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Discrete Differential
Geometry
Integrable Structure

Alexander I. Bobenko
Yuri B. Suris

Graduate Studies
in Mathematics
Volume 98
 Editorial Board
David Cox (Chair)
Steven G. Krantz
Rafe Mazzeo
Martin Scharlemann

2000 Mathematics Subject Classification. Primary 53-01, 53-02;

Secondary 51Axx, 51Bxx, 53Axx, 37Kxx, 39A12, 52C26.

For additional information and updates on this book, visit

www.ams.org/bookpages/gsm-98

Library o f Congress C atalogin g-in-P u b lication D a ta

Bobenko, Alexander I.
Discrete differential geometry: integrable structure / Alexander I. Bobenko, Yuri B. Suris.
p. cm. — (Graduate studies in mathematics ; v. 98)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8218-4700-8 (alk. paper)
1. Integral geometry. 2. Geometry, Differential. 3. Discrete geometry. I. Suris, Yuri B.,
1963- II. Title.

QA672 .B63 2008

516.3'62— dc22 2008029305

C opyin g and reprinting. Individual readers of this publication, and nonprofit libraries
acting for them, are permitted to make fair use of the material, such as to copy a chapter for use
in teaching or research. Permission is granted to quote brief passages from this publication in
reviews, provided the customary acknowledgment of the source is given.
Republication, systematic copying, or multiple reproduction of any material in this publication
is permitted only under license from the American Mathematical Society. Requests for such
permission should be addressed to the Acquisitions Department, American Mathematical Society,
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© 2008 by the American Mathematical Society. All rights reserved.

The American Mathematical Society retains all rights
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 13 12 11 10 09 08
Contents

Preface xi

Introduction xiii
What is discrete differential geometry xiii
Integrability xv
From discrete to smooth xvii
Structure of this book xxi
How to read this book xxii
Acknowledgements xxiii

Chapter 1. Classical Differential Geometry 1

1.1. Conjugate nets 2
1.1.1. Notion of conjugate nets 2
1.1.2. Alternative analytic description of conjugate nets 3
1.1.3. Transformations of conjugate nets 4
1.1.4. Classical formulation of F-transformation 5
1.2. Koenigs and Moutard nets 7
1.2.1. Notion of Koenigs and Moutard nets 7
1.2.2. Transformations of Koenigs and Moutard nets 9
1.2.3. Classical formulation of the Moutard transformation 10
1.3. Asymptotic nets 11
1.4. Orthogonal nets 12
1.4.1. Notion of orthogonal nets 12
1.4.2. Analytic description of orthogonal nets 14
1.4.3. Spinor frames of orthogonal nets 15
1.4.4. Curvatures of surfaces and curvature line
parametrized surfaces 16
vi Contents

1.4.5. Ribaucour transformations of orthogonal nets 17

1.5. Principally parametrized sphere congruences 19
1.6. Surfaces with constant negative Gaussian curvature 20
1.7. Isothermic surfaces 22
1.8. Surfaces with constant mean curvature 26
1.9. Bibliographical notes 28

Chapter 2. Discretization Principles. Multidimensional Nets 31

2.1. Discrete conjugate nets (Q-nets) 32
2.1.1. Notion and consistency of Q-nets 32
2.1.2. Transformations of Q-nets 38
2.1.3. Alternative analytic description of Q-nets 40
2.1.4. Continuous limit 42
2.2. Discrete line congruences 43
2.3. Discrete Koenigs and Moutard nets 47
2.3.1. Notion of dual quadrilaterals 47
2.3.2. Notion of discrete Koenigs nets 49
2.3.3. Geometric characterization of two-dimensional
discrete Koenigs nets 54
2.3.4. Geometric characterization of three-dimensional
discrete Koenigs nets 56
2.3.5. Function v and Christoffel duality 58
2.3.6. Moutard representative of a discrete Koenigs net 60
2.3.7. Continuous limit 60
2.3.8. Notion and consistency of T-nets 61
2.3.9. Transformations of T-nets 63
2.3.10. Discrete M-nets 65
2.4. Discrete asymptotic nets 66
2.4.1. Notion and consistency of discrete asymptotic nets 66
2.4.2. Discrete Lelieuvre representation 70
2.4.3. Transformations of discrete A-nets 72
2.5. Exercises 73
2.6. Bibliographical notes 82

Chapter 3. Discretization Principles. Nets in Quadrics 87

3.1. Circular nets 88
3.1.1. Notion and consistency of circular nets 88
3.1.2. Transformations of circular nets 92
3.1.3. Analytic description of circular nets 93
3.1.4. Mobius-geometric description of circular nets 96
Contents vii

3.2. Q-nets in quadrics 99

3.3. Discrete line congruences in quadrics 101
3.4. Conical nets 103
3.5. Principal contact element nets 106
3.6. Q-congruences of spheres 110
3.7. Ribaucour congruences of spheres 113
3.8. Discrete curvature line parametrization in Lie, Mobius and
Laguerre geometries 115
3.9. Discrete asymptotic nets in Pliicker line geometry 118
3.10. Exercises 120
3.11. Bibliographical notes 123

Chapter 4. Special Classes of Discrete Surfaces 127

4.1. Discrete Moutard nets in quadrics 127
4.2. Discrete K-nets 130
4.2.1. Notion of a discrete K-net 130
4.2.2. Backlund transformation 133
4.2.3. Hirota equation 133
4.2.4. Discrete zero curvature representation 139
4.2.5. Discrete K-surfaces 139
4.2.6. Discrete sine-Gordon equation 142
4.3. Discrete isothermic nets 145
4.3.1. Notion of a discrete isothermic net 145
4.3.2. Cross-ratio characterization of discrete isothermic
nets 147
4.3.3. Darboux transformation of discrete isothermic nets 151
4.3.4. Metric of a discrete isothermic net 152
4.3.5. Moutard representatives of discrete isothermic nets 155
4.3.6. Christoffel duality for discrete isothermic nets 156
4.3.7. 3D consistency and zero curvature representation 158
4.3.8. Continuous limit 160
4.4. S-isothermic nets 161
4.5. Discrete surfaces with constant curvature 170
4.5.1. Parallel discrete surfaces and line congruences 170
4.5.2. Polygons with parallel edges and mixed area 170
4.5.3. Curvatures of a polyhedral surface with a parallel
Gauss map 173
4.5.4. Q-nets with constant curvature 175
4.5.5. Curvature of principal contact element nets 177
viii Contents

4.5.6. Circular minimal nets and nets with constant mean

curvature 178
4.6. Exercises 179
4.7. Bibliographical notes 183

Chapter 5. Approximation 187

5.1. Discrete hyperbolic systems 187
5.2. Approximation in discrete hyperbolic systems 190
5.3. Convergence of Q-nets 196
5.4. Convergence of discrete Moutard nets 197
5.5. Convergence of discrete asymptotic nets 199
5.6. Convergence of circular nets 200
5.7. Convergence of discrete K-surfaces 205
5.8. Exercises 206
5.9. Bibliographical notes 207

Chapter 6. Consistency as Integrability 209

6.1. Continuous integrable systems 210
6.2. Discrete integrable systems 213
6.3. Discrete 2D integrable systems on graphs 215
6.4. Discrete Laplace type equations 217
6.5. Quad-graphs 218
6.6. Three-dimensional consistency 220
6.7. From 3D consistency to zero curvature representations and
Backlund transformations 222
6.8. Geometry of boundary value problems for integrable 2D
equations 227
6.8.1. Initial value problem 228
6.8.2. Extension to a multidimensional lattice 231
6.9. 3D consistent equations with noncommutative fields 235
6.10. Classification of discrete integrable 2D systems with fields
on vertices. I 239
6.11. Proof of the classification theorem 242
6.11.1. 3D consistent systems, biquadratics and
tetrahedron property 242
6.11.2. Analysis: descending from multiaffine Q to
quartic r 245
6.11.3. Synthesis: ascending from quartic r to biquadratic h 247
X Contents

9.2.4. Planar families of spheres; Dupin cyclides 340

9.3. Mobius geometry 341
9.3.1. Objects of Mobius geometry 341
9.3.2. Projective model of Mobius geometry 344
9.3.3. Mobius transformations 348
9.4. Laguerre geometry 350
9.5. Pliicker line geometry 353
9.6. Incidence theorems 357
9.6.1. Menelaus’ and Ceva’s theorems 357
9.6.2. Generalized Menelaus’ theorem 360
9.6.3. Desargues’ theorem 361
9.6.4. Quadrangular sets 362
9.6.5. Carnot’s and Pascal’s theorems 364
9.6.6. Brianchon’s theorem 366
9.6.7. Miquel’s theorem 367

Appendix. Solutions of Selected Exercises 369

A.I. Solutions of exercises to Chapter 2 369
A.2. Solutions of exercises to Chapter 3 376
A.3. Solutions of exercises to Chapter 4 377
A.4. Solutions of exercises to Chapter 6 381

Bibliography 385

Notation 399

Index 401
Preface

The intended audience of this book is threefold. We wrote it as a textbook

on discrete differential geometry and integrable systems. A one semester
graduate course in discrete differential geometry based on this book was held
at TU Berlin and TU Miinchen several times. At the end of each chapter
we included numerous exercises which we recommend for the classes. For
some of them (marked with asterisks) solutions are supplied. The standard
undergraduate background, i.e., calculus and linear algebra, is required. In
particular, no knowledge of differential geometry is expected, although some
familiarity with curves and surfaces can be helpful.
On the other hand, this book is also written for specialists in geometry
and mathematical physics. It is the first monograph on discrete differential
geometry which reflects the progress in this field during the last decade,
and it contains many original results. The bibliographical notes at the end
of each chapter are intended to provide the reader with an overview of the
relevant research literature.
The third group at which this book is targeted are specialists in geometry
processing, computer graphics, architectural design, numerical simulations
and animation. There is a growing evidence of the importance of intelli­
gent geometric discretizations in these fields. Talking with researchers in
these fields, we were asked many questions regarding the discretization of
differential geometry. We hope to have answered some of them in this book.
All the readers are encouraged to read or at least to skim the Introduc­
tion (some parts of it assume a broader knowledge than the minimum) to
see the words and pictures and to get a sense of how the ideas fit together
and what does the book cover.
Introduction

W h a t is discrete differential geom etry. A new field of discrete dif­

ferential geometry is presently emerging on the border between differential
and discrete geometry; see, for instance, the recent book Bobenko-Schroder-
Sullivan-Ziegler (2008). Whereas classical differential geometry investigates
smooth geometric shapes (such as surfaces), and discrete geometry studies
geometric shapes with finite number of elements (such as polyhedra), dis­
crete differential geometry aims at the development of discrete equivalents of
notions and methods of smooth surface theory. The latter appears as a limit
of refinement of the discretization. Current interest in this field derives not
only from its importance in pure mathematics but also from its relevance
for other fields: see the lecture course on discrete differential geometry in
computer graphics by Desbrun-Grinspun-Schroder (2005), the recent book
on architectural geometry by Pottmann-Asperl-Hofer-Kilian (2007), and the
mathematical video on polyhedral meshes and their role in geometry, nu­
merics and computer graphics by Janzen-Polthier (2007).
For a given smooth geometry one can suggest many different discretiza­
tions with the same continuous limit. Which is the best one? From the theo­
retical point of view, one would strive to preserve fundamental properties of
the smooth theory. For applications the requirements of a good discretiza­
tion are different: one aims at the best approximation of a smooth shape,
on the one hand, and at on the other hand, its representation by a discrete
shape with as few elements as possible. Although these criteria are different,
it turns out that intelligent theoretical discretizations are distinguished also
by their good performance in applications. We mention here as an example
the discrete Laplace operator on simplicial surfaces ( “cotan formula” ) intro­
duced by Pinkall-Polthier (1993) in their investigation of discrete minimal
xiv Introduction

surfaces, which turned out to be extremely important in geometry processing

where it found numerous applications, e.g., Desbrun-Meyer-Alliez (2002),
Botsch-Kobbelt (2004), to name but two. Another example is the theory of
discrete minimal surfaces by Bobenko-Hoffmann-Springborn (2006), which
turned out to have striking convergence properties: these discrete surfaces
approximate their smooth analogs with all derivatives.
A straightforward way to discretize differential geometry would be to
take its analytic description in terms of differential equations and to apply
standard methods of numerical analysis. Such a discretization makes smooth
problems amenable to numerical methods. Discrete differential geometry
does not proceed in this way. Its main message is:

Discretize the whole theory, not just the equations.

This means that one should develop a discrete theory which respects
fundamental aspects of the smooth one; which of the properties are to be
taken into account is a nontrivial problem. The discrete geometric the­
ory turns out to be as rich as its smooth counterpart, if not even richer. In
particular, there are many famous existence theorems at the core of the clas­
sical theory. Proper discretizations open a way to make them constructive.
For now, the statement about the richness of discrete differential geometry
might seem exaggerated, as the number of supporting examples is restricted
(although steadily growing). However, one should not forget that we are
at the beginning of the development of this discipline, while classical differ­
ential geometry has been developed for centuries by the most outstanding
mathematicians.
As soon as one takes advantage of the apparatus of differential equations
to describe geometry, one naturally deals with parametrizations. There is
a part of classical differential geometry dealing with parametrized surfaces,
coordinate systems and their transformations, which is the content of the
fundamental treatises by Darboux (1914-27) and Bianchi (1923). Nowadays
one associates this part of differential geometry with the theory of integrable
systems; see Fordy-Wood (1994), Rogers-Schief (2002). Recent progress
in discrete differential geometry has led not only to the discretization of
a large body of classical results, but also, somewhat unexpectedly, to a
better understanding of some fundamental structures at the very basis of
the classical differential geometry and of the theory of integrable systems.
It is the aim of this book to provide a systematic presentation of current
achievements in this field.
Returning to the analytic description of geometric objects, it is not sur­
prising that remarkable discretizations yield remarkable discrete equations.
Introduction xv

The main message of discrete differential geometry, addressed to the inte­

grable systems community, becomes:

Discretize equations by discretizing the geometry.

The profundity and fruitfulness of this principle will be demonstrated

throughout the book.

Integrability. We will now give a short overview of the historical develop­

ment of the integrability aspects of discrete differential geometry. The classi­
cal period of surface theory resulted in the beginning of the 20th century in
an enormous wealth of knowledge about numerous special classes of surfaces,
coordinate systems and their transformations, which is summarized in exten­
sive volumes by Darboux (1910, 1914-27), Bianchi (1923), etc. One can say
that the local differential geometry of special classes of surfaces and coordi­
nate systems has been completed during this period. Mathematicians of that
era have found most (if not all) geometries of interest and knew nearly every­
thing about their properties. It was observed that special geometries such as
minimal surfaces, surfaces with constant curvature, isothermic surfaces, or­
thogonal and conjugate coordinate systems, Ribaucour sphere congruences,
Weingarten line congruences etc. have many similar features. Among others
we mention Backlund and Darboux type transformations with remarkable
permutability properties investigated mainly by Bianchi, and the existence
of special deformations within the class (associated family). Geometers real­
ized that there should be a unifying fundamental structure behind all these
common properties of quite different geometries; and they were definitely
searching for this structure; see Jonas (1915) and Eisenhart (1923).
Much later, after the advent of the theory of integrable systems in the
the last quarter of the 20th century, these common features were recognized
as being associated with the integrability of the underlying differential equa­
tions. The theory of integrable systems (called also the theory of solitons) is
a vast field in mathematical physics with a huge literature. It has applica­
tions in fields ranging from algebraic and differential geometry, enumerative
topology, statistical physics, quantum groups and knot theory to nonlinear
optics, hydrodynamics and cosmology.
The most famous models of this theory are the Korteweg-de Vries (KdV),
the nonlinear Schrodinger and the sine-Gordon equations. The KdV equa­
tion played the most prominent role in the early stage of the theory. It was
derived by Korteweg-de Vries (1895) to describe the propagation of waves
in shallow water. Localized solutions of this equation called solitons gave
the whole theory its name. The birth of the theory of solitons is associated
with the famous paper by Gardner-Green-Kruskal-Miura (1967), where the
inverse scattering method for the analytic treatment of the KdV equation
xvi Introduction

was invented. The sine-Gordon equation is the oldest integrable equation

and the most important one for geometry. It describes surfaces with con­
stant negative Gaussian curvature and goes back at least to Bour (1862)
and Bonnet (1867). Many properties of this equation which are nowadays
associated with integrability were known in classical surface theory.
One can read about the basic structures of the theory of integrable sys­
tems in numerous books. We mention just a few of them: Newell (1985),
Faddeev-Takhtajan (1986), Hitchin-Segal-Ward (1999), Dubrovin-Kriche-
ver-Novikov (2001).
The most commonly accepted features of integrable systems include:

In the theory of solitons nonlinear integrable equations are usually

represented as a compatibility condition of a linear system called
the zero curvature representation (also known as Lax or Zakharov-
Shabat representations). Various analytic methods of investigation
of soliton equations (like the inverse scattering method, algebro-
geometric integration, asymptotic analysis, etc.) are based on this
representation.
Another indispensable feature of integrable systems is that they
possess Backlund-Darboux transformations. These special trans­
formations are often used to generate new solutions from the known
ones.
It is a characteristic feature of soliton (integrable) partial differ­
ential equations that they appear not separately but are always
organized in hierarchies of commuting flows .

