Objective

After completing this chapter you will be able to

• Define Random Access Memory

• Recognize physical memory packaging

• Identify types of memory

• Identify read-only memory and cache memory

• Identify memory problems and upgrading

 Jimma Institute of Technology
Faculty of Informatics and Computing

Course Title: Computer Maintenance and

Technical Support
 Overview

• Memory is a collection of storage cells together with the necessary

circuits to transfer information to and from them.

• In other words, Computer memory is the storage space in computer

where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing
are stored.
4.1 RAM

• RAM is Random Access Memory which loses its contents when the
computer is switched off (it is volatile).

• This memory can be written to, plus instructions and data can be loaded
into it.

• The kind of memory used for holding programs and data being executed
is called RAM.

• RAM differs from ROM in that it can be both read and written; it is
considered volatile storage because unlike ROM, the components of
RAM are lost when the power is turned off.

• Common RAM sizes are such as 2GB, 4GB, 8GB, 16GB & more (in
multiples of 2)
4.2 Physical memory packaging

• Memory is added in the form of modules (Packages). Common memory

modules include SIMM & DIMM.

• The Signal Inline Memory Module or SIMM appears with a 30 pin and 72
pin variants.

• SIMMs is considered legacy components and can be found in older

machines.

• The Dual Inline Memory Module or DIMM is becoming the defector

standard for new PCs and they have 168 pins.

• The gold or tin pins on the lower edge of the front and back of a SIMM
are connected, providing a single line of communication paths between
the module and system. But the pins in DIMM are not connected,
providing two line of connection paths between the module and the
system one in the front and on in the back.
SIMM vs DIMM

• The main difference between SIMM and DIMM is that SIMM has pins
installed on their sides, while in DIMM, the pins are independent. SIMM
provides a maximum of 32-bit of channel for the data transfer while DIMM
allows 64-bit for the data transfer through them. The power consumption
of them is also different SIMM uses 5 volts while DIMM uses 3.3 volts.
4.3. Types of Memory

Memory is primarily of three types

 Cache Memory

 Primary Memory/Main Memory

 Secondary Memory (Storage)

Cache Memory

• Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can

speed up CPU.

• It acts as a buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold
those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by CPU.
The parts of data and programs are transferred from disk to cache
memory by operating system, from where CPU can access them.
Primary Memory (Main Memory)

• Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which

computer is currently working.

• It has limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off.

• It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not

as fast as registers. The data and instruction required to be processed
reside in main memory.
• It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.

Characteristics of Primary Memory

• Usually volatile memory or data is lost in case power is switched off.

• It is working memory of the computer.
• Faster than secondary memories.
• A computer cannot run without primary memory.
Functions of Primary Memory:

• It holds the OS instructions while the computer is booting.

• It temporarily holds the input instructions from the input devices while the
data is being input and processed.
• It stores the results temporarily until it is transferred to the respective
output devices.

Types of Primary Memory

• RAM – Random Access Memory

 a. Static RAM (SRAM) b. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

• ROM – Read Only Memory

 a. PROM – Programmable Read Only Memory

 b. EPROM – Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

 c. EEPROM – Electronic Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

DRAM vs SRAM

DRAM (Dynamic RAM)

• Relatively simple and inexpensive to produce.

• Needs only one transistor and capacitor to hold a bit.
• Consumes the least power & low in performance compared to SRAM.
• Must be refreshed every few minutes. This makes it slower.

SRAM (Static RAM)

• Doesn’t require regular refreshment.

• Have speed of much higher than DRAM.
• Uses 6 or more transistors to hold a single bit.
• Costly than DRAM
• High power consumption than DRAM. Cache memory is SRAM
SDRAM Synchronous DRAM

• This type of memory is what is used today in RAM DIMMS.

• The difference between DRAM and SDRAM is basically speed.

• DRAM technology operates Asynchronously with the system clock, which

basically means it runs slower than the system clock. Because it’s signals
are not coordinated with it.

• SDRAM runs in sync with the system clock. Which is faster than DRAM

• All the signals are tied with the system clock.

Speed of RAM

• As stated before RAM is stored on the motherboard in modules that are

called DIMMs and these come in different memory sizes. Today they
range any ware from 128 MB to 32 GB per DIMM.

• In RAM we have the term 64 or 32 bit data path that refers to the number
of bits of data that are transferred in 1 clock cycle.

• The more bits that are transferred in one clock cycle, the faster the
computer will be.

• DIMMs have 64 bit data path and SIMMs have 32 bit.

