Python

Python is a dynamic language because you don’t have to declare data type while
assigning a value.

Features of Python

Variables and Values

Variable: It is a name given to a value.

Value: These are the data stored inside the variable (placeholder).

a = 10

a = ’Hello’
Identifier and Keywords

Identifiers: These are some rules and regulations which are followed to name a variable.

Rule 1: It can be alphabet, alphanumeric but it should not start with numbers.

a = 10

a1 = 10

1a = 10

Rule 2: It should not be a special character except underscore.

@ = 10

# = 10

! = 10

_ = 10

Rule 3: You can’t leave space between variables.

ab = 10

a b = 10

Rule 4: It should not be a keyword.

Keywords

These are some predefined words having some specific tasks to do.

1. Keywords are immutable in nature.

Example: ['False', 'None', 'True', 'and', 'as', 'assert', 'async', 'await', 'break', 'class',
'continue', 'def', 'del', 'elif', 'else', 'except', 'finally', 'for', 'from', 'global', 'if', 'import', 'in', 'is',
'lambda', 'nonlocal', 'not', 'or', 'pass', 'raise', 'return', 'try', 'while', 'with', 'yield']

2. We have 35 keywords in which we have 3 special keywords: True, False and

None
3. Soft keywords: ‘_’, ‘case’, ‘match’, ‘type’
 Feb 20, 2025

Data Types

Datatypes are used to specify the type of data stored inside a variable

We have two types of data types:

1. Single value data type: int, float, complex, bool

2. Multi value data type: string, list, tuple, set, dictionary

Single valued data type: These are the data which are stored individually inside a
variable in the form of integer, float, complex, Boolean.

Integer: The numbers which can be represented on a number line in the form of
negative, positive and zero.

Memory diagram for integers

Variable space Value Space

a 0x11

0x11 10

Feb 21, 2025

Float: Decimal values

Example: Temperature, Weight, Height

String: A string is a sequence of characters. Python treats anything inside quotes as a

string. This includes letters, numbers, and symbols.

P Y T H O N

0 1 2 3 4 5

Indexing: It’s a phenomenon of giving sub-address to a given address

We have two types of indexing:

 1. Positive indexing: 0, 1, 2… infinity/n-1
2. Negative indexing: -1, -2…. -infinity

Slicing: It’s a phenomenon of extracting the sub data from a given data using indexing.

We have two types of slicing:

1. Individual Slicing
2. Group Slicing

Individual Slicing: It’s a phenomenon where we extract sub data individually.

Syntax: var[index_position]

a = ‘python’

a[2] = t

Group Slicing: It’s a phenomenon where we extract sub data in groups.

[start:stop:step]

Empty String: Single, double and triple quotes.

Note: String is immutable in nature.

Feb 24, 2025

List: It is a collection of homogenous, heterogeneous data stored in [].

Homogenous - same kind

Heterogenous - different kind

List is mutable in nature where we can add data, insert data or remove data from the
list.

1. append() – It is a function which is used to add data to the last of the collection.

syntax: var.append(value)

2. insert() – It is an inbuilt function which is used to add data as per user index
position.
 syntax: var.insert( index position, value)

3. pop() – It is used to remove data

4. default value – []

Memory diagram for List

a = [10, ‘hello’, 3+5j, [1, 2, ‘hello’], ‘python’, [1, ‘star’]]

10 0x11 3+5j 0x22 0x33 0x44

Tuple: It is a collection of homogenous, heterogeneous data stored in ().

1. Immutable in nature where we can access the data but can’t modify it.
2. In python, tuple is the most secure data type which has security.
3. We use tuples for security purposes.

Feb 25, 2025

Set: Set is a unorganised type of data stored in {}

Var space Value space

a 0x11

0x11 ‘Hello’, ‘str’, 10, 5.3

1. Due to unorganised structure indexing is not possible

2. We use set for filtration - to avoid duplicate values

a={1,12,2,1,2,1,2,1,2,1,12} → {1, 2, 12}

3. Set is mutable in nature but accepts only immutable values.

4. add() - add value in a set.