It should be mentioned that there is no commonly accepted mathematical

definition of integrability (as the title of the volume “What is integrabil­
ity?” , Zakharov (1991), clearly demonstrates). Different scientists suggest
different properties as the defining ones. Usually, one refers to some addi­
tional structures, such as those mentioned above. In this book, we propose
an algorithmic definition of integrability given in terms of the system itself.
In both areas, in differential geometry and in the theory of integrable
systems, there were substantial efforts to discretize the fundamental struc­
tures.
In the theory of solitons the problem is to discretize an integrable dif­
ferential equation preserving its integrability. Various approaches to this
problem began to be discussed in the soliton literature starting from the
mid-1970s. The basic idea is to discretize the zero curvature representation
of the smooth system, i.e., to find proper discrete analogues of the corre­
sponding linear problems. This idea appeared first in Ablowitz-Ladik (1975).
Introduction xvii

Its various realizations based on the bilinear method, algebro-geometric inte­

gration, integral equations, R-matrices, and Lagrangian mechanics were de­
veloped in Hirota (1977a,b), Krichever (1978), Date-Jimbo-Miwa (1982-3),
Quispel-Nijhoff-Capel-Van der Linden (1984), Faddeev-Takhtajan (1986),
Moser-Veselov (1991) (here we give just a few representative references).
An encyclopedic presentation of the Hamiltonian approach to the problem
of integrable discretization is given in Suris (2003).
The development of this field led to a progress in various branches of
mathematics. Pairs of commuting difference operators were classified in
Krichever-Novikov (2003). Laplace transformations of difference operators
on regular lattices were constructed in Dynnikov-Novikov (1997); see also
Dynnikov-Novikov (2003) for a related development of a discrete complex
analysis on triangulated manifolds. A characterization of Jacobians of alge­
braic curves based on algebro-geometric methods of integration of difference
equations was given in Krichever (2006).

From discrete to sm ooth . In differential geometry the original idea of an

intelligent discretization was to find a simple explanation of sophisticated
properties of smooth geometric objects. This was the main motivation for
the early work in this field documented in Sauer (1937, 1970) and Wunder­
lich (1951). The modern period began with the works by Bobenko-Pinkall
(1996a,b) and by Doliwa-Santini (1997), where the relation to the theory of
integrable systems was established. During the next decade this area wit­
nessed a rapid development reflected in numerous publications. In particu­
lar, joint efforts of the main contributors to this field resulted in the books
Bobenko-Seiler (1999) and Bobenko-Schroder-Sullivan-Ziegler (2008). The
present book gives a comprehensive presentation of the results of discrete
differential geometry of parametrized surfaces and coordinate systems along
with its relation to integrable systems. We leave the detailed bibliographical
remarks to the notes at the end of individual chapters of the book.
Discrete differential geometry deals with multidimensional discrete nets
(i.e., maps from the regular cubic lattice Z m into RN or some other suitable
space) specified by certain geometric properties. In this setting, discrete
surfaces appear as two-dimensional layers of multidimensional discrete nets,
and their transformations correspond to shifts in the transversal lattice direc­
tions. A characteristic feature of the theory is that all lattice directions are
considered on an equal footing with respect to the defining geometric prop­
erties. Due to this symmetry, discrete surfaces and their transformations
become indistinguishable. We associate such a situation with the multidi­
mensional consistency (of geometric properties, and of the equations which
serve for their analytic description). In each case, multidimensional con­
sistency, and therefore the existence and construction of multidimensional
xviii Introduction

discrete nets, is seen to rely on some incidence theorems of elementary ge­

ometry.
Conceptually, one can think of passing to a continuous limit by refining
the mesh size in some of the lattice directions. In these directions the net
converges to smooth surfaces whereas those directions that remain discrete
correspond to transformations of the surfaces (see Figure 0.1). Differential
geometric properties of special classes of surfaces and their transformations
arise in this way from (and find their simple explanation in) the elemen­
tary geometric properties of the original multidimensional discrete nets. In
particular, difficult classical theorems about the permutability of Backlund-
Darboux type transformations (Bianchi permutability) for various geome­
tries follow directly from the symmetry of the underlying discrete nets, and
are therefore built in to the very core of the theory. Thus the transition from
differential geometry to elementary geometry via discretization (or, in the
opposite direction, the derivation of differential geometry from the discrete
differential geometry) leads to enormous conceptual simplifications, and the
true roots of the classical theory of special classes of surfaces are found in
various incidence theorems of elementary geometry. In the classical differ­
ential geometry these elementary roots remain hidden. The limiting process
taking the discrete master theory to the classical one is inevitably accompa­
nied by a break of the symmetry among the lattice directions, which always
leads to structural complications.

Figure 0.1. From the discrete master theory to the classical theory:
surfaces and their transformations appear by refining two of three net
directions.

Finding simple discrete explanations for complicated differential-geomet­

ric theories is not the only outcome of this development. It is well known that
differential equations which analytically describe interesting special classes
of surfaces are integrable (in the sense of the theory of integrable systems),
Introduction xix

and conversely, many interesting integrable systems admit a differential-

geometric interpretation. Having identified the roots of integrable differen­
tial geometry in the multidimensional consistency of discrete nets, one is
led to a new (geometric) understanding of integrability itself. First of all,
we adopt the point of view that the central role in this theory is played by
discrete integrable systems. In particular, a great variety of integrable differ­
ential equations can be derived from several fundamental discrete systems
by performing different continuous limits. Further, and more importantly,
we arrive at the idea that the multidimensional consistency of discrete equa­
tions may serve as a constructive and almost algorithmic definition of their
integrability. This idea was introduced in Bobenko-Suris (2002a) (and inde­
pendently in Nijhoff (2002)). This definition of integrability captures enough
structure to guarantee such traditional attributes of integrable equations
as zero curvature representations and Backlund-Darboux transformations
(which, in turn, serve as the basis for applying analytic methods such as in­
verse scattering, finite gap integration, Riemann-Hilbert problems, etc.). A
continuous counterpart (and consequence) of multidimensional consistency
is the well-known fact that integrable systems never appear alone but are
organized into hierarchies of commuting flows.
This conceptual view of discrete differential geometry as the basis of
the theory of surfaces and their transformations as well as of the theory of
integrable systems is schematically represented in Figure 0.2.
This general picture looks very natural, and there is a common belief
that the smooth theories can be obtained in a limit from the corresponding
discrete ones. This belief is supported by formal similarities of the cor­
responding difference and differential equations. However one should not
underestimate the difficulty of the convergence theorems required for a rig­
orous justification of this philosophy.
Solutions to similar problems are substantial in various areas of differen­
tial geometry. Classical examples to be mentioned here are the fundamental
results of Alexandrov and Pogorelov on the metric geometry of polyhedra
and convex surfaces (see Alexandrov (2005) and Pogorelov (1973)). Alexan­
drov’s theorem states that any abstract convex polyhedral metric is uniquely
realized by a convex polyhedron in Euclidean 3-space. Pogorelov proved
the corresponding existence and uniqueness result for convex Riemannian
metrics by approximating smooth surfaces by polyhedra. Another example
is Thurston’s approximation of conformal mappings by circle packings (see
Thurston (1985)). The theory of circle packings (see the book by Stephenson
(2005)) is treated as discrete complex analysis. At the core of this theory
is the Koebe-Andreev-Thurston theorem which states that any simplicial
decomposition of a sphere can be uniquely (up to Mobius transformations)
XX Introduction

Differential Geometry Discrete Differential Integrability

Geometry

integrable
equations

zero-curvature
representation
Backlund-
Darboux
transformations
surfaces and their
transformations

y
hierarchies of
V /
commuting flows

multidimensional
consistency

Figure 0.2. The consistency principle of discrete differential geometry

as conceptual basis of the differential geometry of special surfaces and
of integrability.

realized by a circle packing. According to Rodin-Sullivan (1987) the confor-

mal Riemann map can be approximated by such circle packings (even with
all the derivatives as shown by He-Schramm (1998)).
The first convergence results concerning the transition from the middle
to the left column in Figure 0.2 (from discrete to smooth differential geom­
etry) were proven in Bobenko-Matthes-Suris (2003, 2005). This turns the
general philosophy of discrete differential geometry into a firmly established
Introduction xxi

mathematical truth for several important classes of surfaces and coordinate

systems, such as conjugate nets, orthogonal nets, including general curva­
ture line parametrized surfaces, surfaces with constant negative Gaussian
curvature, and general asymptotic line parametrized surfaces. For some
other classes, such as isothermic surfaces, the convergence results are yet to
be rigorously established.
The geometric way of thinking about discrete integrability has also led to
novel concepts in that theory. An immanent and important feature of various
surface parametrizations is the existence of distinguished points, where the
combinatorics of coordinate lines changes (like umbilic points, where the
combinatorics of the curvature lines is special). In the discrete setup this
can be modelled by quad-graphs, which are cell decompositions of topological
two-manifolds with quadrilateral faces; see Bobenko-Pinkall (1999). Their
elementary building blocks are still quadrilaterals, but they are attached to
one another in a manner which can be more complicated than in Z 2. A
systematic development of the theory of integrable systems on quad-graphs
has been undertaken in Bobenko-Suris (2002a). In the framework of the
multidimensional consistency, quad-graphs can be realized as quad-surfaces
embedded in a higher-dimensional lattice Zd. This interpretation proves to
be fruitful for the analytic treatment of integrable systems on quad-graphs,
such as the integral representation of discrete holomorphic functions and the
isomonodromic Green’s function in Bobenko-Mercat-Suris (2005).

Structu re o f this b o o k . The structure of this book follows the logic of

this Introduction. We start in Chapter 1 with an overview of some classical
results from surface theory, focusing on transformations of surfaces. The
brief presentation in this chapter is oriented towards the specialists already
familiar with the differential geometry of surfaces. The geometries consid­
ered include general conjugate and orthogonal nets in spaces of arbitrary
dimension, Koenigs nets, asymptotic nets on general surfaces, as well as
special classes of surfaces, such as isothermic ones and surfaces with con­
stant negative Gaussian curvature. There are no proofs in this chapter. The
analytic proofs are usually tedious and can be found in the original litera­
ture. The discrete approach which we develop in the subsequent chapters
will lead to conceptually transparent and technically much simpler proofs.
In Chapter 2 we define and investigate discrete analogs of the most
fundamental objects of projective differential geometry: conjugate, Koenigs
and asymptotic nets and line congruences. For instance, discrete conjugate
nets are just multidimensional nets consisting of planar quadrilaterals. Our
focus is on the idea of multidimensional consistency of discrete nets and
discrete line congruences.
xxii Introduction

According to Klein’s Erlangen Program, the classical geometries (Eu­

clidean, spherical, hyperbolic, Mobius, Pliicker, Lie etc.) can be obtained
by restricting the projective geometry to a quadric. In Chapter 3 we follow
this approach and show that the nets and congruences defined in Chapter 2
can be restricted to quadrics. In this way we define and investigate dis­
crete analogs of curvature line parametrized surfaces and orthogonal nets,
and give a description of discrete asymptotic nets within the framework of
Pliicker line geometry.
Imposing simultaneously several constraints on (discrete) conjugate nets,
one comes to special classes of surfaces. This is the subject of Chapter 4. The
main examples are discrete isothermic surfaces and discrete surfaces with
constant curvature. From the analytic point of view, these are represented
by 2-dimensional difference equations (as opposed to the 3-dimensional equa­
tions in Chapters 2, 3).
Then in Chapter 5 we develop an approximation theory for hyperbolic
difference systems, which is applied to derive the classical theory of smooth
surfaces as a continuum limit of the discrete theory. We prove that the
discrete nets of Chapters 2, 3, and 4 approximate the corresponding smooth
geometries of Chapter 1 and simultaneously their transformations. In this
setup, Bianchi’s permutability theorems appear as simple corollaries.
In Chapter 6 we formulate the concept of multidimensional consistency
as a defining principle of integrability. We derive basic features of integrable
systems such as the zero curvature representation and Backlund-Darboux
transformations from the consistency principle. Moreover, we obtain a com­
plete list of 2-dimensional integrable systems. This classification is a striking
application of the consistency principle.
In Chapters 7 and 8 these ideas are applied to discrete complex analysis.
We study Laplace operators on graphs and discrete harmonic and holomor-
phic functions. Linear discrete complex analysis appears as a linearization
of the theory of circle patterns. The consistency principle allows us to single
out distinguished cases where we obtain more detailed analytic results (like
Green’s function and isomonodromic special functions).
Finally, in Chapter 9 we give for the reader’s convenience a brief intro­
duction to projective geometry and the geometries of Lie, Mobius, Laguerre
and Pliicker. We also include a number of classical incidence theorems rel­
evant to discrete differential geometry.

H ow to read this b o o k . Different audiences (see the Preface) should read

this book differently, as suggested in Figure 0.3. Namely, Chapter 1 on clas­
sical differential geometry is addressed to specialists working in this field.
It is thought to be used as a short guide in the theory of surfaces and their
Introduction xxiii

transformations. This is the reason why Chapter 1 does not contain proofs
and exercises. Students who use this book for a graduate course and have
less or no experience in differential geometry should not read this chapter
and should start directly with Chapter 2 (and consult Chapter 1 at the end of
the course, after mastering the discrete theory). This was the way how this
course was taught in Berlin and Miinchen, with no knowledge of differential
geometry required. Those interested primarily in applications of discrete dif­
ferential geometry are advised to browse through Chapters 2-4 and perhaps
also Chapter 5 and to pick up the problems they are particularly interested
in. Almost all results are supplied with elementary geometric formulations
accessible for nonspecialists. Finally, researchers with interest in the theory
of integrable systems could start reading with Chapter 6 and consult the
previous chapters for better understanding of the geometric origin of the
consistency approach to integrability.

graduate course

Figure 0.3. A suggestion for the focus on chapters, depending on the

readers background.

A cknow ledgem ents. Essential parts of this book are based on results ob­
tained jointly with Vsevolod Adler, Tim Hoffmann, Daniel Matthes, Chris­
tian Mercat, Ulrich Pinkall, Helmut Pottmann, and Johannes Wallner. We
warmly thank them for inspiring collaboration.
We are very grateful to Adam Doliwa, Udo Hertrich-Jeromin, Nicolai
Reshetikhin, Wolfgang Schief, Peter Schroder, Boris Springborn, Sergey
Tsarev, Alexander Veselov, Gunter Ziegler for enjoyable and insightful dis­
cussions on discrete differential geometry which influenced the presentation
in this book.
Special thanks go to Emanuel Huhnen-Venedey and Stefan Sechelmann
for their help with the preparation of the manuscript and with the figures.
The support of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) is grate­
fully acknowledged. During the work on this book the authors were partially
xxiv Introduction

supported by the DFG Research Unit “Polyhedral Surfaces” and the DFG
Research Center M a t h e o n “Mathematics for key technologies” in Berlin.
 Chapter 1

Classical
Differential Geometry

In this chapter we discuss some classical results of the differential geome­

try of nets (parametrized surfaces and coordinate systems) in RN, mainly
concentrated around the topics of transformations of nets and of their per-
mutability properties. This classical area was very popular in the differential
geometry of the 19th and of the first quarter of the 20th century, and is well
documented in the fundamental treatises by Bianchi, Darboux, Eisenhart
and others. Our presentation mainly follows these classical treatments, of
course with modifications which reflect our present points of view. We do
not trace back the exact origin of the concrete classical results: often enough
this turns out to be a complicated task in the history of mathematics, which
still waits for its competent investigation.
For the classes of nets described by essentially two-dimensional systems
(special classes of surfaces such as surfaces with a constant negative Gaussian
curvature or isothermic surfaces), the permutability theorems, mainly due
to Bianchi, are dealing with a quadruple of surfaces (depicted as vertices of
a so-called Bianchi quadrilateral). Given three surfaces of such a quadruple,
the fourth one is uniquely defined; see Theorems 1.27 and 1.31.
For the classes of nets described by essentially three-dimensional systems
(conjugate nets; Moutard nets; asymptotic line parametrized surfaces; or­
thogonal nets, including curvature line parametrized surfaces), the situation
is somewhat different. The corresponding permutability theorems (Theo­
rems 1.3, 1.10, 1.15, and 1.20) consist of two parts. The first part of each
theorem presents the traditional view and deals with Bianchi quadrilater­
als. In our opinion, this is not the proper setting in the three-dimensional

1
2 1. Classical Differential Geometry

context, and the nonuniqueness of the fourth net in these theorems reflects
this. The natural setting for permutability is given in the second part, where
the permut ability is associated with an octuple of nets, depicted as vertices
of a combinatorial cube, so that the eighth net is uniquely determined by
the other seven (Eisenhart hexahedron). Our discrete philosophy makes the
origin of such permutability theorems quite transparent.
A few remarks on notation. We denote independent variables of a net
/ : Rm —> RN by u — G Km, and we set = d/dUi. All
nets are supposed to be sufficiently smooth, so that all the required partial
derivatives exist. We write

= {u e R m : Ui = 0 for i ^ n , ... , i s}
for s-dimensional coordinate planes (coordinate axes, if s = 1).