• SDRAM is rated at different speeds. For example a stick of old SDRAM

way back in the late 1990s could be labeled PC-100.

• 100 indicates = 100 MHz, at which it operates.

• 8 byte wide bus (SDIMM), So the total bandwidth is 100 * 8 = 800 MB/s
SDR (Single Data Rate) vs DDR (Double Data Rate)
• As technology increased and processor and bus speeds have gotten
faster a new RAM technology was developed to keep up with the faster
speeds of computer.

• SDR uses only the rising edge of the clock signal to transfer data.

• DDR uses both the rising and falling edge which gives DDR the ability to
send twice the amount of data.
DDR Labels

• DDR is also labeled differently than non DDR RAM.

• DDR may include both the clock speed and the total bandwidth in its
name.
Can I mix different types, speeds & sizes?

• You can not mix different types of memory. There are three common
types of memory used, the oldest being DDR (sometimes referred to as
DDR1), then DDR2, DDR3 and the most recent being DDR4.

• Each of these are available in desktop (DIMM) and laptop (SODIMM)

versions.
ECC vs Non ECC DIMM

• ECC stands for Error Correction Code, , is a type of computer memory

that detects and corrects single-bit errors in data.
• This is important because data corruption can lead to system crashes,
data loss, and other problems. ECC memory is typically used in servers.
• Sometimes there are circumstances where memory data corruption can’t
be tolerated.
DIMM VS. SODIMM VS. MicroDIMM: Comparison
4.4 ROM and cache memory

ROM (Read Only Memory)

• ROM or Read Only Memory is non-volatile and is used to store programs

permanently (the start-up or "boot" instructions, for example), the
computer cannot store anything in this type of memory.

• When the programs and data files (known as the software) are not in
RAM, they are stored on backing store such as tapes or discs. The tape
or disc drives and any input and output devices connected to the CPU
are known collectively as peripherals.

• Rom is typically a read only memory that is most commonly used to store
system – level programs that we want to have available to the PC at all
times.
ROM Types

Programmable ROM (PROM)

• Programmable read-only memory (PROM) is read-only memory that can

be modified once by a user.

• PROM is a way of allowing a user to tailor a microcode program using a

special machine called a PROM programmer. This machine supplies an
electrical current to specific cells in the ROM that effectively blows a fuse
in them.

• The process is known as burning the PROM.

ROM Types

Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM)

• As its name implies, it is a semiconductor memory device that can be

programmed with data which can only be read, but not altered, by the
application circuit.

• As such, programming an EPROM generally takes place prior to its

attachment to the application circuit. One of the most common
applications for an EPROM is as a BIOS chip of a personal computer,
which stores information about the computer's basic input/output system.

• An EPROM is a non-volatile memory device, i.e., it can retain its stored

data even if it is powered off.

• Reprogramming an EPROM with new data is possible, but it has to

undergo a special data erasure process that employs ultraviolet (UV) light
before it can be done.
• There are some EPROMs though, known as one-time programmable
(OTP) EPROMs, that are designed to be non-reprogrammable as a
cheaper alternative for storing specific bug-free data that never require
any change.
Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM)

• EEPROM is user-modifiable read-only memory that can be erased and

reprogrammed (written to) repeatedly through the application of higher
than normal electrical voltage. Unlike EPROM chips, EEPROMs do not
need to be removed from the computer to be modified.

• However, an EEPROM chip has to be erased and reprogrammed in its

entirety, not selectively. It also has a limited life - that is, the number of
times it can be reprogrammed is limited to tens or hundreds of thousands
of times. In an EEPROM that is frequently reprogrammed while the
computer is in use, the life of the EEPROM can be an important design
consideration.

• A special form of EEPROM is flash memory, which uses normal PC

voltages for erasure and reprogramming.
Cache Memory

• It is a special high-speed storage mechanism. It can be either a reserved

section of main memory or an independent high-speed storage device.

• Two types of caching are commonly used in personal computers:

memory caching and disk caching. A memory cache, sometimes called a
cache store or RAM cache, is a portion of memory made of high-speed
static RAM (SRAM) instead of the slower and cheaper dynamic RAM
(DRAM) used for main memory.

• Memory caching is effective because most programs access the same

data or instructions over and over. By keeping as much of this information
as possible in SRAM, the computer avoids accessing the slower DRAM.
• Most memory caches are built into the architecture of microprocessors.
The Intel 80486 microprocessor, for example, contains an 8K memory
cache, and the Pentium has a 16K cache.