Syntax: var.add()

5. remove() - remove value in a set.

Syntax: var.remove()
 6. Default Value: set()

Dictionary: It is a data type where data is in the form of Keys & Values where keys are
immutable and values are mutable.

{K:V, K1:V1,....Kn:Vn}

Where, K = Key & V = Value

1. Dictionaries are mutable in nature.

2. Default value: {}
3. We have three inbuilt function in dictionary

var.keys()

var.values()

var.items()

Data Type Example Default Value

int x = int() 0
float x = float() 0.0
complex x = complex() 0j
bool x = bool() False
str x = str() "" (empty string)
list x = list() [] (empty list)
tuple x = tuple() () (empty tuple)
set x = set() set() (empty set)
dict x = dict() {} (empty dictionary)
bytes x = bytes() b'' (empty bytes)
bytearray x = bytearray() bytearray(b'') (empty bytearray)
NoneType x = None None

Operators: These are some symbols which have some specific meaning to work on
operands to do an operation effectively, efficiently or precisely.
In python, we have 7 types of operators:

1. Arithmetic Operators
2. Logical Operators
3. Relational Operators
4. Bitwise Operators
5. Assignment Operators
6. Membership Operators
7. Identity Operators

Arithmetic Operators: These are all mathematical operators to do an operation.

Operator Operation Example

+ Addition 5+2=7

- Subtraction 4-2=2

* Multiplication 2*3=6

/ Division 4/2=2

// Floor Division 10 // 3 = 3

% Modulo 5%2=1

** Power 4 ** 2 = 16

Relational Operator: These are some comparison operators where you compare the
operands and get the output in the form of true or false.

Operato Meaning Example

r

== Is Equal To 3 == 5 gives us
False

!= Not Equal To 3 != 5 gives us

 True

> Greater Than 3 > 5 gives us

False

< Less Than 3 < 5 gives us

True

>= Greater Than or 3 >= 5 give us

Equal To False

<= Less Than or 3 <= 5 gives us

Equal To True

Logical Operators: These are some comparison operators where we compare data
using gates.

(AND, OR, XOR, NOT)

Operato Exampl Meaning

r e

and (&) a and b Logical AND:

True only if both the operands are True

or (|) a or b Logical OR:

True if at least one of the operands is True

not (~) not a Logical NOT:

True if the operand is False and vice-versa.

xor (^) a xor b Logical XOR:

True if conditions are opposite, otherwise
False.

Feb 27, 2025

Bitwise Operator: This operator is used to compare the data using binary methods and
give you output in the form of numbers.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

1024 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

Rules to solve bitwise:

1. Find the bin of both numbers.

2. Solve the bin with respective truth tables.
3. Put the power of 2 at one (1) place.
4. Sum it and calculate it.

Right Shift: Shift two places in the unit place to the right.

Left Shift: Shifts the bits of the number to the right and fills 0 on voids left.

Feb 28, 2025

Assignment Operator: These are the operators where we solve the operands by
having some operators, in the presence of equals to(=).

Operator Name Example

= Assignment Operator a=7

+= Addition Assignment a += 1 # a = a + 1

-= Subtraction Assignment a -= 3 # a = a - 3

*= Multiplication Assignment a *= 4 # a = a * 4

/= Division Assignment a /= 3 # a = a / 3
 %= Remainder Assignment a %= 10 # a = a % 10

**= Exponent Assignment a **= 10 # a = a ** 10

Membership Operator: In this operator we check whether a sub-data belongs to data

or not, we use ‘in’ and ‘not in’ operator and get the output in the form of True/False.

