Section A

Q1. Define ROM and RAM with practical examples from devices used in Nepal
Telecom. (5 Marks)

Criteria Marks
Clear definition of ROM 2
Clear definition of RAM 2
At least two practical NT examples 1

1. Definition of ROM (2 Marks)

 Non-volatile memory that retains data without power.

 Typically factory-programmed (e.g., mask ROM) or field-upgradable (e.g., flash
ROM).

2. Definition of RAM (2 Marks)

 Volatile memory: contents lost when power is removed.

 Supports read/write operations at high speed for temporary data storage.

3. Practical NT Examples (1 Mark)

 ROM in Huawei MA5800 OLT: stores bootloader and firmware image.

 RAM in Cisco CRS router: buffers packets (8 GB DDR) and holds routing tables.

Q2. Differentiate Switches and Routers with reference to NT’s backbone and
access networks. (5 Marks)

Criteria Marks
Definitions and OSI layer 1
Forwarding function & basis 1.5
Typical use-case in NT 1.5
Clear tabular summary 1

1. Definitions & OSI Layer (1 Mark)

 Switch: Layer-2 device forwarding Ethernet frames based on MAC addresses.

 Router: Layer-3 device routing IP packets based on IP addresses.

2. Forwarding Function & Basis (1.5 Marks)

  Switch: learns MAC→port mapping; forwards within a VLAN.
 Router: builds routing table via static or dynamic protocols; forwards between IP subnets
and to WAN.

3. NT Use-Cases (1.5 Marks)

 Access Switch (e.g., Cisco Catalyst 9300) at PoP: connects ONTs/DSLAMs to

aggregation.
 Core Router (e.g., Juniper MX240) in Kathmandu–Pokhara ring: routes traffic between
regions and to Internet.

4. Comparison Table (1 Mark)

Feature Switch Router

OSI Layer 2 (Data Link) 3 (Network)
Forwarding Basis MAC address table IP routing table
NT Role Access: subscriber CPE connectivity Backbone & edge: inter-POP routing
Example Devices Cisco Catalyst 9300 Juniper MX240

Q3. Design a basic FTTH architecture for a residential area in Kathmandu and
explain the role of OLT and Splitter. (10 Marks)

Criteria Marks
Correct FTTH block-diagram 4
OLT functions and protocols 3
Splitter characteristics & sizing 3

1. FTTH Block-Diagram (4 Marks)

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NT Core Network
│
┌─────┴─────┐
│ OLT │ ← Aggregation, PON Control
│(e.g., MA5800)│
└─────┬─────┘
│ Single-mode Fiber
┌─────┴─────┐
│ 1:32 Splitter │ ← Passive splitter
└─────┬─────┘
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ (up to 32 branches)
[ONT1] [ONT2] ... [ONT32]

2. OLT Role & Protocols (3 Marks)

 Aggregation: terminates PON downstream/upstream

  PON Management: GPON (G.984) framing and Dynamic Bandwidth Allocation
(DBA)
 QoS Enforcement: maps ONT flows to service-level profiles (e.g., 50 Mbps/10 Mbps)
 Security: encrypts upstream via AES-128; authenticates ONTs with SN and password.

3. Splitter Characteristics & Sizing (3 Marks)

 Passive optical device: no power required.

 Splits one input fiber to 1:16 or 1:32 outputs.
 Insertion loss: ~ 17 dB for 1:32; budget planned against OLT transmit power and ONU
receiver sensitivity.
 Cost-effective sharing—one OLT port serves up to 32 subscribers.

Q4. Explain PDH, SDH, and SPDH systems with practical deployment scenarios
in NT. Include suitable diagrams. (10 Marks)

Criteria Marks
PDH definition & NT scenario 3
SDH definition & NT scenario 3
SPDH concept & NT scenario 2
Schematic comparison 2

1. PDH (3 Marks)

 Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy: multiplexes E1 (2.048 Mbps) → E3 → E4

 NT Use: legacy microwave link between mountain repeater sites carrying up to 30 E1
voice channels.