1.1. C o n ju g a te n ets

1.1.1. N otion o f con ju gate nets. We always suppose that the dimension
of the ambient space N > 3.

D efinition 1.1. (C on ju gate net) A map f : Rm —> RN is called an

m-dimensional conjugate net in RN if at every u G Rm and for all pairs
l < i ^ j < m we have didjf G span (<9*/, d jf).

Two-dimensional nets (m = 2) are nothing but parametrized surfaces.

A parametrization of a surface in the three-space (m = 2, N = 3) is a
conjugate net if its second fundamental form is diagonal. For a generic
surface in the three-space, infinitely many such parametrizations can be
found. A generic surface in the four-space carries an essentially unique
conjugate net (uniqueness is understood here up to reparametrizations of
coordinate lines). In higher-dimensional spaces such a parametrization does
not need to exist at all (that is, only special surfaces of codimension > 2
support conjugate nets).
From Definition 1.1 it follows that the conjugate nets are described by
the (linear) differential equations

(1.1) didjf = Cjidif + Cijdjf, i # j,

with some functions Cij : Rm —►R. Compatibility of these equations, i.e.
the requirement di(djdkf) = dj(didkf), is expressed by the following system
of (nonlinear) differential equations:

(1.2) diCjk = CijCjk + CjiCik — CjkCik, i y^ j ^ k ^ i.

Note that the latter equations for the coefficients do not contain / any­
more. The system (1.1), (1.2) is hyperbolic (see Chapter 5); the following
1.1. Conjugate nets 3

data define a well-posed Goursat problem for this system and determine a
conjugate net / uniquely:
(Q i) the values of / on the coordinate axes 25* for 1 < i < ra, i.e., m smooth
curves f\^. with a common intersection point / ( 0);
(Q2) the values of Cij, cji on the coordinate planes 23^ for all 1 < i < j < ra,
i.e., m(m — 1) smooth real-valued functions Cij\^. of two variables.
It is important to note that Definition 1.1, as well as Definition 1.2
below, may be reformulated so as to deal with projectively invariant notions
only, and thus they belong to projective differential geometry. In this setting
the ambient space RN of a conjugate net should be interpreted as an affine
part of the projective space WPN — P(IRAr“hl), with R^ +1 being the space of
homogeneous coordinates. Equations (1.1) hold then for the standard lift
( /, 1) G R^ +1 of the conjugate net / ~ [ / : 1] £ WPN, while an arbitrary
lift f = A( /, 1) £ R n + 1 is characterized by a more general linear system
(1.3) didjf = Cjidif + Cijdjf + pijf, i+ j
(with the corresponding compatibility conditions for the coefficients Qj, pij,
which generalize equations (1.2)). We will not pursue this description fur­
ther.

1.1.2. A ltern ative analytic d escrip tion o f con ju gate nets. A classical
description of conjugate nets makes use of the following construction. Given
the functions , define functions gi : Rm —> M* as solutions of the system
of differential equations
(1.4) d{Qj — Cijgj , i 7^ j.
Compatibility of this system is expressed as diCjk — djc^ and is a conse­
quence of equations (1.2) (whose right-hand sides are symmetric with re­
spect to the flip i j). Solutions gi can be specified by prescribing their
values arbitrarily on the corresponding coordinate axes 33*. Define vectors
Wi = g~ldif. It follows from (1.1) and (1.4) that these vectors satisfy the
following differential equations:

(1.5) diWj — -CjiWi, i 7^ j .

9j
Thus, defining the rotation coefficients as

( 1 .6) 7ji = ~ cjii

yj
we end up with the following system:
(1.7) dif = giWi,
(1.8) d{Wj = 7 jiW i, i 7^ j,
(1*9) fygj = Qilij > i 7^ j-
4 1. Classical Differential Geometry

Rotation coefficients satisfy a closed system of differential equations, which

follow from (1.2) upon substitution (1.6):

(1.10) di'Jkj — Ifki^fij -i ^/ J / ^

Eqs. (1.10), known as the Darboux system, can be regarded as compatibility
conditions of the linear differential equations (1.8).
Observe an important difference between the two descriptions of conju­
gate nets: while the functions Cij describe the local geometry of a net, this
is not the case for the rotation coefficients 7^. Indeed, to define the latter,
one needs first to find gi as solutions of differential equations (1.4).

1.1.3. Transform ations o f con ju gate nets. The most general class of
transformations of conjugate nets was introduced by Jonas and Eisenhart.

D efinition 1.2. (Fundam ental transform ation) Two m-dimensional

conjugate nets / , / + : Mm —> RN are said to be related by a fundamental
transformation (F-transformation) if at every point u G Mm of the domain
and for each 1 < i < m the three vectors d if, d if+ and Sf — f + — f are
coplanar. The net f + is called an F-transform of the net f .

This definition yields that F-transformations are described by the fol­

lowing (linear) differential equations:

(1.11) dif + = aidif + bi(f+ - f ) .

Of course, the functions a^, bi : Rm —>R must satisfy (nonlinear) differential
equations, which express the compatibility of (1.11) with (1.1):

(1*12) &iCLj — (Q>i Q>j)Cij ~j“ bi{cLj 1),

(1.13) dibj = ctb j + c p i - b j b i ,
(1.14) (ijC^j — OjCjj "i- 6^(flj 1).

The following data determine an F-transform / + of a given conjugate net f

uniquely:
(Fi) a point / + (0);
(F2) the values of a^, bi on the coordinate axes for 1 < i < m, i.e., 2m
smooth real-valued functions bi [3 . of one variable.
Observe a remarkable conceptual similarity between Definitions 1.1 and
1.2. Indeed, one can interpret the condition of Definition 1.1 as planarity of
infinitesimal quadrilaterals (/(u ), f(u + ^e^), f(u + tiCi + c^ej), f (u + tjej)),
while the condition of Definition 1.2 can be interpreted as planarity of in­
finitesimally narrow quadrilaterals ( f ( u ) , f ( u + e^ei),/+ (w + e^e*), f + (u)).
1.1. Conjugate nets 5

One can iterate F-transformations and obtain a sequence / , / + , ( / + )+ ,

etc., of conjugate nets. We will see that this can be interpreted as generating
a conjugate net of dimension M = m + 1, with m continuous directions and
one discrete direction. The most remarkable property of F-transformations
is the following permutability theorem.

T h eorem 1.3. (P erm utability o f F -transform ations)

1) Let f be an m-dimensional conjugate net, and let and f ^ be two
of its F-transforms. Then there exists a two-parameter family of conjugate
nets / ( 12) that are F-transforms of both f ^ and f^2K Corresponding points
of the four conjugate nets f , f ^ \ f ^ and f ^ are coplanar.
2) Let f be an m-dimensional conjugate net. Let f^ \ f ^ and f ^ be
three of its F-transforms, and let three further conjugate nets f^12\ f ^
and f (13) be given such that f ^ is a simultaneous F-transform, of f ^ and
f^ \ Then there exists generically a unique conjugate net / ( 123) that is an
F-transform of f^l2\ f ^ and f ^ . The net / ( 123) is uniquely defined by
the condition that for every permutation (ijk ) of (123) the corresponding
points of f ( %\ f ^ \ f ^ and / ( 123) are coplanar.

The situations described in this theorem can be interpreted as conjugate

nets of dimension M = m + 2, resp. M = m + 3, with m continuous and
two (resp. three) discrete directions.
The theory of discrete conjugate nets allows one to put all directions
on an equal footing and to unify the theories of smooth nets and of their
transformations. Moreover, we will see that both these theories may be seen
as a continuum limit (in some precise sense) of the fully discrete theory, if
the mesh sizes of all or some of the directions become infinitely small (see
Figure 0.1). This way of thinking is the guiding idea and the philosophy of
the discrete differential geometry.
The following special F-transformation is important in the surface the­
ory.

D efinition 1.4. (C om bescu re transform ation) We will say that two Tri­
dimensional conjugate nets / , f + : Mm —> RN are related by a Combescure
transformation if at every point u G Mm and for each 1 < i < m the vectors
dif, d if+ are parallel. The net / + is called parallel to f , or a Combescure
transform of the net f .

1.1.4. Classical form ulation o f F -transform ation. Our formulation of

F-transformations is rather different from the classical one, due to Jonas
and Eisenhart, based on the formula
/, ,4- , 4>
6 1. Classical Differential Geometry

whose data are: an additional solution 0 : Rm —> R of (1.1), a Combescure

transform p : Rm —> RN of / , and the function ijj : Rm —►R, associated
to 4> in the same way as p is related to / . We now demonstrate how to
identify these ingredients within our approach and how they are specified
by the initial data (F 1,2)-
It follows from (1.12)—(1.14) that

6'j \ bj bj b^
C%j + Cji .
CLj (Xi Q'j

The symmetry of the right-hand sides of (1.16), (1.13) yields the existence
of the functions 0 , : Rm —►R such that

/ s did) bi di(b+ _
(1.17) — = —, — — = b i, I < 1 < m.
<fi Oi (f)+

These equations define </>, uniquely up to respective constant factors,

which can be fixed by requiring (f)(0) = </>+(0) = 1. An easy computation
based on (1.16), (1.13) shows that the functions 0, (j)+ satisfy the following
equations:

(1.18) didj(f) = Cijdj(f) + Cjidifa

( 1 . 19) didj<f>+ = c±dj(j>+ ++ cpi<i>+
c±dj<j>+ c± ,

for all 1 < i 7^ j < m. Thus, an F-transformation yields some additional

scalar solutions (j) and of the equations describing the nets / and / + ,
respectively. Of these two, the solution 0 is directly specified by the original
net / and the initial data (F2). Indeed, the data (F2) yield the values of (j)
along the coordinate axes, through integrating the first equations in (1.17);
these values determine the solution of (1.18) with the known coefficients c^
uniquely.
Further, introduce the quantities

d-aoj * = -£■
Then a direct computation based on (1.11), (1.12)-(1.14), and (1.17) shows
that the following equations hold:

(1.21) dip = atidif,

(1.22) diip = aidi(f),

where

(1.23) on = a i ~ 1
<j)+
1.2. Koenigs and Moutard nets 7

Thus, p is a Combescure transform of / , and ^ is a function associated to

0, in Eisenhart’s terminology. Another computation leads to the relation

(1.24) diCtj =: Cij{oti otj).

The same argument as above shows that the data (F2) yield the values of
</>+ , and thus the values of a*, on the coordinate axes . This uniquely
specifies the functions a* everywhere on Rm as solutions of the compatible
linear system (1.24) with the known coefficients C{j. This, in turn, allows
for a unique determination of the solutions p, ip of equations (1.21), (1.22)
with the initial data p(0) = / + (0) — / ( 0) and ^(0) = 1 (here the data (Fi)
enter into the construction). Thus, the classical formula (1.15) is recovered.

1.2. K o e n ig s a n d M o u t a r d n ets

1.2.1. N otion o f K oen igs and M ou tard nets. A geometrically impor­

tant subclass of two-dimensional conjugate nets, very popular in the classical
differential geometry, can be most directly defined as follows.

D efinition 1.5. (K oen igs net) A map f : R2 —> RN is called a Koenigs

net if it satisfies a differential equation

(1.25) did2f = (d2 log 1/) d if + (di logi/) d2f

with some scalar function u : M2 —>R + .

In other words, a Koenigs net is a two-dimensional conjugate net with the

coefficients C21, cyi satisfying d\C2\ — ^2Ci2. Classically, this property has
been interpreted as equality of the so-called Laplace invariants of the net (for
this reason the Koenigs nets are also known as nets with equal invariants).
Remarkably, this property is invariant under projective transformations, so
that the notion of Koenigs nets actually belongs to projective geometry. The
following data determine a Koenigs net / uniquely:
(Ki) the values of / on the coordinate axes S i, ®2, two smooth curves
with a common intersection point / ( 0);
(K2) a smooth function v : R2 -> R+.
Leaving aside numerous geometric properties of Koenigs nets, discovered
by the classics, we formulate here only the following characterization.

T h eorem 1.6. (C hristoffel dual for a K oen igs net) A conjugate net
f : R2 —> R^ is a Koenigs net if and only if there exists a scalar function
v : R2 —►R+ such that the differential one-form df* defined by

* _ d' f *
8 1. Classical Differential Geometry

is closed. In this case the map /* : R2 —> , defined (up to a translation)

by the integration of this one-form, is also a Koenigs net, called Christoffel
dual to f .

This follows immediately by cross-differentiating (1.26). A different way

to formulate the latter equations is:

ft/* I ft/, ft/* lift/,

(i.27) (^ + d2)r i (ft - %)/, (ft - d2)r i (ft + ft)/.
If one considers the ambient space RN of a Koenigs net as an affine part
of RP^, then there is an important choice of representatives for / ( /, 1)
in the space R N+1 of homogeneous coordinates, namely

(1-28) y = v - \ f , 1).
Indeed, a straightforward computation shows that the representatives (1.28)
satisfy the following simple differential equation:
(1.29) d\&2 y = q\2V
with the scalar function <712 = vd\d2 (v~l ). Differential equation (1.29) is
known as the Moutard equation and y is called a Moutard representative of
the Koenigs net / .

D efinition 1.7. (M ou ta rd net) A map y : R2 —>Mj/V+1 is called a Moutard

net if it satisfies the Moutard differential equation (1.29) with some q\ 2 :
R2 -> R.

Thus, we see that Moutard nets appear as special lifts of Koenigs nets to
the space of homogeneous coordinates. Conversely, if y is a Moutard net in
R ^ -1-1, then it is not difficult to figure out the condition for a scalar function
v : R2 —►R, under which / = vy satisfies an equation of the type (1.1): v~ l
has to be a solution of the same Moutard equation (1.29), and then

ft f t / = (ft log v)d\ f + (ft log v)d 2f .

For instance, one can choose v~l to be any component of the vector y; in
this case the N components of f = vy which are different from 1 build a
Koenigs net in R^.
Of course, Moutard nets can be considered also in their own right, i.e.,
one does not have to regard the ambient space R^ -1-1 of a Moutard net
as the space of homogeneous coordinates for MFN. Nevertheless, such an
interpretation is useful in most cases.
The following data determine a Moutard net y uniquely:
(Mi) the values of y on the coordinate axes 231, *B2, i.e., two smooth curves
y\<Bi with a common intersection point y (0);
1.2. Koenigs and Moutard nets 9

(M2) a smooth function qi2 : M2 —>M that has the meaning of the coefficient
of the Moutard equation.

1.2.2. Transform ations o f K oen igs and M ou tard nets. Moutard in­
vented a remarkable analytic device for transforming Moutard nets.

D efin ition 1.8. (M ou ta rd transform ation) Two Moutard nets :

]R2 —►RN are called Moutard transforms of one another if they satisfy (lin­
ear) differential equations

(1.30) diy+ + diy = pi(y+ - y ) ,

(1.31) d2y+ - d 2y = p2 {y+ + y),

with some functions pi,p 2 : M2 —> K (or similar equations with all plus and
minus signs interchanged, which is also equivalent to renaming the coordi­
nate axes 1 2 ).

The functions pi, P2, specifying the Moutard transform, must satisfy
(nonlinear) differential equations that express compatibility of (1.30), (1.31)
with (1.29):

(1-32) dip 2 = d2pi = - q i 2 + p i p 2,

(1-33) = - q u + Zpm -
The following data determine a Moutard transform y+ of a given Moutard
net y:

(M Ti) a point y+ (0) G RN;

(M T2) the values of the functions pi on the coordinate axes *Bi for i = 1, 2,
i.e., two smooth functions Pil^ of one variable.
If the Moutard nets y, y+ in R7V+1 are considered as lifts of Koenigs
nets / = [y], / + = [y+] in MN, then a geometric content of the Moutard
transformation can be easily revealed. Introduce two surfaces jp (1) , Jp(2) :
M2 —* R n with the homogeneous coordinates

F (1) = [y+ + y\, F (2) = [y+ - y).