Operato Meaning Example

r

in True if value/variable is found in the sequence 5 in x

not in True if value/variable is not found in the 5 not in x

sequence

Identity Operator: In this operator we check the data belonging to each other with their
respective ‘ID’, we use ‘is’ and ‘not is’ operator and get the output in the form of
True/False.

Operato Meaning Example

r

is True if the operands are identical (refer to the x is True

same object)

is not True if the operands are not identical (do not x is not
refer to the same object) True

TypeCasting: It’s a phenomenon of converting one data type into another data type.

Syntax: var1=value

var1=data(var)

print(a)
 Int Float Complex Bool String List Tuple Set Dict

Int ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✘ ✘ ✘ ✘ ✘

Float ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✘ ✘ ✘ ✘ ✘

Complex ✘ ✘ ✓ ✓ ✘ ✘ ✘ ✘ ✘

Bool ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✘ ✘ ✘ ✘ ✘

String ✘ ✘ ✘ ✓ ✘ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✘

List ✘ ✘ ✘ ✓ ✘ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✘

Tuple ✘ ✘ ✘ ✓ ✘ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✘

Set ✘ ✘ ✘ ✓ ✘ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✘

Dict ✘ ✘ ✘ ✓ ✘ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Mar 3, 2025

Print Function: Print is an inbuilt function which is used to get the input in the terminal
which is given by the user.

Input Function: Input is an inbuilt function which is used to take input or messages
from the user.

By default the nature of input is string.

Syntax: input(‘message’)

eval(): It is an inbuilt function which is used to evaluate or validate every data type with
respective symbols.

Mar 4, 2025

Control statement: It is a phenomenon where we control the operation by providing

some set of instructions to run the operation.
We have two types of control statement:

1. Conditional / Decisional
2. Looping

Conditional/Decisional: It’s a type of control statement where we provide some

condition for our situation to make an operation using if, else, elif, nestedif.

If: It is a condition where you deal with a true body statement or true condition for your
operation.

Syntax:

if condition:

TBS(True Body Statement)

isinstance(value, datatype)

Else: It is a conditional statement where you give a false statement for a true condition.

*In else we don’t mention conditions, we mention false statements.

If condition:

TBS(True Body Statement)

else:

FBS(False Body Statement)

Mar 5, 2025

elif: It is a conditional statement where we have ‘n’ number of true conditions for a
single operation.

Here, every true condition is interlinked to each other where if the first condition gets
true that will not go to the second condition.

We can use ‘n’ number of elif for a single operation where else is the optional.

Mar 6, 2025

Nested if: It is a type of conditional statement where we have a condition inside a

condition in which if the first condition is satisfied then only it will go for the second
condition.

In this condition, every if has an else part.

Looping: It is a control statement where we do the same set of instructions again and
again until and unless the condition becomes false.

We use looping to avoid the same set of instructions, to reduce the code size to
increase the efficiency.

We have two types of looping

1. While loop
2. For loop

While loop: It’s a looping statement where we have the same set of instructions again
and again until and unless conditions become false.

In the while loop we follow some loop:

1. To run a while loop we have to initialize the starting point.

2. Using while we give the stop point for the operation.
3. Write logic inside the body.
 4. To run the loop we use updation in the form of increment, decrement.

Syntax:

Initialization (i)

While condition:

Logic

Updation(Inc/Dec)

Mar 11, 2025

Count: It is an inbuilt function which is used to calculate the substrings from the given
string

Syntax: var.count('substring')

Split: It is an inbuilt function which is used to convert a string into a list.

Syntax: car.split()

Mar 12, 2025

ASCII: American Standard Code for Information Interchange

These are some standards which are followed by the computers where we give a
number to a value which is accepted universally.

Chr: It is an inbuilt function which is used to get the character with respective ascii
number.

Syntax: chr(no.)

chr(65) -> ‘A’

Ord: We use order when we know the character but don’t know the number.