2. SDH (3 Marks)

 Synchronous Digital Hierarchy: STM-1 (155.52 Mbps), STM-4 (622 Mbps),

synchronized network timing.
 NT Use: ring topology connecting major PoPs (Kathmandu, Pokhara, Biratnagar) using
STM-4 for resilient backhaul.

3. SPDH (2 Marks)

 Synchronous Packet Digital Hierarchy: overlays Ethernet/MPLS-TP on SDH framing.

 NT Use: transport both TDM voice and Ethernet/IP traffic over same SDH ring, enabling
seamless packet services.

4. Schematic Comparison (2 Marks)

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PDH: E1 ─┬─> E3 ──> E4 (plesiochronous multiplexing)
SDH: STM-1 ──> STM-4 ──> STM-16 (byte-synchronous hierarchy)
SPDH: SDH + MPLS-TP slices (packet over SDH)

Q5. Describe the function of BRAS in broadband service delivery. How is it

configured in NT’s network architecture? (10 Marks)

Criteria Marks
BRAS definition & core functions 4
Network diagram showing placement 3
Session, QoS & billing integration 3

1. BRAS Definition & Core Functions (4 Marks)

 Broadband Remote Access Server: PPPoE/PPPoA concentrator.

 Authentication/Authorization: RADIUS-based AAA for subscriber login.
 IP Address Assignment: DHCP relay or PPP IP assignment.
 Session Management: tracks up/down time, applies per-session policies.
 QoS & Traffic Shaping: enforces rate limits (e.g., 100 Mbps/50 Mbps profiles).

2. NT Network Diagram (3 Marks)

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[ONT] → [Access Switch] → [BRAS (Regional PoP)] → [Core Router] → [Internet]
│ │
VLAN tagging RADIUS AAA

 Access Switch: forwards PPPoE frames to BRAS.

 BRAS: ~ 8 x 10 GbE interfaces to core, handles ~ 5,000 concurrent sessions.

3. Session, QoS & Billing (3 Marks)

 Session: per-user VLAN/circuit encapsulation.

 QoS: police upstream, shape downstream; DSCP markings for prioritization.
 Billing: RADIUS logs usage (bytes, time) fed into OSS/BSS for invoicing.

Q6. Compare OSI and TCP/IP models. Relate each layer to NT’s existing
telecom systems. (10 Marks)

Criteria Marks
OSI model layers (listing) 2
TCP/IP model layers (listing) 1
 Criteria Marks
Layer-by-layer mapping (table) 5
Real-world NT examples 2

1. OSI Model (2 Marks)

1. Application
2. Presentation
3. Session
4. Transport
5. Network
6. Data Link
7. Physical

2. TCP/IP Model (1 Mark)

1. Application
2. Transport
3. Internet
4. Network Access

3. Layer Mapping & NT Examples (5 Marks)

OSI TCP/IP NT System Example

7. App App Customer self-care portal (HTTPS)
6. Pres Encryption on GPON (AES-128)
5. Sess SIP session control in IMS for VoLTE
4. Trans Trans TCP for FTP software updates; UDP for IPTV multicasting
3. Net Internet IP routing on Juniper MX between PoPs
2. DL Network Access VLAN tagging on Cisco switches in access rings
1. Phys Network Access Single-mode fiber, microwave radio links

4. Real-World Integration (2 Marks)

 Example A: IPTV uses UDP (Transport) over IP Multicast (Internet) on GPON (Data
Link/Physical).
 Example B: Centralized billing portal runs on TCP/HTTP at the Application layer.

Section B
Q1. List commonly used batteries in NT. Mention their cell voltages and usage in
different setups. (5 Marks)
 Criteria Marks
At least three battery types 2
Correct cell voltages 2
Clear usage context per
1
type
Cell
Battery Type NT Usage
Voltage
VRLA Lead-acid 2V 48 V DC backup for central office UPS
Ni-Cd 1.2 V Backup in remote microwave repeater shelters
New micro-DC sites & high-temperature BTS
Li-ion 3.6 V
installations

Q2. Explain the working principle of a full-wave bridge rectifier. How is it used
in NT’s power systems? (5 Marks)

Criteria Marks
Clear principle explanation 3
Correct, labeled diagram 1
NT application context 1