• Such internal caches are often called Level 1 (L1) caches. Most modern
PCs also come with external cache memory, which is located on the
motherboard, called Level 2 (L2) caches.

• These caches sit between the CPU and the DRAM. Like L1 caches, L2
caches are composed of SRAM but they are much larger.
• Disk caching works under the same principle as memory caching, but
instead of using high-speed SRAM, a disk cache uses conventional main
memory. The most recently accessed data from the disk (as well as
adjacent sectors) is stored in a memory buffer.

• When a program needs to access data from the disk, it first checks the
disk cache to see if the data is there. Disk caching can dramatically
improve the performance of applications, because accessing a byte of
data in RAM can be thousands of times faster than accessing a byte on a
hard disk.

• When data is found in the cache, it is called a cache hit, and the
effectiveness of a cache is judged by its hit rate. Many cache systems
use a technique known as smart caching, in which the system can
recognize certain types of frequently used data.
Advantage and Disadvantage of cache memory

Advantage Disadvantage
Cache memory is faster than main Cache memory has limited capacity
memory.
It consumes less access time as It is very expensive.
compared to main memory.
It stores the program that can be
executed within a short period of time.
It stores data for temporary use.
Secondary Memory

• This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It

is slower than main memory. These are used for storing data/Information
permanently.

• CPU directly does not access these memories instead they are accessed
via input-output routines.

• Contents of secondary memories are first transferred to main memory,

and then CPU can access it.

• For example: Hard disk, flash drive, CD-ROM, DVD etc. We will see them
in detail in chapter six.
4.5 Identify memory problems and upgrading

• Upgrading System Memory

• System memory provides the working memory of the CPU. Insufficient

quantities of RAM can cause a system to slow down and run such more
poorly than it otherwise could.

• Conversely, upgrading the quantity and quality of RAM can make a

slow system in to faster, robust machine.

• Further applications and operating systems require varying quantities

of RAM in which to load, with the basic rule being that newer
programs always need more RAM than older versions of the same
program, windows 2000 runs poorly on less than 128 MB of RAM, for
example whereas windows 95 runs fine with that amount.

• But Windows 11 needs a minimum of 4 GB RAM to run.

Consider the following issues

• Bluescreens (bluescreen of death)

• Random crashes or reboots

• Crashing during heavy memory use tasks, such as gaming, Photoshop

etc.

• Distorted graphics on your computer screen

• Failure to boot (or turn on), and/or repeated long beeps

• Memory errors appear on screen

• Computer appears to boot, but screen remains blank

Solutions

• Perform a virus scan. Viruses can cause symptoms that mimic those of
faulty memory.

• Verify that your memory modules are fully seated. Check your
documentation for your computer system, or contact your computer
manufacturer if you are unsure how to do this.

• Try swapping memory module slots - or - try booting with only one
memory module if you have two modules installed.

• Check for BIOS Updates (usually applies to older computers).

Steps in the upgrading/replacing Memory

• Open the computer case and locate the SIMM or DIMM slots on the
system board.

• Determine how many RAM modules you need to fill a bank. Remember
you should fill an entire bank memory errors may occur.

• Remove the RAM from the antistatic

• SIMM modules must be inserted in to SIMM slots on an angle and

snapped upright in to position so they are perpendicular to the mother
board.

• DIMM modules must be inserted in to the slot and process

Symptoms of a RAM problem

• Sluggish of programs during start-up.

• Does your computer restart randomly when you are in the middle of
something?
• Your screen flashes a blue screen with white text before restarting.
• Have you found that files are randomly corrupted? This may happen with
files that you frequently access and save.
• Your attempts to install a new program repeatedly fail for an unknown
reason. This could be a RAM problem
What sort of problem could have caused damage to your RAM?

• Power surges can cause all kinds of problems to computer components

including RAM.

• Electrostatic discharge can cause damage to many computer

components.

• Excessive heat can cause RAM and many other computer parts to wear
out overtime.

• Your memory module may have some fault that did not become apparent
immediately or worsened over time.

• It is also possible that the memory module is not the problem at all
IBM BIOS
AMI BIOS
AWARD BIOS
 Chapter 5
Power Supply Unit

38
 Objective

After completing this chapter you will be able to

• Understand concepts of power supplies

• Identify components of power supplies

• Identify types of power supplies

• Recognize batteries

• Identify power supply problems and troubleshooting.