Syntax: ord(chr)

ord(‘a’) -> 97

chr(ord(‘a’)-32)-> A
 Mar 24, 2025

Perfect number: It is a number which are sum of their factors except itself

Ex: 6

For Loop: Same set of instructions again and again until and unless the condition
becomes false. But it depends on the collection.

Syntax: for i in collection:

Collection: range(), str, list, tuple, set, dict

range(): It is a function where we set a limit as per lower, upper value.

Syntax: range (Start, End, Step)

In For Loop, we don’t have to initialize, updation to run the loop, it will automatically take
as per collection

In For Loop, whenever we’re dealing with indexing we use range function

Mar 28, 2025

While Loop For Loop

Infinite Loop Finite Loop

Starts with initialization and run up to Depends on collection

updation

Sufficient More Sufficient

We can’t solve set and dict due to Any collection because we take variable
initialization

Intermediate Termination Loop: These are the loop terminators where we cut the
running loop as per user request.

To cut the loop, we use keywords like break, continue, pass

Break: It is a keyword which is used to terminate the following loop at the given
condition or request.

Here, we exits the running loop using syntax: break

 Apr 2, 2025

Functions: It is a block of code where we store a set of instructions as per our

requirement and they are callable when we call it.

Functions are used to reduce the code size by avoiding repetition codes where we
increase the efficiency, durability of the operation.

In python, we have two types of functions:

1. Inbuilt
2. User defined

Inbuilt Function: These are some predefined functions which have some specific task
to do. We don’t have to write code for it.

Unitary Function: These are some common inbuilt functions which are used for every
data type.

Example: print(), input(), eval(), id(), type(), bool()

Str: upper, lower, split(),

List: append(), input(), pop()

Tuple: index(), count()

Set: add(), remove()

Dict: .items, .values, .keys

User-Defined Function: These are functions which are created with the user
requirement.

To create a user defined function we have to use the ‘def’ keyword.

Def: It is a keyword which is used to create a user defined function.

Function Name: It is a name given to a function while creating a function.

Argument: These are some parameters passed while creating a function.

Return: It is a keyword which controls the flow of execution by assigning some values.

Calling Function: These are some functions which are created.

We have 4 types of user-defined functions:

1. Without Argument without return value

2. With Argument without return value
3. Without Argument with return value
4. With Argument with return value

A✗ R✗

A✓ R✗

A✗ R✓

A✓ R✓

Main Space Method Space

ex_upper() 0x11
0x11 Block of Code

Q1. Replace all the uppercase letters in a given string with a *

Q2. Write a function to extract all digits from given string

Q3. WAP to remove all uppercase letters from given string

Apr 7, 2025

JOIN Function: It is a function which is used to join the collection or a substring to the
collection to form a single string.

Syntax: ‘glue str’.join(var)

Without Argument with return value:

Syntax:

Def f_name():

Return v1, v2….

print(f_name())

Note:

1. In these types of functions we have to pass return while calling the function.
2. We use return in the operation to control the flow of execution of the function.

Apr 9, 2025

Anagram: These are the words whose length and alphabets are the same.

Ex: Silent = Listen

Apr 14, 2025

Recursion with Looping

Rules:

1. In this function we have to initialize all the variables in a single formal argument.
2. Create a termination code which is opposite to the looping condition using if and
store the output using return.
 3. Write a logic as per requirement.
4. To update the loop or function we have to update in a single actual argument.

Generator:

Generator is a function where we keep the sequence of the operation by having

each and every element inside the collection using yield keyword.

Yield is keyword which keeps continuity in the operation.

A function which contains at least one yield keyword that function is known as
generator function.

To achieve generator, we have to use typecasting

Difference between yield and return keyword.

Return
 Return is a keyword which controls the flow of excecution by passing the value.
 We use return in in normal function, recursion function.
 Return don’t need any type casting to get the output.