1. Working Principle (3 Marks)

o Four diodes (D1–D4) form a bridge; during positive half-cycle D1 & D2 conduct,
negative half-cycle D3 & D4 conduct.
o Output is pulsating DC at 2× line frequency, later filtered by capacitors.
2. Diagram (1 Mark)

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~ ──┬─>│─┬── + Vout
│ │
└─<│──┴── - Vout

3. NT Application (1 Mark)
o Converts utility AC to 48 V DC for charging battery banks in CO and BTS
shelters.

Q3. Discuss GSM architecture and how it evolved into LTE in the context of
Nepal Telecom. (10 Marks)
 Criteria Marks
GSM architecture diagram & explanation 4
LTE/EPC architecture & explanation 4
Rationale for migration 2

1. GSM Architecture (4 Marks)

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[MS] ↔ [BTS] ↔ [BSC] ↔ [MSC/VLR] ↔ [HLR] ↔ [GMSC] ↔ [PSTN/PLMN]

 MS (Mobile Station): SIM-based user device.

 BTS/BSC: Radio interface and baseband control.
 MSC/VLR & HLR: Circuit-switched core, subscriber data.

2. LTE/EPC Architecture (4 Marks)

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[UE] ↔ [eNodeB] ↔ [MME] ↔ [S-GW] ↔ [P-GW] ↔ [Internet/IMS]

 eNodeB: integrated radio + scheduling.

 MME: mobility management, authentication.
 S-GW/P-GW: user-plane forwarding and IP gateway.
 IMS: core for VoLTE and multimedia.

3. Rationale for Migration (2 Marks)

 Higher throughput: LTE offers >100 Mbps downlink vs GSM’s <100 kbps.
 Lower latency: ~ 10 ms round-trip, essential for real-time apps.
 All-IP model: simplifies backhaul, converges voice/data, reduces OPEX.

Q4. What preventive and emergency safety measures should be followed in

maintaining NT’s power systems? (10 Marks)

Criteria Marks
Five preventive measures (detailed) 5
Five emergency measures (detailed) 5

Preventive Measures (5 Marks)

1. Visual Inspection: Monthly checks for corrosion or loose terminals on batteries.

2. Thermography: Quarterly infrared scans of rectifier panels to detect hotspots.
3. Load Testing: Semi-annual discharge test of battery banks to verify capacity ≥ 80%.
 4. Connection Torque-ing: Bi-annual tightening of DC busbar connections to
manufacturer’s torque.
5. Record Keeping: Log voltage, specific gravity, and maintenance actions in CMMS.

Emergency Measures (5 Marks)

1. Isolation Procedure: Immediate tripping of faulty DC bus via HRC fuses and circuit
breakers.
2. PPE Usage: Mandatory insulated gloves and goggles when handling live conductors.
3. Alternate Power: Standby diesel generator auto-start within 15 s of mains failure.
4. Evacuation Plan: Clear escape routes and onsite first-aid kit for electrical shock
incidents.
5. Post-Incident Analysis: Root-cause investigation and corrective CAPA logged in quality
system.

Q5. Compare the centralized and split-type air-conditioning systems used at NT

exchanges. Explain with diagrams. (10 Marks)

Criteria Marks
Centralized AC description & diagram 4
Split-type AC description & diagram 4
Direct feature comparison table 2

Centralized AC (4 Marks)

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[Chiller] → [Pumping] → [AHU] → [Ducts] → [Multiple Rooms]

 Chiller Plant: produces chilled water.

 AHU: air handling with filters, fans.
 Duct Network: distributes conditioned air to server rooms and exchanges.

Split-Type AC (4 Marks)

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[Outdoor Condenser] ═ Refrigerant Lines ═> [Indoor Evaporator] → Room

 Outdoor Unit: compressor and condenser coil.

 Indoor Unit: evaporator, blower, filters.
 Zoning: individual control per room/rack.