39
About power supply

• “Mains” power is high-voltage, alternating

current(AC), and almost all electronic devices
operate internally on low voltage, direct current
(DC).
• In some cases, power is provided by batteries.
• But in many cases, battery power is not
practical
• And batteries are usually charged using DC

• Two main categories of power supplies.

• Linear Power Supply
• Switched Mode Power Supply

40
Linea PSU

Linear power supply

SMPS PSU
5.1. Computer Power Supplies

• The computer system has a centralized power supply unit that provides
electrical power to various internal components (CPU, expansion cards,
RAM, Chipsets, etc…) .

• The PSU supplies the internal components in a computer with power by

converting potentially lethal (Sufficient to cause death) 110-115 or 220-
230 volt alternating current (AC) into a steady low voltage direct current
(DC) usable by the computer.

• The desktop computer system power supply is referred as SMPS which

stands for Switched Mode Power Supply.

• In desktop and tower PCs, the power supply is the shiny metal box
located at the rear of the system unit.

43
5.1Power Supplies

• The SMPS provides different voltage of power to different components

through set of electric wires.

• The desktop power supply produces four (or five) different levels of
efficiently regulated DC voltage.
• These are +5V, –5V, +12V and –12V. (The ATX design also provides a
+3.3V level to the system board.)
• The power-supply unit also provides the system’s ground (0V).
• The +3.3V level is used by the microprocessor.
• The +5V level is used by the IC devices on the system board and
adapter cards.

• The +12V levels are typically used to power the motors used in hard and
floppy disk drives and cooling fans.

45
5.1. Power Supplies

46
5.1Power Supplies

• The basic four voltage levels are available for use through the system
board’s expansion slot connectors.

• Several bundles of cable emerge from the power supply to provide power
to the components of the system unit and to its peripherals.

• The power supply delivers power to the system board, and its expansion
slots, through the system board power connectors.

• Notice that it is keyed so that it cannot be installed incorrectly.

47
5.1. Power Supplies

• On the back-end of the power supply is where you connect the power
cord to the computer. On the front end, which is not visible unless the
computer is opened is several dozen other cables that connect the power
supply to each of the devices and the computer motherboard.

• The power supply has an internal fan to keep it from overheating.

48
5.1. Power Supplies

49
5.2 Components of PSU

Main components that make up the power unit are:

1. Connectors: These are power connectors that are used to connect
different components such as computer motherboard, hard disk,
and DVD/CD drive, expansion cards, among others.
2. External power source connector: it connects the power cord to the
wall socket.
3. Cooling fan: this is used to cool down the power supply unit
4. Switches: there are mostly 2 types of switches. One is used to turn on
the PSU while the other is used to change the power voltage intake.
5. Transformer: used to step down or up the incoming power
6. Rectifier: it is a component that changes power from AC to DC.
7. Voltage regulator: it regulates the power that reaches specific
components.
50
Connectors

Motherboard connector - connects the power supply to a particular

motherboard. ATX motherboards are attached with 20 or 24 pin
connectors.
CPU connector - used to connect power supplies to motherboards with
on board computer processing units (CPUs). These are either 4 ("P4") or 8
pin connectors.
Molex connector - the IDE connector that connects to hard drives and
CD ROM drives. Most computer power supplies include at least one of
these connectors.
Floppy connector - 4 pin connector used to supply power to floppy
drives, card reader drives, and other similar devices.
AUX connector - a 6 pin connector that is a necessary connection for
some computer motherboards.
SATA connector - connectors for devices using serial advanced
technology attachment (SATA) interfaces, such as hard drives.
PCI express connector - used to connect to PCI express video cards,
which receive power directly from the power supply rather than from the
motherboard.
51
5.3 Types of power supplies

• AT – old type not used today

• ATX – has 20 pin connector
and extra 3.3 volt rail
• ATX12 2.0 changed the 20
pin connector to 24 pin
connector
• EPS12v – the CPU
connector is now an 8 pin
instead of 4 pin

52
AT Power Supply

• This is an older design in which the connector to the system board uses
two 6-pin (P8/P9) system board connections. It is important that the 2
connectors are plugged into the system board correctly and not switched.

• In the AT-compatible power supply, the cooling fan pulls air through the
case from the front and exhausts it out the rear of the power-supply unit.
Conversely, the ATX design pulls air in through the rear of the power
supply unit and blows it directly on the ATX system board.

• In AT-compatible power supplies, two 6-wire bundles are typically marked

P8 and P9. The physical construction of these power connectors
significantly differs from that of the other bundles. They are designed to
be plugged into the system board’s P1 and P2 power plugs, respectively.