Then for every u G M2 the points F ^ lie on the line ( / / + ), and

equations (1.30), (1.31) show that this line is tangent to both surfaces F^\
F ^ . One says that these surfaces are focal surfaces of the line congruence
( / / + ) . Now an easy computation shows that on each such line the four
points / , /+ , F (2) build a harmonic set, that is,

(1-34) g( / , F (1), / + , F (2)) = - 1,

where q is the cross-ratio of four collinear points; see (9.54).

10 1. Classical Differential Geometry

D efinition 1.9. (K oen igs transform ation) Two Koenigs nets / , / + :

M2 —> R n are said to be related by a Koenigs transformation if the focal
points F^l\ F o f the line congruence ( f f + ) separate the points f , f +
harmonically.

It can be shown that any Koenigs transformation is analytically repre­

sented as the Moutard transformation (1.30), (1.31) by a suitable choice of
Moutard lifts y , y + .

T h eorem 1.10. (P erm utability o f M ou tard transform ations)

1) Let y be a Moutard net, and let y ^ and y ^ be two of its Moutard
transforms. Then there exists a one-parameter family of Moutard nets y(12^
that are Moutard transforms of both y ^ and y^2\
2) Let y be a Moutard net. Let y^l\ y ^ and y ^ be three of its Moutard
transforms, and let three further Moutard nets y^l2\ y ^ and y (13) be given
such that y W is a simultaneous Moutard transform of y ^ and y ^ . Then
generically there exists a unique Moutard net ? /123) that is a Moutard trans­
form of y(12\ j / 23) and y(13\

1.2.3. Classical form ulation o f the M ou tard transform ation. Due

to the first equation in (1.32), for any Moutard transformation there exists
a function 6 : R2 —►M, unique up to a constant factor, such that

(1
(1-35) pi = —dl°
—, p2 = —d2°
Y'

The last equation in (1.32) implies that 6 satisfies (1.29). This scalar solution
of (1.29) can be specified by its values on the coordinate axes (i =
1, 2), which are readily obtained from the data (MT2) by integrating the
corresponding equations (1.35). This establishes a bridge to the classical
formulation of the Moutard transformation, according to which a Moutard
transform y+ of the solution y of the Moutard equation (1.29) is specified
by an additional scalar solution 6 of this equation, via (1.30), (1.31) with
(1.35). Note that these equations can be equivalently rewritten as

(1.36) d1 (0y+ ) = - e 2di ( | ) , d2 (ey+ ) = e 2d2 ( J ) .

From these equations one can conclude that y+ solves the Moutard equation
(1.29) with the transformed potential

(1.37) q+2 = qx2 - 2 did 2 \og6 = 6 + = J.

In our formulation, the origin of the function 0 becomes clear: it comes from
Pi) P 2 by integrating the system (1.35). Equation (1.37) is then nothing but
an equivalent form of (1.33).
1.3. Asymptotic nets 11

1.3. A s y m p t o t ic n ets

D efinition 1.11. (A -su rface) A map f : R2 —> R3 is called an A-surface

(an asymptotic line parametrized surface) if at every point the vectors d f f ,
d\f lie in the tangent plane to the surface f spanned by d\f, d2f .

Thus, the second fundamental form of an A-surface in R3 is off-diagonal.

Such a parametrization exists for a general surface with a negative Gaussian
curvature. Definition 1.11, like the definition of conjugate nets, can be re­
formulated so as to contain projectively invariant notions only. Therefore,
A-surfaces actually belong to the geometry of the three-dimensional projec­
tive space. In our presentation, however, we will use for convenienpe addi­
tional structures on R3 (the Euclidean structure and the cross-product). A
convenient description of A-surfaces is provided by the Lelieuvre representa­
tion which states: there exists a unique (up to sign) normal field n : R2 —>R3
to the surface / such that
(1.38) d if = d\n x n, d2f — n x d2n.
Cross-differentiation of (1.38) reveals that d\d2n x n = 0, that is, the Lelieu­
vre normal field satisfies the Moutard equation
(1.39) did2n = qi2n
with some q\ 2 : R2 —>R. This reasoning can be reversed: integration of eqs.
(1.38) with any solution n : R2 —►R3 of the Moutard equation generates an
A-surface / : R2 —>R3.

T h eorem 1.12. (Lelieuvre norm als o f A -surfaces are M ou tard nets)

A-surfaces / : R2 —> R3 are in a one-to-one correspondence (up to transla­
tions of f ) with Moutard nets n : R2 —>R3, via the Lelieuvre representation
(1.38).

An A-surface / is reconstructed uniquely (up to a translation) from its

Lelieuvre normal field n. In turn, a Moutard net n is uniquely determined
by the initial data (M i^), which we denote in this context by (A i^)'
(A i) the values of the Lelieuvre normal field on the coordinate axes ®i, 2$2,
i.e., two smooth curves n |^. with a common intersection point n(0);
(A2) a smooth function q\ 2 : R2 —►R that has the meaning of the coefficient
of the Moutard equation for n.

D efinition 1.13. (W eingarten transform ation) A pair of A-surfaces

/, / + : R2 —> R3 is related by a Weingarten transformation if for every
u G R2, the line (f( u) f+ (u )) is tangent to both surfaces f and / + at the
corresponding points. The surface / + is called a Weingarten transform of
the surface f . The lines ( / (u) f + (u)) are said to build a W-congruence.
12 1. Classical Differential Geometry

It can be demonstrated that the Lelieuvre normal fields of a Weingarten

pair / , / + of A-surfaces satisfy (with the suitable choice of their signs) the
following relation:

(1.40) / + - / = n+ x n.

Differentiating the last equation and using the Lelieuvre formulas (1.38) for
/ and for / + , one easily sees that the normal fields of a Weingarten pair are
related by (linear) differential equations:

(1.41) d\n+ + d\n = pi(n+ —n),

(1.42) d2n r - d 2n — p 2 (n+ + n),

with some functions pi,p 2 •R2 —>M. Thus:

T h eorem 1.14. (W eingarten transform ation = M ou ta rd transfor­

m ation for Lelieuvre norm als) The Lelieuvre normal fields n , n+ of a
Weingarten pair f , f + of A-surfaces are Moutard transforms of one another.

A Weingarten transform / + of a given A-surface / is reconstructed from

a Moutard transform n+ of the Lelieuvre normal field n. The data necessary
for this are the data (M Ti^) for n:

(W i) a point n+ (0) £ R3;

(W 2) the values of the functions p\ on the coordinate axes for i = 1, 2,
i.e., two smooth functions Pil^ of one variable.

The following statement is a direct consequence of Theorem 1.10.

T h eorem 1.15. (P erm utability o f W eingarten transform ations)

1) Let f be an A-surface, and let f ^ and f ^ be two of its Weingarten
transforms. Then there exists a one-parameter family of A-surfaces f ( 12^
that are Weingarten transforms of both f ^ and f ^ .
2) Let f be an A-surface. Let f ^ \ f ^ and f ^ be three of its Wein­
garten transforms, and let three further A-surfaces f^12\ f ^ and f ( 13^ be
given such that f ^ is a simultaneous Weingarten transform of f ^ and
f^ \ Then generically there exists a unique A-surface / ( 123) that is a Wein­
garten transform of f ( 12\ f ^ and f ( 13K The net f ( 123^ is uniquely defined
by the condition that its every point lies in the tangent planes to f^12\ f ( 23^
and f ( 13^ at the corresponding points.

1.4. O r th o g o n a l n ets

1.4.1. N otion o f orth ogon a l nets. An important subclass of conjugate

nets is fixed in the following definition.
1.4. Orthogonal nets 13

D efinition 1.16. (O rth ogon al net) A conjugate net f : Rm —> RN is

called an m-dimensional orthogonal net in RN if at every u G Rm and for
all pairs 1 < i ^ j < m we have dif _L d j f . Such a net is called an
orthogonal coordinate system ifm = N.

The class of orthogonal nets (as well as their Ribaucour transformations;

see Definition 1.19 below) are invariant under Mobius transformations and
therefore belong to Mobius differential geometry. To demonstrate this, it is
enough to show the invariance with respect to the inversion / i—> / = //| /| 2.
A direct computation shows that the inversion maps a conjugate net with
the coefficients Cij and with the orthogonality property to a conjugate net
with the coefficients c^ = c^ — 2(dif, /)/| /| 2, which is orthogonal again.
Since orthogonal nets belong to Mobius differential geometry, it is useful
to describe them with the help of the corresponding apparatus (a sketch of
which is given in Section 9.3). In this formalism, the points of RN (or,
better, of the conformal 7V-sphere §^ , which is a compactification of RN)
are represented by elements of the projectivized light cone P(LAr+1,1) in the
projectivized Minkowski space P(R7V+1,1). The light cone

h N+1'x = {£ G R * +M : ( £ ,0 = 0}
is of central importance in Mobius geometry (the absolute quadric).
Let { e i , ... ,ejv+2} denote the standard basis of the Minkowski space
fljjVH-1,1 denote aiSo eo = \(e ^+2 — e N+1) and e ^ = ^(eM-\-2 + ew+i).
The Euclidean space RN is identified, via
(1.43) 7r0 : R N 3 f h-y / = / + e0 + |/|2eoo G ,
with the section of the cone L^ +1,1 by the affine hyperplane {£o = 1},
where £o is the eo-component of £ G R^ +1,1 in the basis { e i , . . . , eyv, eo, eoo}.
An elegant characterization of orthogonal nets is due to Darboux:

T h eorem 1.17. (M ob iu s-geom etric characterization o f orthogonal

nets) A conjugate net f : Rm —> RN is orthogonal if and only if the scalar
function |/|2 satisfies the same equation (1.1) as f does, or, equivalently, if
the lift f — 7To ° f : Rm —►Q q is a conjugate net in

In other words, the image of an orthogonal net in the projectivized

light cone P(LAr"h1,1) is a conjugate net in P(RAr+1,1). In particular, any lift
/ = A / of / in L ^ +1,1, not necessarily normalized as in (1.43), satisfies linear
differential equations (1.3). This criterion makes the invariance of orthogo­
nal nets under Mobius transformations self-evident. It will be important to
preserve this symmetry group under discretization.
This deep result by Darboux is an instance of a very general phenomenon
which will be used many times within this book. It turns out that conjugate
14 1. Classical Differential Geometry

nets can be consistently restricted to any quadric in a projective space. As

we will see in Chapter 3, discrete differential geometry gives a clear insight
into the origin of this nontrivial statement (and a simple proof). The quadric
responsible for Mobius geometry is the light cone P(Lj/v+1,1). Choosing
various quadrics, we come to the classical geometries of Klein’s Erlangen
program including the hyperbolic, spherical, Lie, Pliicker, Laguerre, etc.
geometry.

1.4.2. A n alytic description o f orth ogon a l nets. For an analytic de­

scription of an orthogonal net / : Mm —> RN, introduce metric coefficients
hi = \dif \ and (pairwise orthogonal) unit vectors — h~ld i f . Then the
following equations hold:
(1.44) d if = hm ,
(1.45) diVj = (3jiVi, i 7^ j,
(1.46) dihj = hiPij, i^j,
(1-47) dif3kj = (3ki/3ij, i /j/f c /i ,
which are analogous to (1.7)—(1.10). Indeed, equation (1.45) holds since / is
a conjugate net and the vj are orthonormal, and it serves as a definition of
rotation coefficients (3ji. Equation (1.46) is a direct consequence of (1.44),
(1.45), while the Darboux system (1.47) expresses the compatibility of the
linear system (1.45). So, one of distinctive features of orthogonal nets among
general conjugate nets is that the system (1.4) admits a solution given by
the locally defined metric coefficients hi. In the same spirit, the rotation
coefficients (3ji reflect the local geometry of the net.
The Darboux system (1.47) has to be supplemented by the orthogonality
constraint
(1.48) difoj -f- djflji = —(diVi, djVj) , i ^ j.
To derive (1.48), one considers the identity didj(vi,vj) = 0 and makes use
of (1.45). Equation (1.48) is an admissible constraint for the system (1.44)-
(1.47). This is understood as follows: (1.48) involves two independent vari­
ables z, j only, and therefore it makes sense to require that it be fulfilled
on the coordinate plane 3 ^ . One can easily check that if a solution to
the system (1.44)-(1.47) satisfies (1.48) on all coordinate planes for
1 < i < j < tn, then it is fulfilled everywhere on Mm. The meaning of
the orthogonality condition (1.48) is that the coordinate surfaces / \<ztj are
parametrized along curvature lines. The fact that this condition propagates
is a sort of inversion of the classical Dupin theorem, which says that the
coordinate surfaces of a triply orthogonal coordinate system intersect along
their curvature lines. The coordinate surfaces f\<BlJ can be characterized by
the functions rjij = \(di(3ij — djfiji) on
1.4. Orthogonal nets 15

Thus, the following data can be used to determine an orthogonal net /

uniquely:
(01) the values of / on the coordinate axes for 1 < i < m, i.e., m smooth
curves intersecting pairwise orthogonally at / ( 0);
( 0 2) m(m — l )/2 smooth functions rjij : T>ij —>K for all 1 < i < j < m.

1.4.3. Spinor fram es o f orth ogon al nets. The Mobius-geometric de­

scription of orthogonal nets has major conceptual and technical advantages.
First, this description linearizes the invariance group of orthogonal nets, i.e.,
the Mobius group of the sphere (which can be considered as a compact-
ification of RN by a point at infinity). Orientation preserving Euclidean
motions of RN are represented as conjugations by elements of ‘K qq, the
isotropy subgroup of eoo in Spin'f (A^r + 1, 1). Further, using the Clifford
algebra model of Mobius differential geometry enables us to give a frame
description of orthogonal nets, which turns out to be a key technical device.
As is easily seen, the metric coefficients hi = \dif\ satisfy also hi = |9j/|,
where / = / + eo + |/|2eoo- Hence, the vectors Vi = h~ldif = Vi + 2(f,Vi)e 00
have the (Lorentz) length 1. Since ( /, / ) = 0, one readily finds that ( /, v%) =
0 and hi = — /).

T h eorem 1.18. (Spin or fram e o f an orth ogon al net) For an orthogonal

net f : Rm —> RN, i.e., for the corresponding conjugate net f : Mm —> (Q)^,
there exists a function x/j : M771 —>!Koo (called a frame of f ) , such that

(1.49) / =
(1.50) Vi — 'ip~leiip, 1 < i < m,

and satisfying the system of differential equations:

(1.51) dity — —ei'ipSi, Si = \dii)i, 1 < i <m .

Note that for an orthogonal coordinate system (rn = N ) the frame ^ is

uniquely determined at any point by the requirements (1.49) and (1.50).

It is readily seen that the unit tangent vectors Vi satisfy eq. (1.45) with
the same rotation coefficients (3ji = (diVj,Vi) = —(diVi, Vj). With the help of
the frame ^ we extend the set of vectors {bi : 1 < i < m} to an orthonormal
basis {% : 1 < k < N } of Tj Q q :

(1.52) ilk = '0_ 1e/c'0, 1 < k < N.

Respectively, we extend the set of rotation coefficients according to the for­
mula

Pki = (diVk,Vi) = —(diVi, Vk) = -(diVi.t/j l e kip), I < i <m , 1 < k < N .
16 1. Classical Differential Geometry

Recall that we also have:

hi = ~{diVi,f) = -{diVi,ifi~1 eo'ip}, 1 < i < m.
Thus, introducing vectors Si = ipSiip^1, we have the following expansion
with respect to the vectors e^:

(1.53) Si = i)Si^~l = lipidiVi) ^ - 1 = - \ '^TPkiek + M oo-

k^i
It is easy to see that (1.47) still holds, if the range of the indices is extended
to all pairwise distinct i, j, k with 1 < z, j < m and 1 < k < N, and that the
orthogonality constraint (1.48) can be now put as

(1.54) difaj + djfiji = - ^ 2 PkiPkj ■

The system consisting of (1.47), (1.54) carries the name of the Lame system.

1.4.4. Curvatures o f surfaces and curvature line param etrized sur­

faces. Two-dimensional (ra = 2) orthogonal nets in M3 are nothing but sur­
faces parametrized along curvature lines, or, otherwise said, parametrized
so that both the first and the second fundamental forms are diagonal. Such
a parametrization exists and is essentially unique for a general surface in
R3 in the neighborhood of a nonumbilic point. In dimensions N > 3 only
special surfaces support such a parametrization.

Figure 1.1. Principal directions through touching spheres.