Yield
 Yield is keyword which keep the continuity of the operation by pausing the loop and
again starting from the same point.
 A function which contain at least on yield keyword that function is known as generator.
 It need type casting to get the output.
Local & Global Variable
Global Variable

 These are the variables which are created inside the main space.
 It is possible to access, modify global variable inside the main function.
 It is possible to access global variable inside method area but we can’t
modify inside the function.
 To modify global variable inside the function we have to use a keyword
global.
Main Space method space

a 0x11

0x11 10 print(a+b)

print(a,b)

b 0x22
 0x22 20

Sum()

print(a,b) print(a+b)

print(a+b)

b=15

Local Variable

 These are variables which are created inside the method space.
 It is possible to access, modify local variables inside the same function.
 It is possible to access local variable inside nested function but we
can’t modify directly.
 We use ‘local’ keyword.
 To modify local variable inside nested function we use non local
variable.

OOPS (Object Oriented Programming System)

It is a concept of python where we deal with real time scenarios, In python we
can do operation by programming, but we do operation in a real time scenario
using oops.

 A Container known as object which is oriented, running with set of

instructions in a proper system

oops is nothing but relationship between Class and Objects.

Class: It is a blueprint for an operation.

Syntax:

Class c_name:

{……….
 properties

……..}

Obj = c_name()

Object: Object is Instance of the class.

Members: It is a property of oops where we distinguish according to the class

and object

We have two types of members

 Static member/class member

o These are the member which belongs to the class which are
fixed for all the objects
o For example bank name bank loc, school name , school loc ,
school code

 Object member/instance member

o Object member belongs to the object and they are instance of

the class but they are independent of each other.
o For Example: student name, student roll no, student age,
student class, student marks
o For Example: bank account no, bank balance, bank branch,
bank IFSC code.

Constructor / __init__method / initialisation

 It is phenomena of initiating property of objects to the class.

 To initiate the properties we use __init__ method.
 Syntax: def __init__(self, arguments):

Methods: Methods are the functions which are used to access, modify the
members of class and objects.

 We have three types of methods:

o Object Method
  These methods are use to access, modify the attributes
of the objects.
 To modify, accessing the objects we have to use self.

def f_name(self , args):

{
}
def f_name(self) def f_name(self,new):
print(self.args,…….) self.args=new

Access – obj.f_name()
Modify = obj.f_name(value)

o Class Method

 In this method we deal with class members where we

access the data ,modify the data

 As per python standards anything related to class, we

use ‘cls’ with a decorator @classmethod

@classmethod
def f_name(cls,val):
{
}

Access Modify

@classmethod @classmethod

def f_name(cls,val):
cls.val = val
cls_name.f_name(val)_
def f_name(cls):
print(cls.val)
class.f_name()
 o Static Method

 It is method which don’t belong to any class or object act

as a supportive method.
 Due to fix nature we don’t have to mention cls,self into it
 To run a static method, we have to use a decorator
@staticmethod
 Syntax : @staticmethod
o def f_name():

private

it is access specifier where we give complete protection to the class properties which
can be accessible by the person who has given the security

Inheritance:
 It’s a property of oops where we deviate properties from one class to
another class
 The class which deviates properties to another class is known as
parent / super / base class
 The class which acquire the property is known as child class / sub
class / derived class.

000
Parent / Super / Base Class

We have 5 types of Inheritance:

Child / Sub / Derived Class
1) Single Level Inheritance
2) Multi Level Inheritance
3) Multiple Inheritance
4) Hierarchical Inheritance
5) Hybrid Inheritance

( Single Level:

Multi Level )

Multiple Inherictance:
It is type of inheritance where we deviate properties from multiple parent to single child
class.

PC1 PC2 PC3

CC

Syntax:

Class A:

Class B:

Class C:

Class D (A,B,C):

Hierarchical Inheritance:

Syntax:

Class A:

Class B(A):

Class C(A):
Hybrid Inheritance: These are the inheritance which are having more than one
model in a single model that models are known as Hybrid Inheritance.

PC

CC

(Heriarichal)

CC CC