in impedance of the coil is altered due
to the influence of the eddy current.
Eddy current testing is particularly well suited for detecting surface cracks
here a small surface probe is scanned over the part surface in an attempt to
detect a crack.
Fig 3.1 Eddy current Testing
Factors affecting eddy current
The factors which affect eddy current are

•Test Frequency
•Lift off
•Electrical conductivity
•Magnetic permeability
•Dimensions
Effect of test frequency
Test frequency is the only critical parameter that can be varied by the
inspector during inspection
Higher frequency is suitable for achieving higher sensitivity and higher
speed, but increases the noise that sometime even mask the signal due
to defect.
Lower frequency yield reduced noise but at the cost of sensitivity. In view
of this enough care should be taken while selecting the frequency.
Depth of Penetration and frequency

Test frequency determines the depth of penetration of eddy current.

For example in the case of tube inspection, if the eddy current do not
penetrate the wall thickness then it is possible to miss defect.

The depth of penetration of eddy current is given by

δ =500/√µσf
Where δ= depth of penetration
σ= Conductivity
µ= Permeability
f= Frequency
Higher the frequency lowers the depth of penetration. Then a frequency
must be chosen which permits penetration to the depth up to which defects
are to be found. δ =500/√µσf
In the above equation permeability increases depth of penetration
decreases. In the case of ferromagnetic material µ= 500 to 2000. Eddy
current are concentrated at the surface so it is difficult to detect sub surface
defect in ferromagnetic material.
Standard depth is taken to be that depth at which the eddy current intensity
drop to 37% of the intensity at the surface of the conductor. For general tube
inspection if the standard depth is taken as the wall thickness then
f= 250/ σt2
Where t= wall thickness
Effect of Lift off
The distance between the probe and the plate being inspected is called lift off
( in the case of inside coil or encircling as used for inspecting rods or tubes, it is
termed as fill factor).

As the lift off increases, the eddy current density in the material decreases.

To achieve better sensitivity it is always desirable to set lift off minimum as
possible.

The lift off is a function of coil diameter, the bigger the diameter of the probe,
the smaller the lift off.
Effect of Conductivity
The material in which eddy current can be induced should be conductive in
nature.

All materials have characteristic resistance to the flow of electric current

depending on which they can classified into three categories, insulators,
semiconductors and conductors.

Insulators and semiconductors with their higher resistivity will virtually permit
no flow of eddy current in the test material.

Conductivity is the reverse of resistivity and is the measure of how easily the
current can flow through the material.

Conductivity is measured most conveniently by referring to the international

annealed copper standard (IACS) sets the conductivity of copper as 100% and
for other materials as its percentage.
Effect of Magnetic Permeability
Magnetic permeability is the ratio of magnetic field density to the
magnetizing force of the coil.
The magnetic permeability of a metal affect the ease with which magnetic
lines will flow through it.
In a material with a high permeability a larger density of these lines will be
created for a given source and the lines will tend to concentrate in the
material.
This has two effect. Firstly a greater amount of magnetic energy can be
stored in the coil which increases inductance.
Secondly plenty of eddy current are generated which increases the lift off
effect.
Effect of geometry
 The geometry of a component under test causes many difficulties in ECT.
 A curved piece of metal will have a different lift off response compared to a
flat one and the edge effect can distort the eddy current and produces a
signal lag.
 Another feature of the geometry is on the actual thickness of the material
under test.
 If the eddy current penetrate, the full thickness, there will be some effect
when the thickness changes. Signal from thickness changes are used to
detect loss of metal due to corrosion.
INSTRUMENTATION OF EDDY CURRENT
In most inspections, probe impedence (voltage) changes slightly as the probe
passes a defect, typically less than 1%. This small change is difficult to detect by
measuring absolute impedance or voltage. Special instruments have been
developed incorporating various methods of detecting and amplifying small
impedence changes.

Fig 3.2 Block Diagram

of eddy current test
instrument
A sine wave oscillator generates sinusoidal current at a specified
frequency that passes through the test coils.

Since the impedance of the two coils is never exactly equal, balancing is
required to eliminate the voltage difference between them. Most eddy current
instruments achieve this through an AC bridge or by subtracting a voltage
equal to the unbalance voltage.
Once balanced, the presence of defect in the vicinity of one coil creates a
small unbalanced signal which is then amplified, filtered and displayed on X-
Y monitor (Storage Oscilloscope) after converting to DC signal.
Simple ECT instrument usually operate at a fixed frequency and have an
analog meter output, thus having limited applications.