Curvature lines are subject of Lie geometry, i.e., are invariant with re­
spect to Mobius transformations and normal shifts. To see this, consider
an infinitesimal neighborhood U of a point / of an oriented smooth surface
in R3, and the pencil of spheres S(n) with the curvatures k , touching the
surface at / ; see Figure 1.1. The curvature k, as well as the signed radius
r = 1/k;, is assumed positive if S( k ) lies on the same side of the tangent
plane as the normal n, and negative otherwise; the tangent plane itself is
5(0). For big kq > 0 the spheres S( k,q) and S(—kq) intersect U in f only.
1.4. Orthogonal nets 17

The set of the touching spheres with this property (intersecting U in f only)
has two connected components: M+ containing S(ko) and M _ containing
S( —kq) for big k0 > 0. The boundary values
= inf {k : S(k) G M + }, k 2 — sup : S(k) G M _ }
are the principal curvatures of the surface in / . The directions in which
S( k i) and S( k2) touch U are the principal directions. Curvature lines are
integral curves of the principal directions fields. The symmetric functions
v TT K\ K2
K = « i « 2, H = — -—

are called the Gaussian curvature and the mean curvature, respectively.
Clearly, all ingredients of this description are Mobius-invariant. Under a
normal shift by the distance d the centers of the principal curvature spheres
are preserved and their radii are shifted by d. This implies that the principal
directions and thus the curvature lines are preserved under normal shifts, as
well.
A Lie-geometric nature of the curvature line parametrization yields that
it has a Lie-invariant description. A surface in Lie geometry is considered as
consisting of contact elements. A contact element can be identified with a
pencil of spheres through a common point with a common (directed) normal
in that point. Two infinitesimally close contact elements (sphere pencils) be­
long to the same curvature line if and only if they have a sphere in common,
which is the principal curvature sphere.
Let us consider an infinitesimal neighborhood of a surface / with the
Gauss map n. For sufficiently small t the formula
ft = f + tn
defines smooth surfaces parallel to / . The infinitesimal area of the parallel
surface ft turns out to be a quadratic polynomial of t and is described by
the classical Steiner formula
(1.55) dA{ft) = (1 - 2Ht + K t 2 )dA(f),
Here dA is the infinitesimal area of the corresponding surface and H and K
are the mean and the Gaussian curvatures of the surface / , respectively.

1.4.5. R ib a u cou r transform ations o f orth ogon al nets. An important

class of transformations between orthogonal nets is specified in the following
definition.

D efinition 1.19. (R ib a u cou r transform ation) A pair of m-dimensional

orthogonal nets / , / + : Mm —> WN is related by a Ribaucour transformation
if the corresponding coordinate curves of f and f + envelope one-parameter
families of circles, i.e., if at every u G Mm and for every 1 < i < m the
18 1. Classical Differential Geometry

straight lines spanned by the vectors d i f , d if+ at the respective points f , / +

are interchanged by the reflection in the orthogonal bisecting hyperplane of
the segment [/, / +]. The net / + is called a Ribaucour transform of f .

The nets / , f + serve as two envelopes of a Ribaucour sphere congruence

Sm :R m -> {m-spheres in RN}.
In other words, f(u), f + (u) G Sm(u), and the tangent m-spaces to Sm(u) at
f{u), resp. f + (u), are spanned by dif(u), resp. by dif+ (u), i — 1 , .. ., ra.
To describe a Ribaucour transformation analytically, we write:

(1.56) d j+ = n (d j - 2 >

with some functions r* : Rm —> R*. It is convenient to define the metric

coefficients of the transformed net as h f — rihi — sign(r*)|<9i/+ |, with the
corresponding unit vectors v* = ( h f ) ~ 1 di f+ . Further, denote t = \Sf\ and
introduce the unit vector y = £~1 5f, so that f + = f + £y. Then we find:
(1.57) v f = V i - 2(vi,y)y, d{y = + Vi),
with the functions Qi : Rm —>R defined as 9t = (hf — hi)jt = (rt — l)hi/i.
Equations (1.57) imply equations for the metric coefficients:
(1.58) h f = hi + Bit, dil = -{vi ,y) (h + + hi).
Compatibility of the system (1.57) yields that 6t have to satisfy certain
differential equations:
(1.59) 0+ = f a - 2(Vi, y)9j, 8 ^ = ± ft(0+ + /% ).
The following data determine a Ribaucour transform / + of a given orthog­
onal net / uniquely:
(Ri) the point / + (0);
(R2) the values of 9i on the coordinate axes 2 * for 1 < i < m , i.e., ra
smooth functions 0* of one variable.
According to the general philosophy, iterating Ribaucour transforma­
tions can be interpreted as adding an additional (discrete) dimension to
an orthogonal net. The situation arising by adding two or three discrete
dimensions is described in the following fundamental theorem.

T h eorem 1.20. (P erm utability o f R ib a u cou r transform ations)

1) Let f be an m-dimensional orthogonal net, and let f ^ and f ^ be
two of its Ribaucour transforms. Then there exists a one-parameter family
of orthogonal nets / ( 12) that are Ribaucour transforms of both f ^ and f ( 2\
The corresponding points of the four orthogonal nets f , f ^ \ f ^ and / ( 12)
are concircular.
1.5. Principally parametrized sphere congruences 19

2) Let f be an m-dimensional orthogonal net. Let f ^ and f ^

be three of its Ribaucour transforms, and let three further orthogonal nets
f^12K f ^ and f ( 13^ be given such that f ^ is a simultaneous Ribaucour
transform of /W and f^ \ Then generically there exists a unique orthogonal
net / ( 123) that is a Ribaucour transform of f^l2\ f (23) and f ^ . The net
/ ( 123) is uniquely defined by the condition that for every permutation (ijk) of
(123) the corresponding points of f ( % \ f ^ \ f ^ and / ( 123) are concircular.

The theory of discrete orthogonal nets will unify the theories of smooth
orthogonal nets and of their transformations.

1.5. Principally parametrized sphere congruences

The Mobius-geometric formalism is very convenient in description of hyper­

sphere congruences. The classical case is, of course, that of two-parametric
families of spheres in M3. Nonoriented spheres in K3 can be represented as
elements of P (R ^ t), where

(1.60) Rout = {$ € M4’1 : (s, s) > 0}

is the space-like part of E4,1.

D efinition 1.21. (P rin cip ally param etrized sphere congruence) A

map

(1.61) S : R 2 —> {nonoriented spheres in R3}

is called a principally parametrized sphere congruence if the corresponding

map s : R 2 —>P(M ^t) is a conjugate net, i.e., if for any lift of it to M40yt,

(1.62) 8182 s e span(s, d\s, &2s).

A principal parametrization exists and is unique for a generic congru­

ence. The classical description of this is as follows. In an arbitrary paramet­
rization of a congruence, consider two neighbors S(u + du\), S(u + du2 )
of a sphere S(u), obtained by infinitesimal shifts along both coordinate
lines; they intersect the original sphere along two circles C\(u) and C^u).
Thus, in the projective model of Mobius geometry of R3, based on the
Minkowski space M4,1 of pentaspherical coordinates, these circles are de­
scribed as L4,1 fl (span(s, dis))1 , resp. L4,1 D (span(s, c^s))1 ; i.e. their
points are represented by elements x E L4,1 satisfying

(1.63) C\ : (s,x) = 0, (d\s, x) = 0,

resp.

(1.64) C2 : {s,x) = 0, {d2S , x ) = 0 .

20 1. Classical Differential Geometry

These two circles intersect in two points. Such pairs of points comprise
the two enveloping surfaces of the congruence, described in the Mobius-
geometric formalism as L4,1 fl (span(s, d\s, d2s)) ± . In other words, the en­
velopes are represented by the elements x £ L4,1 satisfying
(1.65) («,£) = 0, (d \ s , x ) = 0 , (d2s,x) = 0.

Now, the principal parametrization is characterized by the following con­

dition: when an infinitesimal displacement is made along one of the coor­
dinate lines, say along the u2-line, the four points of contact of the two
infinitely close spheres S(u), S(u + du2) with the envelopes lie on a circle,
namely on C\(u). Indeed, differentiating the first two equations in (1.65)
with respect to u2 and making use of the third and of equation (1.62), we
come to
(s, d2x) = 0, (d\ 5, d2x) = 0,
which, compared with (1.63), demonstrates the claim.
A convenient choice of representatives s of hyperspheres S is the Eu­
clidean one, in terms of the centers c and radii r:

(1.66) s : R2 -> Rout n {Co = 1}, s = c + e0 + (|c|2 - r ^ e ^ .

The condition for this to be a conjugate net in R4,1 leads to the following
classical statement.

T h eorem 1.22. (P rin cip ally param etrized sphere congruences; cen­
ters and radii) A map (1.61) is a principally parametrized sphere congru­
ence if and only if the centers c : R2 —>R3 of the spheres S form a conjugate
net in R3, and the radii r : R2 —►R+ are such that the function \c\2 — r 2
satisfies the same equation (1.1) as the centers c.

1.6. Surfaces with constant negative Gaussian curvature

Up to now, we discussed special classes of coordinate systems in space, or

special parametrizations of a general surface. Now, we turn to the discussion
of several special classes of surfaces. The distinctive feature of these classes is
the existence of transformations with certain permutability properties. One
of the most prominent examples of integrability in differential geometry is
given by the K-surfaces.

D efinition 1.23. (K -su rface) An asymptotic line parametrized surface

f : R2 —►R3 is called a K-surface (or a pseudospherical surface) if its
Gaussian curvature K is constant, i.e., does not depend on u £ R2.

The following is their equivalent characterization as Chebyshev nets, i.e.

nets with infinitesimal coordinate strips of constant width.
1.6. Surfaces with constant negative Gaussian curvature 21

T h eorem 1.24. (K -su rfaces = A -surfaces w ith C h ebyshev p rop ­

erty) An asymptotic line parametrized surface f : R2 —>R3 is a K-surface if
and only if the functions fa = \dif\ (i — 1, 2) depend on Ui only: fa — fa(ui).

One of the approaches to the analytical study of K-surfaces is based

on the investigation of the angle 4>(u\,u2) between asymptotic lines which
is governed by the equation d\d2(j) = —Kfa(ui)f 32 (u2 ) sin</>. After a re-
parametrization of asymptotic lines one arrives at the famous sine-Gordon
equation
(1.67) d\d2(j) — sin (j).

Another description is based on the Gauss maps.

T h eorem 1.25. (G auss m ap o f a K -surface is a M ou tard net) The

Lelieuvre normal field n : R2 —►R3 of a K-surface with K — —1 takes values
in the sphere § 2 C M3, thus coinciding with the Gauss map. Conversely,
any Moutard net in the unit sphere § 2 is the Gauss map and the Lelieuvre
normal field of a K-surface with K — —1. Moreover, |c^n| = fa (i = 1,2),
with the same functions Pi = fa(v,i) as in Theorem 1.24.

Thus, the K-surfaces with K = —1 are in a one-to-one correspondence

with the Moutard nets in § 2. Functions n : R2 —» § 2 satisfying a Moutard
equation (1.39) are sometimes called Lorentz-harmonic maps to § 2 (one
means hereby harmonicity with respect to the Lorentz metric on the plane
R2 with coordinates (ui,v, 2 ))- It is important to observe that the coefficient
qi 2 of the Moutard equation (1.39) satisfied by a Lorentz-harmonic map n
is completely determined by its first order derivatives:
(1.68) qu — (<9i<92n,n) = —(din, fan).
Therefore, the following data determine the Gauss map n of a K-surface / :
(K) the values of the Gauss map on the coordinate axes $ 1, $ 2, i*e., two
smooth curves n\^ in § 2 intersecting at a point n(0).
The K-surface / is reconstructed from n uniquely, up to a translation, via
formulas (1.38).

D efinition 1.26. (B acklund transform ation) A Weingarten transform

/ + of a K-surface f : R2 —>R3 is called a Backlund transform if the distance
|/+ — /| is constant, i.e., does not depend on u € R2.

As for a general Weingarten pair, the Lelieuvre normal fields (Gauss

maps) n, n+ of a Backlund pair of K-surfaces / , / + can be chosen so that
eq. (1.40) holds, and hence n, n+ are related by the Moutard transformation
(1.41), (1.42). From these equations it easily follows that for a Backlund
pair the quantity (n ,n + ) is constant; thus, the intersection angle of the
22 1. Classical Differential Geometry

tangent planes at the corresponding points of a Backlund pair is constant.

Moreover, (1.40) yields that this constant angle is related to the constant
distance between / and / + via

| /+ -/| 2 = l - ( n , n + ) 2.

The fact that n, n+ G § 2 allows one to express the coefficients pi, p 2 in eqs.
(1.41), (1.42) in terms of the solutions themselves:

(din, ra+) - (n, dxn+) (din, n+)

(1.69) pi = - -
2 — 2(n, n+) 1 - (n ,n + )’
(n, c^n4") - (d2n , n r) _ - ( d 2n, n+ )
(1.70) p2 =
2 + 2(n,n+) 1 + (n,n+) ’

With these expressions, (1.41), (1.42) become a compatible system of first

order differential equations for n+ ; therefore the following data determine a
Backlund transform of the given K-surface / uniquely:

(B) a point n+ (0) G § 2.

T h eorem 1.27. (P erm utability o f B acklund transform ations) Let f

be a K-surface, and let f ^ and f ^ be two of its Backlund transforms. Then
there exists a unique K-surface f ( 12^ which is simultaneously a Backlund
transform of f ^ and of f ( 2\ The points of the fourth surface f ^ lie in
the intersection of the tangent planes to f ^ and to f ^ at the corresponding
points, and are uniquely defined by the properties |/(12) — f^ \ — \ f^ — f |
and |/^12^—f ^ \= \f ^ ~f\, or, in terms of the Gauss maps, (n^l\ n ^ ) =
( n , n ^ ) and (n(2), n(12)) = ( n , n ^ ) . Equivalently, the Gauss map n(12)
of f^12^ can be characterized by the condition that n(12) — n is parallel to
n(i) _ n(2)#

We will see how the theory of discrete K-surfaces unifies the theories of
smooth K-surfaces and of their Backlund transformations.

1.7. Isothermic surfaces

Classically, theory of isothermic surfaces and their transformations was con­

sidered as one of the highest achievements of the local differential geometry.

D efinition 1.28. (Isoth erm ic surface) A curvature line parametrized

surface f : M2 —» RN is called an isothermic surface if its first fundamental
form is conformal, possibly upon a reparametrization of independent vari­
ables Ui i ►<pi(ui) (i = 1 , 2 ), i.e., if \dif\2/\d2f \2 = oli(ui)/a 2 (u2 ) at every
point u G M2.
1.7. Isothermic surfaces 23

In other words, isothermic surfaces are characterized by the relations

did2f € span(dif ,d 2 f ) and

(1.71) (dif,d 2 f ) = 0 , \dif\2 = a is 2, \d2 f \2 = a 2 s2,

with a conformal metric coefficient s : R2 —> R+ and with the functions

oti depending on Ui only (i — 1,2). These conditions may be equivalently
represented as

(1.72) dxd2f = (d2 logs)dif + (dx log s)d2f, (dif, dif) = 0.

Comparison with (1.25) shows that isothermic surfaces are nothing but or­
thogonal Koenigs nets.

T h eorem 1.29. (C hristoffel dual o f an isotherm ic surface) Let f :

R2 —> R^ be an isothermic surface. Then the RN-valued one-form df*
defined by
M 7 o\ ft f* - n d i / d if _ d2f _ d2f
(1.73) d if a i|5i y |2 g2 ’ \d2 f \2 s2

is closed. The surface /* : R2 —> RN, defined (up to a translation) by the

integration of this one-form, is isothermic, with

(1.74) (d1 f * ,d 2 n = 0 , \dif*\2 = a i s - 2, \d2f *\2 = a 2s~2.

The surface /* is called the Christoffel dual of the surface f . Conversely, if

for a curvature line parametrized surface /* : R2 —>R^ there exist functions
cti = a{(ui) such that the one-form df * defined by

(1.75) dif* = d2f* = -o l2-. ° 2 f

\dif\2' " ' \d2f \2
is closed, then the surface is isothermic, with the metric s defined by eq.
(1.71).

Another important class of transformations of isothermic surfaces is built

by the Darboux transformations.

D efinition 1,30. (D a rb ou x transform ation) A Ribaucour transform

/ + : R2 —►Rn of a given isothermic surface f : R2 —> R^ is called a
Darboux transform if its first fundamental form is conformal, upon the same
reparametrization of independent variables Ui i—►<pi(ui) (i = 1, 2) which
makes the first fundamental form of f conformal, i.e., if \dif+\2 /\d2 f + \2 =
ot\(ui)/a 2 {u2) holds at every point u G R2 with the same functions as
for f .

Introduce the corresponding function 5+ : R2 -» M+ for the surface / + ,

and denote r = s+ /s : R2 —> R+. Thus, \dif+ \2/\dif\2 = (s+ /s)2 = r 2
24 1. Classical Differential Geometry

for i = 1,2. Comparing this with the definition (1.56) of Ribaucour trans­
formations we see that one of the two possibilities holds:

(i) r\ = r2 = r, or (ii) r\ = —r2 = —r*.