Feature Comparison (2 Marks)

 Feature Centralized AC Split-Type AC
Installation Cost High (chillers + ductwork) Low (per-unit basis)
Energy Efficiency High (central control, VFD fans) Moderate
Maintenance Specialized technicians required Simpler, DIY filter cleaning
Noise Level Low in conditioned zones Moderate near indoor units

Q6. What is OTDR? How is it used to detect fiber faults in NT’s access network?
Mention parameters it measures. (10 Marks)

Criteria Marks
Clear definition of OTDR 2
Fault-detection methodology 4
Key parameters listed and explained 4

1. Definition (2 Marks)

 Optical Time-Domain Reflectometer: sends optical pulses down a fiber and measures
backscattered/reflected light to characterize link.

2. Fault-Detection Methodology (4 Marks)

1. Pulse Injection: injects narrow optical pulses (e.g., 10 ns) into fiber.
2. Backscatter Capture: photodiode detects Rayleigh backscatter along fiber length.
3. Reflection Events: Fresnel reflections at connectors, splices, breaks appear as spikes or
dips on trace.
4. Distance Calculation: time delay between launch and return → distance to event.

3. Key Parameters (4 Marks)

 Attenuation Coefficient (α in dB/km): slope of linear backscatter region.

 Event Loss (dB): difference in backscatter level across splice or connector.
 Reflectance (dB): height of Fresnel spikes indicating connector end-face quality.
 Distance-to-Event (m): precision ± 1 m depending on pulse width.

Section A
Q1. What is HDMI? How is it used in NT’s modern communication infrastructure? (5
Marks)

Definition
High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) is a single-cable digital interface transmitting
uncompressed video and multi-channel audio.

Discussion

 Key Features: Supports up to 4K@60 Hz, HDR, Deep Color, CEC.

 Versions in NT:
o HDMI 1.4 on legacy IPTV STBs (1080p).
o HDMI 2.0+ on pilot 4K CPEs and NOC displays.
 Use-Cases:
o IPTV Headend – connects video servers → encoders.
o NOC Monitoring – drives operator dashboards, security feeds.
o Training Halls – AV for presentations and remote sessions.

Conclusion
HDMI’s high bandwidth, simplicity, and bi-directional control make it indispensable for NT’s
high-resolution IPTV rollout and centralized monitoring.

Q2. Differentiate between Internet and Intranet with specific use cases from Nepal
Telecom. (5 Marks)

Aspect Internet Intranet

Access Public (any user worldwide) Private (NT employees via VPN/VLAN)
Security Hardened firewalls, public SSL Internal authentication, strict ACLs
Customer portal, online billing, public HRMS, OSS/BSS dashboards, internal
Services
email email
Example www.ntc.net.np SharePoint-based document repository

Conclusion
The Internet connects NT to its customers and global partners, while the Intranet underpins all
internal operations—ensuring secure, efficient workflows.

Q3. Explain the planning and structural design of Local Access Networks in NT. Include
feeder and distribution concepts. (10 Marks)

Definition
Local Access Network (LAN) is the “last-mile” fiber or copper network linking NT’s Central
Offices (CO) to subscriber premises via feeder and distribution segments.
Discussion

1. Feeder Segment
o Role: Aggregates traffic from CO to splitter huts or pillars.
o Design:
 Fiber count based on 1:32 splitting & growth forecasts.
 Redundant duct routes for resilience.
2. Distribution Segment
o Role: Branches out to individual ONTs/DSLAMs.
o Design:
 Outdoor 1:16 or 1:32 splitters in secured cabinets.
 Standard manhole spacing (every 200 m), trench depth ≥ 1 m.
3. Civil-Works Standards
o Warning tape 200 mm above duct.
o Concrete manholes with lockable covers.

Diagram

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[ CO ]
│ (feeder fibers)
┌─┴─┐
│Splitter Hut│
└─┬──┘
│ (distribution fibers)
┌─┴─┐ ┌─┴─┐ ┌─┴─┐
│MH1 │──│MH2 │──│MH3 │──[ONT]

Conclusion
Robust feeder/distribution planning—balancing capacity, redundancy, and civil standards—
ensures NT’s LAN is scalable, reliable, and service-ready.