Modern ECT instrument utilize both amplitude and phase information of the
eddy currents. Such instrument permits test frequency to be varied over a wide
range enabling selection of suitable skin depth.

ECT is a comparative test; signals from real defects are compared with those
from calibrated artificial defect to establish type and depth of defects.

The calibration and inspection results are normally recorded on dual channel
chart recorders and on magnetic tapes.
The data stored on magnetic tapes can be played back at a later state for
further evaluation or documentation.
Recently personal computer based eddy current instruments have been
developed. These are very compact, light in weight and very efficient in
acquiring, processing and storing eddy current data.
Eddy current generation
When the coil is brought in close proximity with the conductive material, the
alternating magnetic field (primary field) will pass through the material. The coil
can be placed onto the material or encircle it or be inside a tube or sideways to
the object and eddy current will be induced into the material (Fig.3.3). It can be
shown that they normally have circular path parallel to coil winding.
Fig.3.3 Eddy current
flow with different coil
arrangement
Coil arrangements
The same coil which is used for both generating the primary filed and detecting the
secondary field is called absolute coil. Often it is useful to have two coils in close
proximity which are electrically arranged to be in opposition This arrangement
reduces the effects which affect both coils, for example lift off. Signal which affect
each coil differently for example a crack sensed by one coil at a time are
enhanced. This arrangement is called differential coil mode

Fig Eddy current flow with

different coil arrangement
Table Comparison of absolute and Differential probe

Absolute probe Differential probes

Respond to both abrupt and gradual change in More sensitive to abrupt localized changes
properties and dimensions

Prone to drift due to temperature changes Immune to drift due to temperature changes

Interpretation of signal is simple May yield signal difficult to interpret

Can detect the length of defect Detect only the ends of long defect
Sensitive to probe wobble Less sensitive to probe wobble
Probe Selection

The selection of test coil (probe) is influenced by a number of factors

(a) shape of test specimen (sheet, plates, tubes, rods, wires etc)

(b) likely distribution of variable affecting eddy current and type of information
required-crack detection, conductivity variation, permeability variation etc.)

(c) accessibility.
Probe size requirement :

The probe size requirements for ECT of the tubes are determined by the fill
factor where

Fill factor= D12/D22

Where D1 is the diameter of the probe

and D2 is the inner diameter of the tube.

Ideally the fill factor should be as close to 1.

A fill factor of 1 can never be achieved in practice since the probe would not
travel down the tube. As a rule of thumb the optimum fill factor for tube testing is
approx. 0.7.
Types of probes
Fig 3.5 shows the different types of eddy current testing probes used
for various applications

Fig.3.5 Different type of eddy current testing probe

for different application
Focussed pencil type absolute probe with adjustable probe holder for
the inspection of component with limited accessibility.

Spring loaded absolute probe for detecting surface and near surface
defects in conducting non-ferromagnetic plates. A spring is used to apply a
constant load on the probe which would avoid lift off variations and
wobbling during probe movement and scanning.
Reflection type probe used for inspection of bolt holes without
removing the bolts . As can be seen from the figure the inner diameter
of the probe should match the bolt head size for better defect detection.

Differential encircling probe used for inspection of small diameter tubes.

One such example is the inspection of steam generator and heat exchanger
tubes during the tube manufacturing stage, as part of quality control
procedure.
Differential bobbin type probe used for heat exchanger and steam
generator tubes in chemical and power plants. Differential probes are
normally used for eliminating slow varying thickness and temperature
variations during testing.
Advantages of Eddy Current Testing
Does not require couplant.
It gives instantaneous response.
Has uncomplicated steps during set-up.
Is extremely sensitive to flaws.
Is very repeatable.
High scanning speeds can be used.
Is very accurate for dimensional analysis of flaws or coating
thickness.
Limitations of Eddy Current Testing
Electrically conductive materials only can be inspected.
It can inspect metallic component of thickness of 6mm with reasonable
sensitivity.
Equipment is costly as compared with MPT.
For critical application result should be verified by an alternative
technique.
Its depth of penetration is limited.
Application
For the detection of defects in tubings.
For measurement of thin wall thickness from one surface only.
For measuring thin coatings.
Preservice and in-service examination of heat exchanger tubes
Detection of corrosion.