53
• The P8/P9 connectors are normally keyed and numbered. However, their
construction and appearance are identical. The voltage levels associated
with each plug differ and severe damage could result to the computer by
reversing them.

• The power connector labeled P8 should be plugged into the circuit board
power connector labeled P1, whereas connector P9 should be plugged
into the P2 connector next to it. A good rule of thumb to remember when
attaching these two connectors to the system board is that the black
wires in each bundle should be next to each other in the middle.

• Note: Don’t Switch the P8/P9 Connectors! Although they look alike, the
voltage levels of each plug differ. Reversing them can cause severe
damage.

54
ATX Power Supply

• A newer specification that uses a single 20 pin connection to the system

board. These connectors are keyed to make sure that the connector is
plugged in properly. Both models provide 4 levels of DC voltage. ATX
power supplies add an additional voltage of +3.3V. The wires coming out
of the power supply are color coded with the black one as the ground
wire.

 Yellow: +12V
 Blue: -12V
 Red: +5V
 White: -5V
 Circuitry (ICs): +/- 5V
 Motor: +/- 12V
 Microprocessor: +3.3V
55
ATX Power Connector

• ATX uses a single P1 power connector instead of the P8 and P9

commonly found on AT systems. The P1 connector requires its own
special socket on the motherboard. P1 connectors include a 3.3-volt wire
along with the standard 5-volt and 12-volt wires. The invariably white P1
socket stands out clearly on the motherboard.

• The P1 has a notched connector that allows you to insert it one way only-
you cannot install the P1 connector incorrectly.

56
• Power-supply units come in a variety of shapes and power ratings. The
shapes of the power supplies are determined by the type of case in which
they are designed to be used.

• The major difference between these two power-supply types is in their

form factors. The ATX power supply is somewhat smaller in size than the
AT-style power supply, and their hole patterns differ.

• Another point that differentiates power supplies is their power (or

wattage) rating. Typical power ratings include 150, 200, and 250- watt
versions.

• Note: Be aware that power supply’s form factor and wattage ratings must
be taken into account when ordering a replacement power supply for a
system.

57
1.2 Power supplies cabling type

There are four different types of computer power supplies:

Modular: With the exception of connections for main power and disk drives,
modular PSUs have detachable power cables. You can save space by
removing cables that won’t be connected to any components, or attach
more cables when you add new components.

Non-Modular: Non-modular PSUs are “as is.” The cables are permanently
built into the power supply and cannot be moved. The benefit is they are
generally cheaper than most modular PSUs of the same quality.

Semi-Modular: Some cables are detachable and some aren’t. For some
brands you can buy separate cables to meet your size requirements.

Fully-Modular: All cables are detachable – even the main power cable.

58
1.3 Batteries

• Laptops and portables utilize an external power supply and rechargeable

battery system. Batteries were typically nickel-cadmium, but newer
technologies have introduced nickel metal-hydride and lithium-ion
batteries that provide extended life and shorter recharge times. Lithium
batteries are also used to power a computer's CMOS ROM.

60
Select batteries

• If you experience problems that you suspect are battery related,

exchange the battery with a known good battery that is compatible with
the laptop. If a replacement battery cannot be located, take the battery to
an authorized repair center for testing.

• Guidelines for selecting a replacement battery include that the

replacement battery

 Matches the model of the laptop,

 Does it Fit the laptop,

 Is it compatible with battery connection, and

 Does it has correct voltage requirements?

 Check for battery health?

62
Command to check the battery health status

63
• NOTE: Always follow the instructions provided by the manufacturer when
charging a new battery. The laptop can be used during an initial charge,
but do not unplug the AC adapter. Ni-Cad and NiMH rechargeable
batteries should occasionally be discharged completely to remove the
charge memory. When the battery is completely discharged, it should
then be charged to maximum capacity.

• CAUTION: Care should always be taken when handling batteries.

Batteries can explode if improperly charged, shorted, or mishandled. Be
sure that the battery charger is designed for the chemistry, size, and
voltage of your battery. Batteries are considered toxic waste, and must be
disposed of according to local laws.

64
1.4 Troubleshooting the power supply

Installation/Removal of Power Supply

• To remove a power supply from a PC, follow these steps:

 Unplug the computer from the wall

 Disconnect all of the internal power connections (i.e. CD-ROM,

Motherboard, Hard-Disk, etc…)

 Remove the retaining (most probably 4) screws

 Pull power supply out of the computer and replace it with the new one

65