Q4. Describe the working principle and role of DWDM in NT’s backbone network for high
data capacity transmission. (10 Marks)

Definition
Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) combines dozens of distinct light
wavelengths on a single fiber to multiply capacity.

Discussion

 Transmitter Array: Multiple lasers (λ₁…λₙ) each carrying a 10–100 Gbps channel.
 Multiplexer (Mux): Couples all λ onto one fiber.
 Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers (EDFAs): Amplify the composite signal transparently.
 Demultiplexer (Demux): Splits wavelengths at receiving end.
Diagram

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[λ1] ─┐
[λ2] ─┼─► [DWDM Mux] ── Fiber ──► [DWDM Demux] ─┐─ [RX1]
... └─ [RX2]

Role in NT

 Capacity: 96 channels × 100 Gbps = 9.6 Tbps per fiber pair.

 Scalability: Add wavelengths without new fiber deployments.
 Resilience: Optical ring protection (OTN).

Conclusion
DWDM enables NT’s terabit-scale backbone—supporting exponential growth in video, data, and
cloud services over existing fiber assets.

Q5. With diagram, explain the NGN architecture deployed by NT and discuss its
advantages. (10 Marks)

Definition
Next-Generation Network (NGN) is an all-IP platform converging voice, data, and multimedia
services on a unified infrastructure.

Discussion

 Access Layer: PON / xDSL / LTE / 5G

 Aggregation Layer: MPLS-enabled routers enforcing QoS
 Core Layer:
o IMS (IP Multimedia Subsystem) for VoLTE, video calls
o EPC (Evolved Packet Core) for mobile broadband
 Service/Application Layer: Virtualized VNFs, unified self-care portals

Diagram

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[UEs]
│
[Access (PON/DSL/LTE)]
│
[Aggregation MPLS]
│ ┌──────────┐
└───────►│ IMS │
└──────────┘
│ │
 ┌─┴─┐ ┌─┴─┐
│EPC │ │OSS │
└───┘ └────┘

Advantages

 Convergence: Single infrastructure for all services.

 OPEX Reduction: Virtualization & shared resources.
 Rapid Innovation: Modular VNF deployment.
 End-to-End QoS: Per-service SLAs across IP.

Conclusion
NT’s NGN transforms siloed networks into a flexible, cost-efficient IP ecosystem—accelerating
service delivery and enhancing user experience.

Q6. Define and differentiate Unicast, Broadcast, and Multicast with real-time applications
in NT’s services. (10 Marks)

Definition

 Unicast: One-to-one data transmission.

 Broadcast: One-to-all within a broadcast domain.
 Multicast: One-to-many to a subscribed group.

Differences & Applications

Mode Scope NT Application

Unicast Single host Video-On-Demand streams
Broadcast Entire subnet DHCP, ARP in access networks
Multicast Subscriber group Live IPTV channels (IGMP/MLD routing)

Discussion

 Bandwidth: Multicast is most efficient for live TV; Unicast for VOD.
 Control: Broadcast is unmanaged; Multicast uses group membership (IGMP).

Conclusion
By using multicast for IPTV, unicast for on-demand content, and limiting broadcast to control
protocols, NT maximizes bandwidth efficiency and service scalability.

Section B
Q1. What is the role of MCB and MCCB in NT’s power supply systems? Explain their
operating principles. (5 Marks)

Definition

 MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker): Overload/short-circuit protection up to ~100 A.

 MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker): Adjustable trip settings for 100–2 500 A loads.

Discussion

 Thermal Trip: Bimetallic strip bends under prolonged overload → trips mechanism.
 Magnetic Trip: Electromagnet actuates instant trip under high fault currents.
 NT Use-Cases:
o MCB on rack PDUs and AC outlets.
o MCCB on main 400 V feeders and 48 V DC distribution bus.

Conclusion
MCBs and MCCBs are fundamental for isolating faults—protecting equipment and ensuring
NT’s network reliability.

Q2. Define NAND and NOR gates. How are these used in NT’s electronic control circuits?
(5 Marks)

Definition

 NAND: Output LOW only if all inputs HIGH.

 NOR: Output HIGH only if all inputs LOW.