It can be demonstrated that in the case (i) the surface / + is with necessity
a Mobius transformation of / ; we will not consider this trivial case further.
In the case (ii) one gets proper Darboux transformations. An important
property of the Darboux transformations is the following: the quantity
f If + _ f |2
(1.76)
SS+ SS+
is constant, i.e., does not depend o n u G M2. It is called a parameter of the
Darboux transformation. The following data determine a Darboux trans­
form / + of a given isothermic surface / uniquely:

(Di) a point / + (0);

(D2) a real number c, designated to be the constant (1.76).

As usual, we regard iterating a Darboux transformation as adding a

third (discrete) dimension to a two-dimensional isothermic net. The main
classical result on Darboux transformations is the following theorem, which
assures that one can add several discrete dimensions in a consistent way.

T h eorem 1.31. (P erm utability o f D a rb ou x transform ations) Let f

be an isothermic surface, and let f ^ and f ^ be two of its Darboux trans­
forms, with parameters c\ and c27 respectively. Then there exists a unique
isothermic surface f ^ which is simultaneously a Darboux transform of f ^
with the parameter c2 and a Darboux transform of f ^ with the parameter
c\. The surface f ^ is uniquely defined by the condition that the corre­
sponding points of the four isothermic surfaces are concircular, and have a
constant cross-ratio
9 ( / , / ( 1), / (12> , / <2)) = - .
C2

R em ark. To define the real cross-ratio of four concircular points a, 6, c, d G

R^, one may identify the plane where they lie with the complex plane, and
then set

(1.77) q(a, 6, c, d) = (a — b)(b — c)- 1 (c — d)(d — a )-1 .

In a more invariant fashion, one can use the Clifford algebra cross-ratio.
For this aim, the points are interpreted as elements of the Clifford algebra
G£(Rn ), and the above formula still holds, with all multiplication and in­
version operations being performed in Q£(RN), so that the ordering of the
factors in this formula is essential.
1.7. Isothermic surfaces 25

The theory of discrete isothermic surfaces unifies the theories of smooth

isothermic surfaces and of their Darboux transformations.
M ob iu s-g eom etric characterization o f isotherm ic surfaces and their
D a rb o u x transform ations. It is easily checked that conditions (1.71) are
invariant with respect to Euclidean motions and dilations in RN, as well as
with respect to the inversion /• —> / / ( / , / ) . In other words, the notion of
isothermic surfaces belongs to the Mobius differential geometry. The same
holds for their Darboux transformations. Therefore, it is useful to charac­
terize these notions within the Mobius-geometric formalism. (However, the
notion of the dual surface, or Christoffel transformation, is essentially based
on the Euclidean structure of the ambient space R^.)
To find such a characterization (due to Darboux), note first of all that
eqs. (1.72) are equivalent to

d\d2f = {d2 log s )dif + (<9i log s)d2f

for the image / : R 2 —> of / in the quadric Q q C L ^ +1,1.

T h eorem 1.32. (Isoth erm ic surfaces = M ou tard nets in the light

con e) The lift s — s-1 / : R 2 —> of an isothermic surface f : R 2 —»
R n to the light cone of R ^ 1,1 satisfies the Moutard equation

(1.78) <9i<92s = q n s,
with q\2 = s d ^ i s -1 ) and is the Moutard representative of f .
Conversely, given a Moutard net s : R 2 —► in the light cone,
define s : R 2 —>R* and f : R 2 —>R ^ by

S = s_1( / + e0 + |/|2eoo)
(so that s_1 is the eo-component, and s~lf is the RN-part of s in the basis
e i , . . . , e^v, eo, eocj. Then f is an isothermic surface, and the definition
(1.71) holds with the functions ai = (<9*s,c^s) depending on Ui only.

Note that in the second part of the theorem we can always assume that
s : R 2 —>R + , changing s to —5, if necessary.
Thus, we see that the isothermic surfaces are in a one-to-one corre­
spondence with the Moutard nets in Ln+1j1, i.e., with Lorentz-harmonic
L 7V+i ,i-valued functions.
Let us address the problem of minimal data which determine an isother­
mic surface (i.e., a Moutard net in L ^ -1-1,1) uniquely. Guided by an analogy
with the case of K-surfaces, one is tempted to think that two arbitrary curves
s f ^ in LAr+1,1 would be such data. However, as a consequence of the fact
that now we are dealing with the light cone = {(s ,s ) — 0} rather
than with the sphere § 2 = {(n ,n ) = 1} as a quadric where Moutard nets
26 1. Classical Differential Geometry

live, we cannot find an expression for qu in terms of the first derivatives of

s anymore; instead, one has:
= (dfs, d2 s) = (d p , di s)
Ql2 (dis,di§) (82s, d2s)'
This shows that the coordinate curves s \ a r e not arbitrary but rather
subject to certain further conditions. We leave the question of correct initial
data for an isothermic surface open.
Darboux pairs of isothermic surfaces are characterized in terms of their
Moutard representatives as follows.

T h eorem 1.33. (D a rb ou x transform ation = M ou ta rd transform a­

tion in the light con e) The lifts s, s+ : R2 —> b N+1^ of a Darboux pair
of isothermic surfaces / , f + : R2 —> R^ are related by a Moutard transfor­
mation, i.e., there exist two functions pi,p 2 •R2 —►R such that

(1.79) d\ + d\s = pi(s+ - 5), ^25^ - d2s = P2 (s+ + s).

Conversely, for a Moutard net s in the light cone L ^ +1,1, any Moutard
transform with values in h N+1,1 is a lift of a Darboux transform f + of
the isothermic surface f .

Note that the quantity (s, s+) is constant (does not depend on u E
and is related to the parameter c of the Darboux transformation: (s, s+ ) =
—c/2. The formulas

(1om „ {s,di§+) - {dis,s+) (di§,s+)

<L80) Vi = ----------2 p ) ---------- = I = 1’ 2 ’

make it apparent that a Moutard transform s+ is completely determined

by prescribing its value s+ (0) at one point. Indeed, eqs. (1.79) with coef­
ficients (1.80) form a compatible system of first order differential equations
for s+ : R2 —►L ^ +1,1. Of course, the data (Di^) are encoded in s+ (0) in a
straightforward manner.

1.8. Surfaces with constant mean curvature

D efinition 1.34. (Surface w ith constant curvature) A surface f :

R2 —►R3 is called a surface with constant mean (resp. Gaussian) curva­
ture if the function H (resp. the function K ) on the surface is constant.
Surfaces with the identically vanishing mean curvature function are called
minimal.

Surfaces with constant curvature possess remarkable geometric proper­

ties.
1.8. Surfaces with constant mean curvature 27

T h eorem 1.35. (C onstant m ean curvature surfaces are isother­

m ic) Surfaces with constant mean curvature and without umbilic points are
isothermic.
T h eorem 1.36. (M inim al surface is Christoffel dual to its Gauss
m ap) A minimal surface without umbilic points f : R2 —►R3 is the Christof­
fel dual
/ — n*
of its Gauss map n : R2 —>§ 2.
T h eorem 1.37. (Parallel constant m ean curvature surfaces) Let f :
R2 —> R3 be a surface with constant mean curvature H q ^ 0 and without
umbilic points, and let n : R2 —►§ 2 be its Gauss map. Then
(i) every parallel surface ft = f + t n is linear Weingarten, i.e., its mean
and Gaussian curvature functions Ht,Kt satisfy a linear relation
aHt + /3Kt = 1 with constant coefficients a, (3;
(ii) the parallel surface

/ jH0
- = / + j120
r n
is Christoffel dual to f and has constant mean curvature H q;

(iii) the mid-surface

f i k : = , + W 0n
has constant positive Gaussian curvature Ko = 4i/o •

We summarize considerations of these chapter in the following table:

Koenigs net f in R^ Moutard net y in R ^+1

A-surface / in R3 Moutard net n in R3
Orthogonal net / in R^ conjugate net / in ~ P(LiV+1,1)
. „ . ^41 '
Principally parametrized conjugate net s m
sphere congruence S in R3
K-surface / in R3 Moutard net n in § 2
Isothermic surface / in R^ Moutard net s in L ^ +1,1
Minimal surface / in R^ Isothermic net n in § 2

All these notions and relations will be discretized in the main text of the
book. The actual list of examples treated in this book is even longer. We
discretize some other classical examples including line congruences and con­
stant mean curvature surfaces. In the context of Lie and Pliicker geometry,
isotropic line congruences are interpreted as curvature and asymptotic line
parametrized surfaces, respectively. A discrete version of this theory is also
developed in the main text of the book.
28 1. Classical Differential Geometry

1.9. Bibliographical notes

Achievements of the classical period of the differential geometry of surfaces

and their transformations are documented in the treatises by Darboux (1910,
1914-27), Bianchi (1923) and Eisenhart (1909, 1923). These books cover
huge material and are indispensable sources for a detailed treatment of the
special geometries of this chapter.
Section 1.1: Conjugate nets and their transformations. The clas­
sical description of multidimensional conjugate nets, given in Section 1.1.2,
can be found in Darboux (1914-27). The fundamental transformations of
conjugate nets, given in Section 1.1.4, as well as the permutability theo­
rem for F-transformations (part one of Theorem 1.3) are due to Eisenhart
(1923) and Jonas (1915). The first instance of the Eisenhart hexahedron
(part two of Theorem 1.3) we were able to localize is the “extended theorem
of permutability” for conjugate nets in Eisenhart (1923, §24).
In the modern literature on integrable systems, the Darboux system
(1.10) is known as the n-wave equation; see Novikov-Manakov-Pitaevskii-
Zakharov (1984).
Section 1.2: Koenigs and Moutard nets and their transformations.
Classically, Koenigs nets were known as nets with equal Laplace invariants.
Their geometry was studied, among others, by Koenigs (1891, 1892a,b),
Darboux (1914-27), Tzitzeica (1924). An exhaustive treatment of nets with
dependent Laplace invariants is in Bol (1967).
For the classical formulation of the Moutard transformation see, e.g.,
Moutard (1878), and for its geometric interpretation as Koenigs transfor­
mation see Koenigs (1891). The two- and three-dimensional permutability
theorems for Koenigs transformations are due to Eisenhart (1923). In terms
of Moutard transformations this was formulated in Ganzha-Tsarev (1996)
and Nimmo-Schief (1997).
Section 1.3: Asymptotic nets and their transformations. For the
description of asymptotic nets, W-congruences and their Weingarten trans­
formations in terms of Lelieuvre normals see the classical books by Dar­
boux (1914-27), Bianchi (1923) and Eisenhart (1923) or, for example, Lane
(1942). The two-dimensional permutability of Weingarten transformations
(part one of Theorem 1.15) is due to Bianchi (1923).
For the projective interpretation of the Lelieuvre normals, see Konopel-
chenko-Pinkall (2000). A survey on integrable systems in projective differ­
ential geometry based on asymptotic line parametrization is in Ferapontov
(2000a).
Section 1.4: Orthogonal nets and their transformations. A funda­
mental monograph on orthogonal coordinate systems is Darboux (1910). A
Other documents randomly have
different content
 "No, I didn't get through at six hundred in time to look over the
score-boards; why, who is it?"
"Oh, a fellow named Richard Comstock! Great Scott! If you keep
this up they will be hailing you as the Military Champeen of the
World, Dick. That was great shooting you did at 500 yards, old
man."

* * * * * * * * *
 A Leaf From Dick's Score Book

A LEAF FROM DICK'S SCORE BOOK

1. This leaf is from Dick's Score Book, which he inked in after he left the
range.
2. It will be noticed the mirage was bad and Dick's 2nd sighting shot and first
four record shots were low, therefore he raised his sight 25 yards. The bull's eye
of this target (B) is 20 inches in diameter. 25 yards up on sight gauge would be
about 6-¼ inches.
 3. "The square rule" is, changing the elevation 100 yards at any range gives
change on the target equal to the number of inches in the square of the range.
Example: at 500 yards equals 25 inches.
4. On the 9th and 10th shots, Dick raised his sight again and kept in the bull.
The mirage had increased, tending to "throw" his shots low.

* * * * * * * * *

"I am proud of it, of course, but when you read how some of these
crack shots make a string of bulls as long as your arm at that range
then it loses some of its lustre as a star score."
"They didn't get those wonderful records, though, on the first
real practise, as you have done, Dick; and Battiste says you have a
natural gift for shooting which further practise will surely develop."
"Yes, I got along pretty well with the slow fire, Henry, but I'm
rotten in rapid fire, especially at 200 yards. Somehow I can't get the
knack of it."
"That is funny, for I am perfectly at home in rapid fire," said
Henry.
"If I can get on my tummy and shoot 'em I am safe, therefore I
don't fear the skirmish runs. How many more points can be made
from now on? Let's figure it out!"
"We could make three hundred more. Each of the two skirmish
runs counts one hundred, and the scores at rapid fire at 200 and
300 yards are fifty each, but I don't reckon we will get anything like
that. Besides, you shouldn't worry, and I need but one-thirty-seven
to qualify as marksman, and you a hundred and eighteen."
 "You are wrong, Hank. It's true you require but three hundred
points to make you a marksman, but you need as many points as
you can get. I'm not satisfied just to scrape through in a matter of
this kind, and because the thing appears easy is all the more reason
we should try for the highest score we possibly can get. Then there
is another reason; your marksman's score is added to what you
make in the sharpshooter's course, and you've got to make a total of
four hundred and fifteen points to get the qualification, which then
gives you the right to shoot the expert test."
"You are right again, Dick, and thank you for the tip, or I might
have missed my badge and the extra pay."

Marksman badge. This is the badge of

the lowest qualification. Below this
men are rated as "1st class," but
receive no badge.

That night when the different divisions of the Denver's

complement returned, tired and hungry, to their ship, Sergeant
Battiste worked till late arranging the scores of those who had fired,
and out of twenty aspirants for the honor all had qualified as
marksmen and would shoot the following day. Of the twenty, the top
notch shot was none other than Dick, and fighting for last place
were Trumpeter Cabell and Private Jones, both with 323 points to
their credit. Dick had made the excellent score of 449 out of a
possible 500 points.

The Badge Awarded

to Henry Cabell

The following evening when the shooting cohorts returned on

board having finished the Sharpshooter's[#] Course, he was still
leading the detachment with a total score of 586 points.

[#] This course consisted of ten shots slow fire at 800 yards, same at 1,000 yards,
and ten shots rapid fire at 500 yards; a possible score being 150 points.

"The 1,000-yard range was my Waterloo to-day," he explained to

First Sergeant Douglass, who did not have to fire, being already an
expert rifleman; "a fellow needs a lot more practise than I've had to
be able to find and hold the bull at that distance, especially if there
is a 'fish tail'[#] wind blowing, as happened to-day. Anyway, I'm sure
of my Maltese Cross; but I want to pull down that expert's badge to-
morrow, for it's the finest of the lot."

[#] A wind coming from a direction nearly parallel with the flight of the bullet:--
the course the bullet travels through the air is called its trajectory.

The expert rifleman's test consisted in first firing ten shots slow fire
from 600 yards over an embankment at the silhouette of a kneeling
figure of a man with his arm raised as in shooting. Then came five
shots at 500 yards and five at 400 yards at the same figure, only in
this shooting it bobbed up above the butts for five seconds and
might show up at any point, with five-second intervals between
appearances. Next, two strings of five shots each at the "ducks," or
Target F, the silhouette of a man lying, are fired at 500 yards. These
"ducks" are supposed to fall over when hit, and at 300 and 200
yards the target first fired at, Target E, is pulled across the range on
a track fifty yards long, in thirty seconds, while ten shots are being
fired. Every hit counts one point, and the firer must make twenty-
five hits out of fifty shots to qualify.
 Expert Rifleman badge.

1. This badge is of silver metal. For every three years of re-qualification a bar is
awarded with years engraved thereon and suspended between the crossed
rifles and the top bar. This is the badge won by Dick at Guantanamo Bay
Rifle Range.

It is a true test of the individual's ability, where steady hand, quick

eye and excellent judgment are prime qualities for its successful
accomplishment, yet, in spite of his fine showing on the two
previous days, Dick barely scraped through with the exact number of
hits to win out. But he had won, and two months later when the
little silver emblems were received from Headquarters, it was with
mingled pride and thankfulness he saw his own name neatly
engraved on the reverse of the pin which Sergeant Douglass handed
over to his keeping.
Five new experts, eleven sharpshooters and four marksmen was
the final result of Sergeant Battiste's course of training.
 "Well, I don't believe," Dick remarked as he strained his eyes to
see the bright new badge he had pinned to his khaki coat
preparatory to Saturday morning inspection, "that I'll ever have as
much pleasure in winning anything as I had in winning this, my first
real medal."
"You may be right, Dick," said Henry, looking a little regretfully
at the new sharpshooter's badge he held in his hand, "but what
appeals more to me is that extra pay these little silver gadgets bring
in each month."

CHAPTER XI
A REPUBLIC IN DISTRESS

Christmas and the New Year's holidays passed by uneventfully, and

the Denver still remained at anchor in Guantanamo Bay. Other
vessels arrived and departed, but no orders came for the cruiser,
much to the disappointment of all hands.
Rumors of trouble at various points often reached their ears, but
the crew finally began to lose hope of moving. The Department must
have forgotten them! The Secretary of the Navy was going to make
her a station ship! The Admiral of the Fleet had it in for the Captain,
and wouldn't let him move! All sorts and kinds of excuses and
reasons were forthcoming, but they were as unsatisfactory as they
were improbable.
Over six months of outdoor life, swimming, boating, fishing,
riding horseback, taking a leading part in athletics, for which his
days at Bankley High School and the healthy life in the New England
seaport formed a splendid foundation, had developed Richard
Comstock into a tall, broad-shouldered, small-waisted, powerful
young man, one able to give an excellent account of himself, no
matter what the situation. As bow oar of the winning marines'
dinghy race-boat crew he had already given evidence of the strength
and endurance of his well-knit muscles. He was nearly as brown as
the Cubans who plied their bum-boat[#] trade at the port gangway
during meal hours, and with his straight black hair and dark eyes he
might easily have disguised himself as one of them.

[#] A shore boat which sells fruit, post-cards, curios, etc., to ships visiting the
port.

The months had likewise worked a change in Henry Cabell, but his
figure was much slighter and less robust than that of his boon
companion. The boys were trying to master the Spanish language,
and when ashore on visits to Caimanera and Guantanamo City, as
frequently they were, it became a practise to carry on all their
conversation in that tongue, much to the amusement of themselves
and particularly the natives with whom they came in contact.
However, the practise was good for them, and they were able to
converse quite fluently, and to chatter glibly with the Phillipino cooks
and mess attendants, of whom a number were attached to the ship.
Usually their evenings were spent ashore at the Marine Barracks
on Fisherman's Point, where a nightly programme, consisting of the
best moving-picture plays, were shown on the screen or boxing and
wrestling matches, in both of which Dick occasionally took part,
helped pass the hours.
In the meantime Joe Choiniski and "Slugger" Williams, having
completed their term of punishment in solitary confinement, were
released and restored to duty. The long enforced diet seemingly
wrought a change in Williams' attitude towards the world in general;
and the ship's athletic officer, Lieutenant Robling, hearing of the
"Slugger's" reported prowess with the gloves, had interested him
anew in boxing, and he had gone into training with a view of
winning laurels when the Fleet should finally put in its appearance
during the winter maneuvers and target practice. Choiniski belonged
to the "black gang,"[#] and his living space was far removed from
the marines' compartment, consequently the boys rarely came in
contact with him, but if black looks could speak for anything it was
certain that Joe's feeling for them was still full of animosity.

[#] A nickname for the Engineer Division on shipboard.

Altogether Captain Bentley's ship was having a peaceful, rather than

a wildly exciting time.
Then like a bolt from the blue came a cable message--received
at the little station near the lighthouse.
"Revolution in San Domingo. Proceed immediately to Monte
Cristi and report to Senior Officer Present for further assignment on
arrival."
Thus ran the order.
It was Saturday afternoon, and most of the crew were ashore.
Immediately the "Cornet"[#] was hoisted at the foremast, which was
a peremptory order for everybody to return on board at once
regardless of length of leave. It told those on shore that the ship
was under sailing orders and about to get under way.

[#] A signal flag used to recall all boats and liberty parties.

Conjectures were rife in the boats hurriedly returning from all the
various places to which they had gone for the afternoon's outing.
Swimming parties hardly waited to get into their clothes before
shoving off for the cruiser; officers playing golf did not stop to look
for the balls they had sent flying along the "fairway" or bouncing
into the "rough"; the baseball game in progress halted as a batsman
in the act of making a "home run" cut swiftly across the diamond
from second base and, grabbing his sweater, made his final spurt for
the boat landing.
"Back to the good old U.S.A. for us, boys!"
"Hooray! Broadway and the white lights, fellers!"
"Philly's good enough for me!" called out one enthusiast from
the stern sheets of the loaded sailing launch.
These and many other such remarks filled the air.
"Whoop her up, boys, for ten days' leave in the old home town,
no matter where it may be!" yelled one joyful youngster, and all who
could lent a willing hand on the heavy oars.
Then came the disappointment!
Within an hour the gangways and boat booms were rigged in,
awnings furled, cutters and steamers hoisted aboard, life-boats
secured for sea, all the hundred and one things necessary to the
departure of a man-of-war attended to.
 Last of all the mail was sent ashore, for this might be the only
opportunity for days,--possibly weeks; who could tell?
Now came the peeping of the boatswains' whistles and raucous
voices bellowing throughout the ship.
"All hands, Up anchor!"
Silently the divisions fell in at their proper stations. Slowly the
propellers began their revolutions, which would not cease until the
arrival at that island of trouble, San Domingo--the Hispaniola of the
Spanish Main.
Ashore the little garrison of marines lined the beach at
Fisherman's Point. They had heard the news and when the Denver
passed, clouds of smoke issuing from her funnels, her ensign
snapping in the breeze, and her crew drawn up on deck, the envious
men ashore gave her three rousing cheers to speed the parting
guest. On past the lighthouse, out through the narrow entrance of
the harbor into the deep indigo waters of the Caribbean, where,
once the coral shoals were well astern, the course was changed to
due east, and one by one, buildings, bay, and lighthouse were
swallowed in the distance and the bluish haze which hovered over
the terraced hills and shore of Cuba's southern slopes.
Captain Bentley, unlike most naval officers of his day, believed in
informing his officers of all the reasons underlying his official actions
and the movements of the vessel he commanded. The idea which so
many officers held,--divulge nothing, keep officers and crew in
ignorance of situations, destinations and intentions until the last
possible moment, was not in accord with his conception of good
management, executive ability and coördination, therefore, unless
absolutely forbidden by his instructions, he made it a point to explain
fully all orders which would sooner or later affect them, so that they
might familiarize themselves with all the ramifications of the
probable events.
Following out this policy he summoned the heads of all
departments to his cabin after supper, and there being no officer in
charge of the marines, he included First Sergeant Douglass among
those present, and furnished them with a short résumé of all the
messages he had received since the first one ordering him to sea so
unexpectedly.
"Gentlemen, for some months the political situation in the
Dominican Republic has been hovering on the brink of another
revolution, and from these despatches received to-day, armed
conflict has at last become a fact. Our government anticipated this
state of affairs, but owing to various causes we have not sufficient
ships in San Domingan waters adequately to guard the interests of
American citizens nor protect the customs, which as you are aware,
are under the supervision of the United States. The situation is so
acute, in the belief of the Department, that already marines are
embarking on board the Dixie at Philadelphia, and by morning will
be on their way to Monte Cristi, where the greatest activity against
the organized government seems centered. It will be five days at
best before the marines will reach here. I have been ordered to
proceed there also and report to the S.O.P. for assignment. Barring
unforeseen accidents we should arrive at our destination on Monday
morning. It is advisable for us under the circumstances to make
ourselves acquainted with such facts as are available regarding the
political, economical and geographical features of the unfortunate
republic. Our duties may take us to any one of its ports; therefore a
study of the charts and a glimpse at the island's history will be
beneficial to all. I believe the day is not far distant when San
Domingo will become a territory of ours, or at least a protectorate
under us."
"If you have time and inclination, sir, I believe all present would
appreciate a short talk along the lines you indicate," said Lieutenant
Commander Ogden.
"Very gladly, and I will not waste time on preliminaries," said
Captain Bentley. "Of course, you all know Christopher Columbus
discovered Santo Domingo on his first voyage, and by his direction
his brother Bartholomew founded the first European settlement in
the New World on August 4, 1494, naming it New Isabella. From this
time to the present the island has been the scene of more continual
fighting, and strife, and dissension, than any other portion of the
globe of equal size. The Spaniards were the first people to believe in
the policy that 'a good Indian is a dead one,' and they proceeded to
make them 'good.' English, French, and Spanish armies and navies
have fought along and on its shores. Revolution has succeeded
revolution. The French end of the island was declared a republic in
1801 after an uprising of the blacks under Toussant L'Ouverture,
who incidentally was the son of a Royal African King. The French and
Spanish long disputed certain portions of the island, and a treaty
establishing the boundary was made January 3, 1777, but with the
independence of Haiti the whole island came under the rule of the
negroes. Soon the Spanish element revolted against the blacks and
formed an independent republic, and the old boundary lines were
reëstablished in 1844. In 1849 President Baez endeavored to lease
Samana Bay to the United States, but our President, Mr. Pierce, did
not succeed in putting the measure through. The countries of
Europe were fearful of our securing a base in the West Indies of
such prime importance, and a revolution against Baez, incited so it is
claimed by the English, overthrew the government.
"Strife was again rampant, and finally Spain was invited to take
over her former colony by the people in 1861.
"This lasted till 1865, when the Spanish yoke was again thrown
off and another futile attempt made to interest us in Samana Bay.
Hardly a year has passed since without dissension and bloodshed. In
the interests of our own and foreign citizens, and to carry out the
policy of the Monroe Doctrine, the United States has at all times
endeavored to settle these sanguinary conflicts, and with some
success; but never has a permanent peace resulted.
"About 1905 we agreed to manage their customs for San
Domingo, and to assist them to liquidate many of the enormous
financial claims against their government by various foreign and
domestic concerns. Germany, ever on the alert to expand her power,
was only too anxious to establish herself in the Western Hemisphere,
and in order to continue our stated policy of protection against such
invasion, some such act on our part was absolutely necessary.
Deprived of the rich benefits of custom dues, revolutions did not
prove profitable, and a period of comparative quiet ensued. But it
seems that a Latin-American people cannot long remain stable, and
now they are again on the rampage. European influence is
undoubtedly behind it, but I do not feel free to divulge that phase of
the matter. I hope I have not bored you."
"Are you able to give us the present situation regarding the
contending forces?" asked Lieutenant Robling, the engineer officer.
 "Only in a general way. The rebels seem to hold the interior
towns and country, and with the exception of Monte Cristi the
seaports are all in the hands of the government troops. A great
amount of smuggling is being carried on between the rebels and
Haitians, and the officials are powerless to prevent it."
"Do you believe we shall land?" inquired the Executive Officer.
"That I cannot say; however, we must be prepared for any
emergency."
"I will make all arrangements for the landing force to be ready
for instant service. To-morrow is Sunday, but with your permission I
will 'turn to' in the morning, go over the details, and break out and
stow on deck our equipment."
"Go ahead with the work as you see fit, Mr. Ogden, and be sure
that the gunner gets his small-arms ammunition ready for issue.
Turn over to First Sergeant Douglass enough rifle and pistol
ammunition to equip the guard. The marines may be needed
immediately on arrival for service ashore. If that is all, gentlemen, I
will bid you good-evening."
No feeling of disappointment prevailed among the Denver's
crew upon receipt of the news that they were en route to aid in
putting down a full-fledged rebellion, and everybody was once again
full of cheerfulness and smiles. This elation was particularly
noticeable among the marines, for if there was "anything doing"
ashore their participation was a foregone conclusion. The mere fact
that a thousand of their fellows were already sailing from
Philadelphia was indication enough that the situation was critical.
Time and again the marines had been rushed here and there
and everywhere to police up this or that fractious republic; it was an
old yet ever new story with them, and though the activities and
general status of this fighting branch of Uncle Sam's armed forces
were obscure to the majority of people at home, they were well
known and greatly respected in those lands where they labored,
fought and often died in their country's service.
Richard and Henry were greatly excited over the prospect and
worked with a will the following day in getting out stores, munitions,
clothing and otherwise preparing for the hoped-for duty ashore.
"It's lucky we went to Guantanamo, Dick, else we might not
have had any experience with these big Colt's forty-fives we pack
around on our hips," Henry remarked.
The two lads were at the time carefully oiling and cleaning their
heavy revolvers, the weapons the "musics" of the Corps carried into
conflict. Splendid shooting arms they were, too, and during the stay
in Cuba they had received a certain amount of practise with them in
connection with the Navy Small Arms Course, wherein scores with
both rifle and revolver were required.
As he spoke, Henry whirled the open cylinder about, and with a
clever twist of the wrist snapped it shut, then pointing the empty
revolver at a passing man he snapped the hammer rapidly.
"Stop that!" came a curt command, and looking up Henry found
Corporal Dorlan standing over him. The look in Dorlan's eye was not
pleasant to see, and the usual good-natured smile was missing from
the older man's face.
"Stop what?" asked Henry, flushing because of the harshness in
Dorlan's voice and glance.
"Stop that foolishness! Ye ought to be gettin' sense in the
noodle of ye after bein' these months in the marines."
 "I reckon I've as much sense and maybe a little more than some
marines around here, who've been in as many hitches[#] as I have
months, and I don't need a trial by Summary Court to teach me
lessons," and Henry glared hotly at the veteran soldier.

[#] "Hitches"--Enlisted man's term for enlistments.

"If that's the case, me lad, let's see ye use it, both in yer actions and
yer manners," said Dorlan, and the twinkle was now returning to the
gray-blue eyes; "but I'll tell ye one thing sure;--it won't be a
'summary' but a 'general' ye will be after gettin' if ye go around so
careless like aimin' and shootin' yer gun at human bein's, and ye can
put that in your pipe and shmoke it for the rest of yer life, and 'twill
do ye a wurrld of good."
By this time Henry's better nature asserted itself and rising he
put out his hand frankly and asked the elder man to excuse his
unwisely chosen words.
Richard, witnessing the incident, was happy to see these two
good friends of his settle so amicably what might have developed
into a bitter animosity on the part of the young Southerner.
"Now that 'the battle is over, Mother Dear,'" quoted Dick,
"suppose you sit down, Corporal Michael Dorlan, and tell us the
causes of the Revolutionary War."
"And I could do that too, me lad," said Dorlan, smiling at
Richard, whom he claimed as his own particular protégé, "but I'll sit
me down and tell ye somethin' that may be of interest and profit to
the two of yez."
Seating himself on a near-by sea-chest, Dorlan continued:
 "Just a bit ago, young man, I saw ye pointin' a gun at one of
yer shipmates and not only that, but pullin' of the trigger," and he
looked severely at Henry.
"What of that? The revolver wasn't loaded--it couldn't harm
anyone," stated Henry.
"That's where ye are wrong, lad, for it's the gun what ain't
loaded which generally goes off and kills yer best friend. It's the kind
of accident ye read about in almost any paper ye pick up in any part
of the world, and I'd make a bet with ye that the weapon the other
fellow 'didn't know was loaded' since the invention of gun-powder
has caused more deaths and serious accidents than have the aimed
shots in actual warfare."
"But, Corporal, I knew my pistol was empty," protested Henry;
"I looked through the cylinder before I closed it. Besides, we've had
no ammunition given us."
"Nevertheless, what I say is true, Henry, and here is a safe rule
for ye to follow for the rest of your life: never point a gun, loaded or
unloaded, at any human bein' unless ye mean to kill or wound him."
At the instant Dorlan finished speaking a half dozen laughing
bluejackets came running around a corner into the marines'
compartment. Following in close pursuit was a companion flourishing
a noosed rope in one hand and a revolver in the other. As he
appeared he called out:
"Catch the bandits!"
It was innocent horse play and the men in the vicinity turned to
watch the chase. The "bandits" disappeared through a door on the
port side of the deck, the pursuer aimed his revolver at them and
pulled on the double-action trigger. There was a loud report and a
leaden bullet flattened itself harmlessly against the iron bulkhead.
The young apprentice seaman who had fired the shot stopped
short and, with a white face, looked in horror at the smoking
weapon as it fell from his nerveless grasp to the deck.
"I never knew it was loaded!" he cried hoarsely.
Reaching for the heavy Colt's, Corporal Dorlan picked it up and
broke open the cylinder,--every chamber but the one just discharged
was filled with death.
"Come up to the Officer of the Deck, young feller," ordered
Dorlan grimly, taking the trembling sailor by the arm, and as they
turned to leave, he looked towards Dick and Henry, saying:
"As I said before--never point a gun unless ye mean to kill."
No more salutary lesson could have been given than old Mike's
talk and its startling sequel.

Out into the windward passage; northward then eastward into the
trade-wind-tossed, white-capped waters of the Atlantic; past the
mountainous shores of Haiti and the famous or infamous island of
Tortuga, whence came the buccaneers and their notorious chief, Sir
Henry Morgan.
Then the character of the land changed from rugged mountains
rising at the shore line to low, gray, misty ranges rearing their
serrated ridges far inland. Finally from out the sea a lone peak
reared its crest; growing ever higher and higher--the well-known
Monte Granero, so called by the great discoverer when he first saw
it, and from the summit of which can be seen the site where now
are the ruins of New Isabella on the northern shore of San Domingo.
On the low-lying plain a few miles southwestward from the base of
the mountain was the straggling town of Monte Cristi, sweltering in
the morning sunshine.
Since before dawn the spluttering snap of the wireless filled the
air on board the Denver as the message sped through the
intervening miles of space to the flagship lying in the open bay off
Cabras Island.
Captain Bentley on the bridge read the aerograms with interest,
and particularly the last one.