Discussion & Symbols

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NAND: A ● B ──|⊼|── Y NOR: A ● B ──|⊽|── Y
Truth: 00→1,01→1,10→1,11→0 00→1,01→0,10→0,11→0

Applications in NT

 Alarm Logic: NAND aggregates multiple “OK” signals—only if all OK does alarm stay
silent.
 Safety Interlocks: NOR ensures emergency stop activated if any safety sensor trips
(input LOW).
Conclusion
NAND/NOR gates underpin NT’s hardware logic—delivering fail-safe control in critical power
and environmental systems.

Q3. Illustrate the CDMA architecture and mention key differences with GSM used
previously in NT. (10 Marks)

Definition
Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA) uses spread-spectrum techniques for multiple users on
the same frequency band.

Architecture Diagram

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[UE] ↔ [Node B] ↔ [RNC] ↔ [MGW] ↔ [MSC/SGSN] ↔ [GGSN/HLR]

Discussion

 UE ↔ Node B: Spreading via unique Walsh codes.

 RNC: Radio resource control (like GSM’s BSC).
 MGW: Media gateway handling CS & PS transitions.

Aspect GSM (TDMA) CDMA (Spread-Spectrum)

Access Timeslot + frequency Code on shared band
Handover Hard handover Soft handover (overlapping)
Capacity Fixed slots per carrier Dynamic capacity, better reuse
Interf. Res 4/9 reuse 1/1 reuse with orthogonal codes

Conclusion
CDMA’s code-based access and soft handover delivered higher capacity and call quality—
driving NT’s mid-2000s migration path before LTE.

Q4. How are NT’s diesel generators operated and protected during power failures?
Explain their sequencing process. (10 Marks)*

Definition
Diesel generators (DG) provide automatic backup power when mains fail, controlled by an
Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS).

Sequencing Process
 1. Mains Failure Detection: ATS senses voltage drop → signals controller.
2. Cranking & Start: Starter motor engages; fuel solenoid opens.
3. Speed Stabilization: Governor stabilizes at 1 500 rpm (50 Hz).
4. Load Transfer: ATS switches critical loads (rectifiers, UPS) to DG.
5. Synchronization: In parallel DG setups, synchronization module aligns phase/voltage.

Protection Mechanisms

 Over-Speed/Under-Speed: Trips fuel valve.

 Overcurrent: Alternator breaker.
 Low Oil / High Temp: Emergency shutdown relay.

Diagram

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[Mains]──ATS──[Critical Load] // normal
│
└───► DG Controller ─► DG ─► Load

Conclusion
Automated sequencing and layered protection ensure NT’s DG sets restore and sustain power—
vital for uninterrupted telecom service in remote and core sites.

Q5. Define VSAT. Explain how NT uses VSATs for rural and remote connectivity in
Nepal. (10 Marks)

Definition
Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT) is a satellite earth station with a dish antenna (< 3 m) for
two-way data/multimedia links.

Discussion

 Components:
o ODU: LNB (receive), BUC (transmit) on dish.
o IDU: Indoor modem with Ethernet interface.
 NT Deployments:
o Rural Villages: Schools, health posts with no fiber/microwave reach.
o Disaster Recovery: Rapid link restoration post-earthquake.
o High-Altitude Sites: BTS in mountain valleys.

Topology

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 ⇄[VSAT Site 2] …
[NT Hub]⇄[Satellite]⇄[VSAT Site 1]

Benefits

 Coverage: Nationwide reach regardless of terrain.

 Deployment Speed: Online within hours.
 Reliability: Low maintenance, weather-tolerant.

Conclusion
VSAT enables NT to bridge Nepal’s challenging topography—delivering critical telecom and
emergency services where terrestrial networks cannot.

Q6. A telecom device worth Rs. 8 000 depreciates by 10 % annually. Find its value after 2
years. (10 Marks)

Calculation

 Year 1: 8 000 × 0.90 = 7 200

 Year 2: 7 200 × 0.90 = 6 480

Result
Value after 2 years: ₹ 6 480

Conclusion
At straight-line depreciation of 10 % p.a., the device’s book value falls to ₹ 6 480 after two years
—vital for budgeting and asset management.

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