"Large force rebels reported operating vicinity Samana Bay. Proceed

to Sanchez, investigate conditions, protect American and foreign
lives and property. Guard customs. Report conditions."

"We will continue on our present bearing, Mr. Ogden," said the
Captain; "read this, and send word to the Navigating Officer to
report to me at once in my cabin."
Captain Bentley then went below, and soon was poring over the
chart of Samana Bay, one of the finest harbors and most desirable
bases in the whole of the West Indies.

CHAPTER XII
SEÑOR PEREZ ASKS FOR AID

Before the mud caused by the dropping anchor rose to the surface
of the water, a shore boat containing two oarsmen and one
passenger put out from the wharf and pulled for the Denver. That
the passenger was in a hurry was evidenced by his gesticulating
hands, and by the black cotton umbrella held by its bulging center
which he waved in an attempt to make the clumsy boatmen pull
together. From under the white cork helmet his dark face worked
spasmodically as with a mixture of Spanish, English and German
words he urged on his laggard crew.
Interested sailors and marines lined the ship's rail, watching the
approach of the stout, excited little foreigner. His rapid speech was
now quite audible though not intelligible.
"He is giving those peons what my mother would call 'gowdy,'"
said Dick to Henry, "and that is her worst swear word."
"Meaning our excitable friend is rather strong in his choice of
expletives?" inquired Henry.
"You've got it, Hank! His language is hot enough to make a
bottle of Tobasco sauce weep tears of envy."
By this time the boat was within a few yards of the ship.
"Boat ahoy! What do you want?" hailed the Officer of the Deck.
"I want to see the Captain. I am the consul. I am Señor Perez.
There is much trouble."
"Come alongside," ordered the Officer of the Deck, and walked
to the gangway to meet the consul who, with surprising agility,
sprang from his boat and waddled hurriedly on deck.
"Excuse the absence of honors, Señor, but we did not expect
you. The Captain will see you at once, sir."
"I do not want the honors, I want the protection. I want----"
"Orderly, conduct Señor Perez to the Captain's cabin," said the
officer, and still talking volubly the little man disappeared below, the
marine orderly leading the way.
"It was a regular vaudeville show," said Private Jones later,
hardly able to control his laughter while he related the interview to a
group of friends accosting him for news after he came off watch.
"The little Spig is our consul, all right enough, and after the Old Man
had quieted him down a bit he appeared to be a pretty agreeable
sort. But, say! He was going strong when he first opened up, and
that's no idle jest."
"All right, Jonesie, cut that part and tell us what all the
excitement's about."
"From what I gathered seeing the door to the cabin was open
all the time," continued Jones, "he's all wrought up over the arrival
of a bunch of rebels in the hills back of the town. He has just
returned from a trip to the States; came on a Clyde Liner Saturday.
His daughter was struck in the leg by a stray bullet during the
revolution two years ago and has been in New York for treatment.
He brought her back, also a new German governess for his four
children, the oldest being this little girl--her name is Sol-la-de-da or
something like that----"
"Guess you mean Soledad," volunteered Dick.
"That's it,--Soledad! Well, last night the rebs shot up the town,
but no one was hurt. The little girl--he sort of worships her--was
scared stiff, and so was everyone else. The government troops were
afraid to leave the fort, but added their shots and shouts to the
general uproar.
"Some of the bullets hit the consulate, and Perez believes,
because he is the American Consul and Americans are unpopular
with the rebs--also because he was active in electing the present
president--that they are after him. He's a native of San Domingo,
and I expect he ought to know what he's talking about."
"What did the Old Man tell him?" asked one of the men.
"The Captain told him he'd received orders not to send any
forces ashore unless absolutely necessary; in other words, that we
are not to get mixed up with any of the fighting at all if we can help
it. He offered to take him and all his family on board for a while."
"What did the Spig say to that?"
"Oh, he went up in the air at first, but it was finally settled to
arrange signals from his house to the ship, and if he was actually
attacked he could send up a rocket or two and we'd land in a jiffy.
You see, there are only about fifty insurrectos in the hills, so it's
estimated, and there are two hundred government troops in the
town, and the rebs are afraid to come in to attack, even though the
federals are afraid of them. We are going to keep our search-lights
on all night, and though we can't see the Spigs in the bosky they'll
think we can, and that'll be enough to scare 'em. After that Mr.
Consul went ashore with a bundle of rockets under one arm and his
old bumbershoot under the other, mollified but not satisfied."
"Is that all you know?" inquired another inquisitive man.
"You can't expect me to remember everything; besides, I'm no
evening paper," answered Jones.
"You ain't no yeller journal, that's sure," said Joe Choiniski,
sneeringly, from the edge of Jones' audience. "I, for one, wouldn't
give two cents to read all you've chawed about so far."
"Nobody asked you to butt in and listen," promptly answered
Jones, looking at the speaker, who was none too popular, especially
with the marines, "but I've got a dime thriller up my sleeve for the
Sunday edition."
"Loosen up, Jonesie," said a big marine, tossing into the circle a
quarter, which Jones deftly caught, "here's two bits; you can keep
the change. What's the scandal?"
Rather proud at being the center of so much attraction, an
honor not ordinarily accorded him, Jones continued:
"Well, the chief thing old Perez was excited over is a bunch of
money he's got in his house. He's about the richest man in town,
and is a kind of banker too, and he's got several thousands of dollars
of government money in his keeping. He can't get rid of it, for the
railroad is busted up. He's afraid to let the Commanding Officer of
the government troops know about it, for the simple reason that a
lot of pay is already due him and his men, and they'd be liable to
confiscate it and his own coin too. He claims that the rebel chief is
an enemy of his and wouldn't hesitate to kill him and his whole
family if he heard about the money and could get it. He can't let the
money out of his house for the reason he's received word a federal
officer is expected at any old time to get it, and if he didn't have it
ready for instant delivery, he'd always be in bad with the authorities,
and----"
"You have done enough talking, young man," interrupted First
Sergeant Douglass, who overheard the latter part of Jones'
discourse, "and I want to tell you, if ever I hear you or any other
orderly disclosing, without authority, official matters which you may
happen to overhear while on duty in a position of trust, I'll see that
you get well and properly punished. You may not have thought of it
in that light, but it's a sneaking, unmanly trick, and marines are
supposed to be men, not sneaks."
Private Jones was honest enough to feel the humiliation of this
rebuke, but that did not stop the tales he told from being quickly
carried to every member of the crew.
Soon after, "all hands" was called. Rifles and ammunition issued
to the sailors and word passed that the landing force would sleep
under arms until further notice, after which recall sounded and the
routine drills were resumed.
Much to the disappointment of the crew, no one was allowed
ashore, and though the town did not offer much in the way of
diversion or entertainment, it was a new country and a new people
for the majority, and all were naturally curious.
On the steep slopes of the hill, rising abruptly from the water's
edge, nestled the little town, consisting of one principal street
following generally a contour line, while from it on either hand were
cobbled lanes and narrow paths with no general symmetry or
direction. Back of the town on a spur of the mountain stood the red-
walled fort, a winding road leading to its entrance. Barefooted
soldiers in red caps and blue denim coats and trousers and armed
with nearly every make of antique rifle lined the walls of the fort or
marched along the road. At frequent intervals strange calls sounded
on high pitched bugles to which no one seemed to pay the slightest
attention.
Night fell! A glorious rising moon spread its effulgent rays over a
peaceful scene. From the little village on the hillside came the tinkle
of guitars, the shouts of playing children. The shore lights twinkled
cheerfully, while in a large building a dance was in progress. Added
to the moon's brilliancy were the beams of the ship's search-lights
constantly moving over woods and town, making objects clear cut
and distinct but casting massive black shadows where house or
hillock intervened.
"This is the bloodiest war I've ever heard about," said Henry in
disgust at the peaceful turn of affairs. "I do wish they'd start
something, don't you, Dick?"
Dick glanced about at the sleeping men, their rifles by their
sides, canteens and haversacks and bayonets within easy reach,
ready for any emergency, but instead of answering he emitted an
unintelligible grunt, turned over on his side and was soon asleep.
For two nights peace and quiet. The insurrectos had withdrawn
from the near-by hills, so it was reported, but were guarding all the
roads and keeping fresh supplies from reaching the inhabitants.
On Wednesday afternoon liberty was granted a limited number
of officers and men. Henry, being on duty, was unable to go ashore,
so Dick found himself alone soon after his arrival on the beach.
A small hotel attracted most of the men with its one decrepit
pool table, tinny piano and refreshment café. The town was a little
garden spot, each yard filled with a profusion of flowers. Dick turned
to the left at the main street and strolled along in the direction of
the consulate. Passing the house, easily the finest residence in sight,
he noticed the bright colors of the American flag hanging from the
white pole, and on the spacious piazza three children, olive-skinned
and dark-eyed, waved their hands in friendly greeting to the young
marine. He addressed them in his halting Spanish, but they hung
back bashfully, making no reply.
 Señor Perez's residence was at the end of the well-kept street
on the outskirts of the town. Dick, not noticing where the winding
road to the fort branched off, continued into the country before he
became aware that the road was little more than a wide trail, which
had turned and twisted away from the bay. Occupied with his
thoughts, and the tropical vegetation and strange birds on every
hand, he had gone much further than was his intention.
He was about to retrace his steps when a woman's scream from
around the bend ahead arrested him. Though no words were uttered
it was distinctly a call for help, and without a second thought Dick
ran towards the spot. Arriving at the bend of the road he saw a
young woman in the grasp of two disreputable looking natives, while
a few yards beyond a half dozen others with rifles slung over their
shoulders were turning off the trail into the dense underbrush.
The leading man of those in the distance carried a struggling
child, a girl, in his arms. From where he stood Dick noticed her face
was covered with a dirty cloth which stifled any outcry. The two men
holding the woman were so occupied in keeping her from breaking
away in pursuit of the men with the child, and attempting to gag her,
that they were unaware of Dick's timely approach. The fact that the
ruffians did not see him favored the attack which the boy delivered
silently and swiftly. One of the men was holding the woman's arms
while the other, bending, endeavored to bind them behind her with a
piece of rope. She twisted her supple body and kicked vigorously
with her stout walking shoes.
As Dick reached them he swung his right fist with all his
strength on the jaw of the standing man, knocking him senseless to
the road. Grabbing the other about the waist he fairly lifted him off
the ground and threw him heavily.
Like a cat the native was on his feet. Rushing at Dick with a
savage cry he drew back his right arm, in which was a dangerous
looking knife. His assailant was within a few feet of him when Dick
launched his one hundred and sixty-five pounds of brawn and
muscle in a low tackle which did credit to his football training at
Bankley. Unaccustomed to such a method of attack, the native had
no chance at all, and again he fell to the path, his head striking
against a rock; the knife flew from his hand into the bushes, and he
lay there motionless.
In another moment Dick was up, and taking the pieces of rope
he found near by, he quickly tied both men securely, nor did he do
the task at all gently. The man whom Dick had first struck was now
groaning, for the terrific blow had fractured his jaw; as for the other,
it was not certain in Dick's mind whether he was dead or not, for he
had not moved since his second fall.
For the first time Dick looked at the woman whose summons for
help he had so effectually answered. To his surprise she was lying in
the road, her eyes closed and face deathly pale. What should he do?
Was she dead? Had her assailants dealt her some fatal blow? Had he
arrived too late to save her?
Kneeling at her side Dick looked anxiously into her face; he felt
incompetent to cope with this phase of the situation. She was a
comely woman about thirty years of age, her fair complexion and
light hair proclaiming her of a northern race. As he watched, the
color began slowly returning to the white cheeks. He saw her lips
move and bending he caught the one word they uttered:
 "Soledad!"
He was still bending over her when the eyelids quiveringly
opened and drawing a deep sigh the blue eyes of the woman looked
straight up into the dark eyes of the brown-skinned boy, whose
straight black hair and aquiline features, now covered in dirt and
dust, brought to her mind but one thought--the horrible men who
had attacked her. She started to scream, but the unspeakable terror
again crept over her and again she fainted.
Dick's mind was working with lightning rapidity. The name
"Soledad" must be that of Señor Perez's daughter; this woman must
be the new governess! Her two assailants, securely bound, were no
longer a menace, but the child was in a dangerous predicament. The
German woman would soon regain consciousness and be able to
secure help--but Soledad, the little girl already in mortal fear of
rebels, who for two years had suffered from a former revolution,
what of her? If he returned for help her abductors would be far
away by that time. If he set out in pursuit at once he might overtake
them and--and what?
He was unarmed! What could he accomplish against so many?
Six men had disappeared in the tangle of woods,--there might be
more, and those he had seen were armed with rifles. He
remembered that point distinctly.
How fast his brain worked!--the pros and cons flashing before
his mind's eye with kaleidoscopic clearness, in all their varying
positions. Would those who had gone wait for their two comrades?
In that thought was a glimmer of hope, for it might be they
were even now waiting not far off. Could he find them? The trail, the
country,--all were new to him!
 His roving eyes swept the two men lying at the roadside. Here
were weapons. He at least would not go unarmed. Rising, he went
to the trussed-up men and calmly took from them their revolvers,
holsters and ammunition belts. The man with a broken jaw was
suffering, but with the stoicism of a brute rather than of a man.
From him Dick also removed a two-edged dagger in its sheath, while
the fellow glared at him silently. A moment in adjusting his weapons,
another to find his campaign hat, a final inspection of the bound legs
and arms of the natives, a last look at the woman, who was showing
signs of returning consciousness, and he was running off down the
road. Not a mad dash such as he made in his attack, but the long
swinging stride of the cross-country athlete.
It seemed to Dick as though hours had elapsed, when in reality
the minutes had been but few. In the stress of action, when brain
and mind, flesh and bone, nerve and muscle, are working in perfect
coördination even Time in his flight appears to stop and wait. But
Dick's mind was not engaged in thoughts of this character as he
turned from the trail and disappeared into the tropical jungle on his
precarious errand of mercy.
Fräulein Stauche opened her eyes slowly. She almost feared to
do so, for the last thing she remembered were the black eyes of a
dirty ferocious native glaring into her own, his face so close she
could feel his breath fanning her cheek. This time she saw nothing
but the blue sky overhead. The sun, low on the western ridge, would
soon sink, bringing a premature twilight hour to the little town
nestling at the base of the lofty mountain. The glare, however, hurt
her eyes and she closed them. It was easier to collect her thoughts
thus. Why was she lying here under the open sky, and who had
been the man staring at her when she looked but a second or two
ago? Where was Soledad?
Soledad!
The name brought back with such startling poignancy the
fearful tragedy through which she had lived that she struggled to her
feet and looked about her in fear and trembling. She recalled how,
with Soledad holding her hand, they had strolled along this path,
when without warning two men sprang at her from the bushes and
attempted to gag her, while others, how many she could not
remember, grabbed her dainty little charge and ran along the path
and disappeared in the thicket, leaving her fighting and struggling.
She looked down the trail and caught sight of a man just turning
where the others had turned.
What had they done with the child? What should she do? Fear
was tugging at her heart and her knees shook with weakness. A
movement at the roadside attracted her. She looked. Lying there
were two men. They were now still, but the eyes of one were
fastened on her. With a scream of terror, Fräulein Stauche turned
and ran as fast as she could for the town behind her.
At last the consulate--and from the pole flew the stars and
stripes in the evening breeze! Thank the good God that the gray ship
was in the harbor. Help would soon be forthcoming, and as she
struggled on she prayed it would not come too late.
When the officers reported their divisions at evening quarters on
board the Denver that night another of the ship's force was among
those missing. For Drummer Comstock had already been reported as
absent upon the return of the liberty party at five-thirty, but now the
Engineer Officer stated that Joe Choiniski had jumped ship.
"How do you think Choiniski got ashore?" asked the Captain of
Mr. Ogden.
"The only solution I can offer is that during the noon hour, while
the men were buying fruit from the bum-boats, Choiniski secreted
himself aboard one of them. He was seen hanging around the port
gangway at that hour in dungarees and Chief Master-at-Arms Fitch
ordered him below."
"Did he obey the order?"
"Fitch does not know, sir. The Officer of the Deck called him at
that second to drive away some bum-boatmen trying to tie up to the
starboard gangway, and when he returned Choiniski was gone."
"That coal passer is a bad man, and I hope, now that he's gone,
that we have seen the last of him; but, isn't it a strange coincidence
that Drummer Comstock did not return on time? Do you attach any
significance to that?"
"Oh, no, Captain, Comstock and Choiniski are not in the least
friendly. They would not hob-nob together."
"That is not what I mean. I have heard that Choiniski
threatened to get even with Comstock on account of the affair in
Culebra. I was thinking that he might have made his threat good. I
believe him capable of almost any act. I don't like his face."
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